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Dietary Mineral Sources
For poultry, inorganic compounds are usually used as sources of trace
minerals in the diet. Inorganic sources include salts such as sulfates,
chlorides, carbonates, and oxides. The sulfate and chloride mineral forms
are more available than the carbonates and oxides.
During recent years, organic chelates of trace minerals have become
available for supplementation in poultry diets. A trace mineral chelate is
defined as a trace mineral with ligands to amino acids or proteins. A number
of companies have patented organic trace mineral products. These have
been classified by the American Feed Control Officials (AAFCO, 1997) into
different classes of chelated minerals.
Research has indicated that these organic sources are more bioavailable
than their inorganic counterparts due to the following reasons:
1. Minerals are protected from the unwanted chemical reactions in the gut.
Relative Biological Value (RBV) of Different
sources of Minerals
Copper
Manganese
Zinc
Compound RBV Compound RBV Compound
CuSO4.5H2O 100 MnSO4.2H2O 100 ZnCl2
RBV
100
Cu-Lysine
105
MnCO3
55
ZnSO4
100
Cu Acetate
100
MnO2
30
ZnCO3
105
Cu(HCO3)2
115
Mn-Methionine 120 Zn Methionine 125
CuCO3
65
MnO
CuCl2
110
Mn-Proteinate 110 ZnO
Cu2(OH)3Cl
105
MnCl
CuO
2. Chelates are absorbed more efficiently in the gut.
75
Zn Lysine
110
55
100 Zn-Proteinate 100
0
Source : Ammerman et al. (1998)
3. Fewer interactions occur between competing minerals for absorption.
Numerous studies have reported beneficial effects of chelated organic trace
mineral supplementation on bird health and production parameters as well
as product quality.
Given below are the trace minerals requirements taken from Provimi
Poultry Guidelines (2004). Do not interpret this requirement as a fixed
law, these can only be used as a guidelines when formulating diets.
Broiler Breeder Minerals Guidelines
Rearer+males
Layer Start
Stress
Iron
44
44
44
Copper
10
10
10
Zinc
75
100
125
Manganese
67
82
87
Iodine
1.3
1.8
1.8
Selenium
0.4
0.4
0.4
Contents per kg complete feed in mg/kg
Layer Phase
Stress
44
44
10
10
75
100
72
77
1.8
1.8
0.4
0.4
All minerals, both essential and non-essential, can negatively affect the birds
at excessively high levels in the feed.
Layer
VETCARE
®
Welcome to the world of Enzymes
8-18 wks 18-25wks 25-80wks
Iron
44
44
44
Copper
10
10
10
Zinc
50
50
50
Manganese 62
62
62
Iodine
1-2
1-2
1-2
Selenium
0.225
0.225
0.30
Contents per kg complete feed in mg/kg
Source : Provimi Poultry Guidelines (2004)
Other references can be provided on request.
44
10
50
62
1-2
0.30
44
10
50
62
1-2
0.225
44
10
50
62
1-2
0.225
Breaks
t ch
Non S a r
p olys a c h ar i d e s
Reduces the gut viscosity
With our association with one of the World Leaders in Animal Nutrition Solutions,
we dedicate this to all livestock producers
to Enhance the nutrient availability to their produce and Economize their feed formulation too
With our association with one of the World Leaders in Animal Nutrition Solutions, we have
dedicated this website to all Livestock producers to enhance the nutrient availability to their
produce and economize their feed formulation too.
This will enable all our producers to know more about the nutrient availability in their
formulations and also make it more efficient to enhance the production and performance.
Edited and published by Bharat Tandon for Vetcare, Divn. of Tetragon Chemie Pvt. Ltd., IS-40, KHB Industrial Area,
Yelahanka New Town, Bangalore 560 064 India Ph : 080-2846 2055/56 Designed and printed by Focus Communications, Bangalore 560 003. Ph : 080-2346 3264.
e-mail: directmarketing@vetcareindia.com www.vetcareindia.com
BLACK COLOUR
NO. 4
2006
Poultry, like all animals, require certain essential minerals in the diet in order to thrive. As the average poultry diet may
not deliver ideal levels of these minerals, feed supplements containing various essential minerals can be used to try to
maximise poultry health and growth. The article below focuses on trace minerals (those required in minute quantities)
and their function in poultry health. It goes on to detail factors that affect how well different trace mineral forms and
combinations seem to work.
Bharat Tandon
Introduction
Layer
Chick Grower
Compiled by Dr. D. Krishnamurthy.
