Tectonophysics 609 (2013) 9–44
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Tectonophysics
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tecto
Review Article
100 years of seismic research on the Moho
Claus Prodehl a, Brian Kennett b, Irina M. Artemieva c, Hans Thybo c,⁎
a
b
c
Geophysical Institute, University of Karlsruhe, Karlsruhe Institute for Technology, Hertzstr. 16, D76167 Karlsruhe, Germany
Research School of Earth Sciences, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200, Australia
Department of Geography and Geology, University of Copenhagen, Oester Voldgade 10, DK-1350 Copenhagen K, Denmark
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 6 June 2012
Received in revised form 27 May 2013
Accepted 29 May 2013
Available online 12 June 2013
Keywords:
Moho
Crust
Lithosphere
Seismology
Refraction
Receiver functions
a b s t r a c t
The detection of a seismic boundary, the “Moho”, between the outermost shell of the Earth, the Earth's crust, and
the Earth's mantle by A. Mohorovičić was the consequence of increased insight into the propagation of seismic
waves caused by earthquakes. This short history of seismic research on the Moho is primarily based on the comprehensive overview of the worldwide history of seismological studies of the Earth's crust using controlled
sources from 1850 to 2005, by Prodehl and Mooney (2012). Though the art of applying explosions, so-called “artificial events”, as energy sources for studies of the uppermost crustal layers began in the early 1900s, its effective
use for studying the entire crust only began at the end of World War II. From 1945 onwards, controlled-source
seismology has been the major approach to study details of the crust and underlying crust–mantle boundary,
the Moho. The subsequent description of history of controlled-source crustal seismology and its seminal results
is subdivided into separate chapters for each decade, highlighting the major advances achieved during that decade in terms of data acquisition, processing technology, and interpretation methods.
Since the late 1980s, passive seismology using distant earthquakes has played an increasingly important role
in studies of crustal structure. The receiver function technique exploiting conversions between P and SV
waves at discontinuities in seismic wavespeed below a seismic station has been extensively applied to the
increasing numbers of permanent and portable broad-band seismic stations across the globe. Receiver function studies supplement controlled source work with improved geographic coverage and now make a significant contribution to knowledge of the nature of the crust and the depth to Moho.
© 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Contents
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9.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The first 40 years of Moho research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The beginning of systematic crustal studies by controlled-source seismology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Special crustal study programs in the 1950s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Worldwide crustal studies in the 1960s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The 1970s: focus on anomalous crustal structures and the subcrustal lithosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The 1980s: the decade of large-scale seismic-reflection campaigns and the first decade of ray-tracing modeling of seismic-refraction data .
The 1990s and early 2000s: the introduction of digital recording enables simultaneous recording of seismic-refraction and teleseismic data
Passive seismology: receiver based studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.1.
Regional passive seismic studies to 2005 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.
Summary and conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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1. Introduction
⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +45 3532 2452.
E-mail addresses: claus.prodehl@gmx.net (C. Prodehl), thybo@geo.ku.dk,
h.thybo@gmail.com (H. Thybo).
0040-1951/$ – see front matter © 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2013.05.036
The investigation of the crust–mantle boundary, termed the
Mohorovičić discontinuity (short “Moho”) after the first person to observe it (Mohorovičić, 1910), started at the beginning of the 20th century by the application of advanced methods of earthquake research.
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C. Prodehl et al. / Tectonophysics 609 (2013) 9–44
It was recognized in the early 1910s as a worldwide boundary separating rocks with fundamentally different physical properties, e.g.
seismic wave speed or density, and it was soon discovered that its
depth distribution shows substantial variations.
The Moho soon became the target of controlled source seismology
investigations, where location and time of events were exactly
known. A detailed history of controlled source seismology from its
beginnings at around 1850 to its advanced stage of knowledge in
2005 was recently published as Memoir 208 of the Geological Society
of America (Prodehl and Mooney, 2012). The following short history
of research on the Moho outlines in brief the most important results,
and the reader is referred to this Memoir for more details about controlled source techniques. The Memoir contains an Appendix with
a collection of controlled-source seismology data, reproductions of
rare historic publications, as well as a reproduction of the publication
of Finlayson (2010) who has compiled a complete collection of references to deep seismic sounding experiments in Australia.
Passive seismic methods exploiting distant earthquakes have
become increasingly important for studies of the Moho in recent
years. We introduce the major approaches in current use, notably
receiver functions, and describe the applications across the globe to
2005 to match the coverage of the controlled source experiments.
The origin of the Moho has been debated since its discovery, and
the debate is still ongoing. From seismic results, it must represent a
relatively abrupt change in physical parameters, primarily seismic velocities and density (Oliver, 1982), but also changes in seismic anisotropy (Jones et al., 1996) and scale lengths of heterogeneity (Enderle
et al., 1997) may occur across this boundary. Petrologically, it is mostly interpreted as a change in composition between the felsic crust and
the mafic mantle, and this transition is often termed the petrological
Moho (O'Reilly and Griffin, this volume). However, the Moho may
also be shallower or deeper if the lower crust or upper mantle have
been subject to metamorphic reactions. A shallower seismic than
petrological Moho may occur where mafic to ultra-mafic lower crustal material has been transformed into eclogite facies (Griffin and
O'Reilly, 1987); in which case the seismically determined Moho
may correspond to the transition between an undisturbed mafic
lower crust and similar material in eclogite facies. Such transition
has been proposed for the Moho in Variscan Central Europe
(Artemieva and Meissner, 2012; Mengel and Kern, 1992), in an area
of the southern North Sea (Abramovitz et al., 1998), and at several
passive margins (Mjelde et al., this volume). The seismic Moho may
also be deeper than the crust–mantle boundary if the upper mantle
has been metamorphosed into low-velocity rocks, such as
serpentinite depending on the degree of metamorphosis (Coleman,
1971). O'Reilly et al. (1996) describe a case at the Rockall Trough
where a substantial part of the upper mantle rocks has been partially
metamorphosed into serpentinite, although with velocity close to
mantle velocity. Serpentinization is believed to have major importance in subduction zones (Kamiya and Kobayashi, 2000; Bostock,
this volume). Tectonic shear localisation may further shift the location of the seismic Moho away from the crust–mantle boundary by
introducing localized anisotropy with high velocity in preferred directions (Jousselin et al., 2012; Vauchez et al., 2012). An example of such
shear zones may be found in the MONA LISA data set (England et al.,
1997). In the following we discuss the historical development of seismic
research on the Moho.
additional P-wave and a corresponding S-wave could be identified
(Fig. 1), from which he deduced a discontinuity with a velocity jump
from 5.68 to 7.75 km/s at a depth which he calculated to be 54 km.
He stated: “Since the P−-wave can only reach down to a depth of
50 km, this depth marks the limit of the upper layer of the Earth, the
Earth's crust. At this surface, there must be a sudden change of the material which makes up the interior of the Earth, because there a step in
the velocity of the seismic wave must exist” (Mohorovičić, 1910). This
boundary, based on the phase Pˉ, later labeled Pn, was shortly thereafter
defined as the crust–mantle boundary and was named the Mohorovičić
discontinuity (subsequently shortened to “Moho”) that separates the
crust with average velocity of 6.0–6.8 km/s from the uppermost mantle
with velocities of around 8 km/s.
Fifteen years later, the internal structure of the Earth's crust was
detected for the first time. In 1925, when investigating the records of
the Tauern earthquake of November 20, 1923, Victor Conrad of Central
Meteorological Institute in Vienna detected a phase P* which he
interpreted to originate from an intracrustal discontinuity (Conrad,
1925). He could establish its existence in his later studies, but at different depths when he investigated a 1927 earthquake (Conrad, 1928).