VOL. 14
Mineral
Unit
Maximum Tolerable Level
Manganese
ppm
2000
Iron
ppm
1000
Zinc
ppm
1000
Copper
ppm
300
Cobalt
ppm
10
Selenium
ppm
2
Molybdenum
ppm
100
Chromium
ppm
1000
Source : Mineral Tolerances of Domestic Animals, NRC, 2004
Broiler / Layer Minerals Guidelines
0-8 wks
FOR PRIVATE CIRCULATION ONLY
Vetcare has launched an exclusive website on
Enzymes i.e. www.enzymes.co.in
Source : Provimi Poultry Guidelines (2004)
Broiler
Starter Finisher
Published in the Interest of Customer Education
Dear Reader,
Toxic Levels of Minerals
Maximum Tolerable Levels of dietary trace minerals vary from species to
species. Given below are the Maximum Tolerable Levels in feed for Poultry.
Trace Mineral requirements
UPDATE
BULLETIN
Minerals are essential nutrients that need to be
supplemented in poultry feed. They play a crucial
role in the birds’ growth and performance. Different
minerals are required for the formation of the
skeleton, as components of various compounds
with particular functions within the body, as
cofactors of enzymes, and for the maintenance of
osmotic balance within the body of the bird. In fact, plant
and animal tissues contain more than 50 minerals, with
around 25 of these minerals listed as ‘essential’ for
animals (Underwood & Suttle, 1999).
Functions of Trace Minerals
Trace minerals have a wide range of functions. It is important to
understand these functions in order to better understand how these
minerals affect animal growth and performance.
Minerals are classified into major or macronutrient minerals and minor, trace,
or micronutrient minerals based on their amount in the body and the diet. The
requirements for major minerals are usually stated as a percentage of the
total diet; whereas trace mineral requirements are stated as milligrams per
kilogram or parts per million of feed. Of the 25 essential minerals, seven are
major minerals, as they are present in relatively larger quantities in the body
than the trace minerals and need to be supplemented in higher quantities in
the feed. These major minerals are Calcium, Phosphorus, Magnesium,
Sodium, Chloride, Potassium, and Sulphur. The trace minerals are present in
small quantities in the body and their requirement in the diet is less. The 18
trace minerals are Iron, Copper, Zinc, Manganese, Iodine, Selenium, Cobalt,
Molybdenum, Chromium, Tin, Vanadium, Fluorine, Silicon, Nickel, Arsenic,
Aluminium, Lead and Rubidium. Among these, the first nine trace minerals
have been shown to play a significant role in birds.
Minerals are classified as inorganic or organic based on their source. This will
be discussed in detail in the coming sections.
As described by Underwood and Suttle (1999), the functions of trace
minerals can be broadly classified into four categories – structural,
physiological, catalytic, and regulatory functions.
! Structural Functions – Trace minerals can form structural
components of organs and tissues, such as zinc, which is a
structural part of membranes and molecules.
! Physiological Functions - Minerals are involved in maintaining
! As a component of carbonic anhydrase, zinc is essential for eggshell
formation and bone calcification and acid-base equilibrium
! As a component of carboxypeptidases and DNA polymerases, zinc
plays important roles in the immune response, in skin and wound
healing, and in hormone production (testosterone and corticosteroids).
Classic zinc deficiency symptoms in poultry include a suppressed immune
system, poor feathering, dermatitis, shortening and thickening of leg bones
and enlargement of hock joint, infertility, and poor shell quality.
Manganese is the least abundant trace mineral in the body tissues.
! Manganese plays a critical role in the formation of chondroitin sulfate.
This mucopolysaccharide is an important component of bone cartilage.
! Manganese has an important function in blood clotting and lipid and
carbohydrate metabolism.
BLACK
Any internal infection such as coccidiosis can also interfere
with iron absorption and availability. Iron deficiency can
result in anemia in poultry.
! Regulatory Functions - These are illustrated by the role of
! Selenium has powerful antioxidant role, by being a part of the enzyme glutathione
peroxidase. It’s mechanism of action as an antioxidant, overlaps with the
mechanism of Vitamin E. Selenium also spares Vitamin E in three ways,
1. by helping it’s absoption
2. as a part of glutathione peroxidase
3. by helping it’s retention in blood
diathesis, normal pancreatic function, and fertility.
! Selenium works together with Vitamin E to boost immunity.
! Catalytic Functions - Of all the functions, these are the largest.
Trace minerals act as catalysts in enzyme and hormone
systems and also serve as integral structural components of
numerous metalloenzymes. These metalloenzymes are
required for a broad variety of metabolic activities such as
energy production, protein digestion, cell replication,
antioxidant activity, and wound healing.
Selenium is a very unique trace mineral and is required in very small amounts. Selenium
was recognized as a potentially toxic mineral long before it was identified as an essential
nutrient.