Subsequently many other investigators worldwide confirmed this
discontinuity and it was named the Conrad-discontinuity. The early
seismic measurements were sparsely distributed because only few seismometers existed and they were generally not mobile (Figs. 2 and 3).
In his book “The Earth”, Jeffreys (1929) discussed in much detail
the subdivision of the crust based on near-earthquake observations
in continental regions. In his summary on the upper layers of the
Earth he concludes that three layers are concerned: an upper layer,
10 km thick, with P-velocities 5.4–5.6 km/s, an intermediate layer,
20 km thick, with 6.2–6.3 km/s and a lower layer with 7.8 km/s
and, comparing the velocities with laboratory measurements on the
compressibility of rocks, he suggested that the three layers are probably composed of granite, tachylyte (glassy basalt) and dunite, and
that there is probably no layer of crystalline basalt. Though the conditions below the oceans had been “less thoroughly studied”, he saw
evidence that the granitic layer there was thin or absent.
From 1923 onwards, large explosions, e.g., quarry blasts or explosions
carried out for construction purposes were recognized as ideal sources
(controlled “artificial earthquakes”) for systematic recording of seismic
waves for studies of the Earth's crust in detail (e.g., Angenheister, 1927,
1928; Wiechert, 1926, 1929). Similar methods were applied in California
and the eastern United States, but results were not published until 1935.
Most investigations of artificial events, however, did not observe the
base of the earth's crust. The only study of that time in the USA, which
2. The first 40 years of Moho research
In 1909 Andrija Mohorovičić at Zagreb, while studying seismograms
of a strong local earthquake, constructed a travel-time–distance plot.
This event occurred on October 8, 1909 in the nearby Kulpa Valley
(approximately 40 km south of the observatory) and had many
aftershocks recorded throughout central Europe. Mohorovičić noticed
that exclusively for distances between 300 km and 720 km an
Fig. 1. The traveltime plot by Mohorovičić (1910) from which he deduced the existence of
the Moho as an interface between layers with velocities 5.7 and 7.8 km/s. After Jarchow
(1991); published by permission of the author.
C. Prodehl et al. / Tectonophysics 609 (2013) 9–44
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a thick crust under the continents and a thinner crust under the
oceans, with a crustal thickness of only 5 km under the Pacific.
From these results, Gutenberg became convinced that there were
large structural differences between continents and oceans in the
outermost parts of the Earth, a view that formed a significant part
of his model of continental drift (Gutenberg, 1936). Other early estimations of crustal thickness in oceanic areas were made by Hayes
(1936) and Bullen (1939). They used records from earthquakes to determine the crustal thickness around New Zealand. Controlled-source
seismic experiments in water-covered areas began as early as 1927
(Rosaire and Lester, 1932) and continued during the 1930s at the
Atlantic coastal shelf (e.g., Ewing et al., 1937), but the results concentrated on upper crustal properties.
In Volume VII of Physics of the Earth, edited by B. Gutenberg, on
the internal constitution of the Earth, first published in 1939 and
re-published with revisions in 1951, Macelwane (1951) summarized
velocity measurements of the entire Earth in 38 tables (Tables 36–73),
based on 244 references. The tables concerning the Earth's crust include
both earthquake and explosion seismology results. Table 43 shows the
varying velocities of the phase P* defining the Conrad-discontinuity
and Table 44 provides a summary of Pn-velocities as published by
1939 (Macelwane, 1951). Macelwane's Table 41 concentrates on Pand S-velocities of waves caused by explosions and blasts only, also
as recorded up to 1939. With a few exceptions, the majority of velocity measurements relate to sedimentary layers and the uppermost
crystalline crust.
Fig. 2. Early seismometer constructed by Wiechert on 1904 with a pendulum weight of 17 t.
From Ritter et al. (2000); published by permission of the author.
observed Moho at 31 km depth based on quarry blast investigations,
was published by Byerly and Wilson (1935).
From earthquake studies, Gutenberg (1924) found data that prove
the fundamental difference between continental and oceanic crust,
thus confirming observations made by Tams, Angenheister, and
Macelwane in 1921–22 of faster surface wave propagation across
the oceanic than the continental parts of the Earth (Gutenberg,
1924, see also Tables 54–65 of Macelwane, 1951). He proposed a
method for inversion of the dispersion of surface waves for determination of upper mantle structure, similar to the method ultimately
applied in the late 1950s. His inversion for crustal thickness indicated
Fig. 3. Early mobile Mintrop/Wiechert seismometer constructed according to principles invented by Galitzin (1914). From Schweitzer and Lee (2003).
3. The beginning of systematic crustal studies by
controlled-source seismology
By the end of World War II, systematic studies of the Earth's crust
began. In the USSR, some of the early studies of this period include
crustal studies in central Asia and in the Caucasus (Gamburtsev,
1952, 1960). In particular, very large explosions recorded in the
Caucasus between 1941 and 1945 were used to deduce the presence
of a 20 km thick upper crust underlain by a basaltic intermediate
layer; its lower boundary could not be determined from the refraction
data but was estimated from deep reflections to be located near
48 km depth (Tvaltvadze, 1950). In Soviet Central Asia, underwater
explosions in the lakes during 1949–50 served to investigate the
crustal structure of the northern Tien-Shan region (Gamburtsev et al.,
1955), which was interpreted as a 10–15 km thick granitic layer underlain by a 30–40 km thick basaltic layer.
In Canada, large rock bursts with successful timing were recorded
by observatories between 1938 and 1945 at up to 1000 km offset. The
interpretation indicated a depth to Moho of 36 km (Hodgson, 1947).
Continued research in 1947–51 led to a model in terms of a one-layer,
36 km thick crust with 6.1 km/s average velocity above a mantle with
8.18 km/s velocity (Hodgson, 1953). Byerly (1946) reported on a
large explosion of ammunition in 1944 near Port Chicago, California,
and Gutenberg and Richter (1946) reported on the first nuclear
tests. Tuve et al. (1948) used mobile stations and recorded large quarry
blasts in the Appalachian Mountains to 350 km offset.
Very early seismic investigations were also carried out in South
Africa, by recordings of frequent earth tremors in the Witwatersrand
gold mining area (Gane et al., 1946). This experience was used by
Willmore et al. (1952) for more extended seismic field surveys in
1948 and 1949 with up to 500 km recording offset. Depending on interpretation method, a 36 km thick one-layer crust or a 39 km thick
two-layer crust resulted.
The techniques of seismic measurements were further developed
at sea during World War II, and experiments could be extended
from shallow coastal waters into the deep ocean basins using hydrophones soon after 1945. Numerous offshore expeditions were undertaken in the second half of the 1940s in the Atlantic and Pacific
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C. Prodehl et al. / Tectonophysics 609 (2013) 9–44
Oceans (e.g., Drake et al., 1952, Ewing et al., 1950; Hill and Swallow,
1950; Raitt, 1949).
The large explosions at Heligoland in 1947 and in the Black Forest in
1948 (Reich et al., 1948; Schulze, 1947), probably had the greatest impact on crustal studies at this time. These explosions marked the beginning of controlled source scientific seismology in central Europe
(Schulze, 1974). The explosion seismic data, which had been recorded
by mobile stations out to 300 km offset, were interpreted by a 26–
30 km thick crust under northern Germany (Reich et al., 1951,
Schulze and Förtsch, 1950; Willmore 1949), while from the Haslach
explosion (Fig. 4) a detailed crustal model was interpreted with
Moho depths varying between 30 and 33 km and uppermost mantle
velocities of 8.19–8.34 km/s (Förtsch, 1951; Rothé and Peterschmitt,
1950).