! Other selenoproteins in poultry play an important role in prevention of exudative
osmotic balance, acid base balance, membrane permeability
and tissue irritability.
trace minerals in regulating cell replication and differentiation.
While zinc influences transcription, iodine as a constituent of
thyroxine is associated with thyroid function and energy
metabolism.
Zinc is the most abundant trace mineral in the body along with iron. Zinc
plays an important role in poultry, particularly for layers, as a component of a
number of metalloenzymes. Zinc is involved in virtually all of life's processes
and has major catalytic roles in protein, lipid, carbohydrate, and nucleic acid
metabolism. It is therefore required for growth, reproduction, appetite,
vision, wound healing, blood synthesis, immunocompetency, and hormone
activity.
Iron has a very specific function in all animals as a
component of the protein heme found in the red blood cell’s
protein hemoglobin and in the muscle cell’s protein
myoglobin. As iron plays a key role in many biochemical
reactions, it is important for proper metabolism of nutrients.
Iron has a rapid turnover rate in poultry (10 times per day),
so it must be provided in a highly available form in the diet on
a daily basis. (Sheila, 2006)
! Selenium also plays role in iodine metabolism
Iodine is an essential element in all animal species and is
present in very small amounts in the body.
! The thyroid hormones, which contain iodine, are known to have a role in thermoregulation, intermediary metabolism, reproduction, growth and
development, hematopoiesis and circulation, and neuromuscular functioning.
! Iodine deficiency results in a condition called goitre wherein thyroxine output is decreased and the thyroid gland subsequently becomes enlarged.
! Lack of thyroid activity can stop egg production and results in long lacy feather growth.
Molybdenum, which was earlier considered a toxic element at higher levels, was discovered to have a beneficial role as an essential nutrient. Molybdenum is a
component of the metalloenzyme xanthine oxidase, which is important for purine metabolism. It is also a component of aldehyde oxidase, which is involved in
the electron transport chain in cells.
Chromium, whose activity is linked to that of insulin, is known to help in the utilization of glucose.
Copper also plays an important role in a number of enzyme functions in the
bird.
! Copper is closely associated with iron metabolism and thus involved in
the red blood cell formation.
! Another important enzyme dependent on copper is lysyl oxidase. This is
an integral enzyme in elastin and collagen formation, both of which are
important for proper bone formation.
! Through its role in disulfide bond formation, copper plays an important
role in feather development.
! A copper deficiency can cause anemia, tibial dyschondroplasia, and loss
of feather pigmentation.
! Through the manganese dependent superoxide dismutase enzyme, it
is important for protection of cells against damage by free radicals.
! Manganese is also required for eggshell formation.
Deficiency of manganese in poultry will result in perosis, bone shortening and
bowing, and poor eggshell quality in laying hens.
There are other essential trace elements like fluorine, vanadium, silicon, nickel, tin, and arsenic. However, there is either no evidence of their importance in
poultry or the very low requirement levels are readily met by concentrations in practical diets. So most of these need not be supplemented in the diet.
Bioavailability of Trace Minerals
Mineral Interactions
There are several factors that affect the bioavailability of minerals:
Interactions, particularly negative interactions, between minerals
affect absorption and bioavailablity. An excess of one trace mineral
can affect or interfere with another trace mineral’s availability.
1. Factors related to the animal (species, sex, age, physiological
state, health, differences between individual animals).
2. Factors related to the composition of the diet (amount of mineral
intake, ratio between various individual minerals, vitamin levels,
protein, fat, fiber and phytate levels).
3. Factors related to the mineral source (fineness, concentration of
other minerals, crystallinity, production process, chemicalphysical techniques applied, the source of the raw material, the
presence as anion or cation, or in some cases in an organic
complex).
4. Factors related to the technological treatment that has been
applied to the final diet, e.g. mash feed or pelleted diet.
This article will briefly elaborate on factors related to mineral
interactions and mineral sources.
The most common antagonism occurs between zinc and copper, as
both compete for the same binding site during absorption. High levels
of dietary zinc will inhibit copper absorption, hepatic accumulation and
deposition in the egg. Ratios greater than 4:1 of zinc : copper can be
considered antagonistic (Sheila, 2006)
High levels of calcium, copper and iron can interfere with zinc. Excess
dietary phosphorus will interfere with manganese availability in
poultry. High manganese increases iodine excretion and reduces iron
absorption. Excess calcium and phosphorus inhibit manganese
absorption. Iron and cobalt slightly reduce manganese availability.
These interactions can be reduced by supplementing a portion of the
mineral requirement through chelated minerals, which are protected
from interactions and have better bioavailablity.