In the early 1950s, an overall overview of crustal thickness had been
established, as is evidenced by worldwide summaries of Gutenburg
(1951), Gutenberg (1955) and Reinhardt (1954). Reinhardt's review
provided a fundamental study on the use of quarry blasts for deep crustal
investigations, and he published a location map and corresponding
crustal structure columns based on explosive sources around the world
(for details, see Prodehl and Mooney, 2012).
4. Special crustal study programs in the 1950s
The 1950s saw major efforts to image details of crustal structure by
specially designed controlled-source seismology projects. In central Europe, the German Research Society in 1957 funded a priority program
“Geophysical Investigation of Crustal Structure in Central Europe”
which lasted for 10 years and involved all German geophysical university and state institutions and prompted collaboration with similar
institutions in the neighboring countries. New recording systems were
developed and deep seismic reflection and refraction experiments
were carried out (Closs, 1969; Closs and Behnke, 1961, 1963; Giese
et al., 1976). The experiments were mainly based on the use of large
quarry blasts, and over the years they covered a dense network of up
to 300 km long seismic refraction lines, which were partly reversed,
but mostly unreversed. First results revealed a mean depth of 30 km
for the Moho below most parts of Germany (Closs and Behnke, 1961,
1963; German Research Group for Explosion Seismology, 1964). This
program was further supported by commercial geophysical exploration
companies in Germany which showed particular interest in the scientific
deep-seismic sounding programs and helped these efforts by recording
their normal-incidence profiles with up to 12 s two-way traveltime
(e.g., Dohr, 1959; Liebscher, 1964).
Already in the beginning of the 1950s the Alps became a special
target of deep crustal studies by the foundation of the Subcommission
of Alpine Explosions under the umbrella of the International Union of
Geodesy and Geophysics (I.U.G.G.), initiating the first major inter-
Fig. 4. Record section from the Haslach explosion in 1948, showing clear Pg, P* and Pn
waves; the latter two phases being the reflection from the Moho and the refraction
from the sub-Moho uppermost mantle. From Giese et al. (1976); reproduced by permission of Springer Science + Business Media.
European fieldwork in 1954, 1956 and 1960 in the western Alps
(Closs and Labrouste, 1963). Due to the topography, the areal distribution of the recording sites, and different types of instruments, the
interpretation of the data was extremely difficult and differing
models were proposed. Fuchs et al. (1963) assumed that a secondary
strong phase was to be interpreted as a converted phase sPs and their
resulting model showed that the depth to Moho increases from about
30 km under the outer crystalline massifs in the west to a maximum
of 53 km in the east under the Ivrea zone. In contrast, Labrouste and
co-workers derived a different model, assuming only one crustal layer,
which lower boundary drops from near 10 km depth under the Ivrea
gravity high to 40 km depth under the western crystalline massifs,
thus assuming that the surface of the Ivrea Zone is part of the Moho
(Closs and Labrouste, 1963). Also in the eastern Alps various attempts
were undertaken to explore the crust, using quarry blasts and organized
drill-hole explosions at the northern margin of the Alps (e.g. Reich,
1958, 1960), but Moho was not reached.
Systematic deep seismic sounding (DSS) experiments in the USSR
started as early as 1948–1954 (Zverev and Kosminskaya, 1978). Beginning in the middle of the 1950s, deep-seismic sounding profiles were
recorded on the Russian platform as well as on the Russian part of the
Baltic Shield, in Central Asia, the Caucasus, the Urals, Siberia, and the
Far East, covering thousands of kilometers (for references to selected
publications in Russian see Pavlenkova, 1996). A major research project
was launched in 1957–58 to study the transition zone from the Asian
continent to the Pacific Ocean (Galperin and Kosminskaya, 1964).
Nearly 30 profiles of several hundred kilometers in length were
laid out across the Sea of Okhotsk between Kamchatka and the
islands of Sakhalin and Hokkaido and across the southern Kuril
islands, mainly perpendicular to the strike of the continental margin
(Fig. 5). Crustal thickness decreases from 30 km to less than 25 km in
the center of the Sea of Okhotsk between Sakhalin and Kamchatka,
but also shows transitions to oceanic crust in the south, near Hokkaido.
Oceanic crust of 10 km thickness or less was encountered at the outermost southeastern end of the lines traversing the continental margin.
Other early marine seismic studies of the crust were conducted in the
Caspian Sea (Hagelgantz et al., 1958), the Black Sea (Neprochnov
et al., 1959) and the Sea of Japan (Sysoev et al., 1958); under the Black
Sea basin the Moho depth was found to be less than 25 km. Explosion
seismic profiling of Soviet scientists also covered Central Asia, where
Moho depth was found to be 40 and 50 km underneath the Tashkent
and Fergana depressions and the Tien Shan (Gamburtsev et al., 1955;
Godin et al., 1960). Similar values were estimated for the Russian platform (Godin and Egorkin, 1960).
In Japan, controlled source seismology also started as early as
1950. On the occasion of a large explosion to be carried out for a
dam construction, an ad-hoc Research Group for Explosion Seismology
was established which would remain active throughout the following
decades with the aim of studying the Earth's crust below Japan and
surrounding waters, in order to achieve reliable crustal models for improving the quality of earthquake research. As one of the first results of
the early profiling, a total crustal thickness of 32 km was determined
below the island of Honshu (Research Group for Explosion Seismology,
1954). With additional data, the crustal thickness was later corrected
to less than 30 km. The authors pointed out that the Moho is not
50 km deep as the standard model for the crust based on earlier
earthquake studies assumed, but is between 20 and 30 km deep only
(Matuzawa et al., 1959; Research Group for Explosion Seismology,
1958; Usami et al., 1958).
On continental Australia, the first definitive measurement of Moho
depth was interpreted from recordings of nuclear explosions at
Maralinga (South Australia) westwards across the Nullarbor Plain
(Bolt et al., 1958; for other references see Finlayson, 2010). Assuming
a one-layer crust, because intermediate arrivals could not be recognized, the interpretation of the P data resulted in a crustal thickness
of 32 ± 3 km and 39 ± 3 km, as interpreted from Pn and Sn data,
C. Prodehl et al. / Tectonophysics 609 (2013) 9–44
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Fig. 5. Record section from the extensive seismic investigation of the continent to ocean transition in the Sea of Ochotsk. After Galperin and Kosminskaya (1964); reproduced by
permission of the Schmidt Institute of Physics of the Earth RAS.
respectively. In New Zealand, in 1952 the first crustal seismic refraction profile was recorded in the Wellington area, providing 36 km
crustal thickness (Eiby, 1955; Garrick, 1968).
Similar to the central European programs, measurements of waves
from blasts and rockbursts were used for studies of the crust in North
America (Gutenberg, 1952; Hodgson, 1953; Tuve et al., 1948, 1954).
Tatel and Tuve (1955) and Katz (1955) carried out seismic-refraction
experiments in various geological provinces of the United States. Their
publications include descriptions of instrumentation as well as details
and problems of their experimental stage. At that time the interpretation was based on traveltime picks of first and secondary arrivals and
the correlations were made as straight lines. Of particular interest was
the cross-over distance of Pg and Pn (named P1 and P2 in their publications). For the coastal areas in Maryland–Virginia as well as in California
and Washington they estimated crustal thickness of mostly less than
30 km. For the interior of the continent, under the Appalachians of
Tennessee–Virginia and the Great Plains of Minnesota, they found
Moho depths of 37–39 km. They emphasized that a shallow depth of
30 km in Utah and Arizona is surprising (Tatel and Tuve, 1955). Similar
shallow depths to Moho in Utah were also reported by Berg et al.
(1960), but these authors hesitated to interpret the underlying layer
with 7.6 km/s as the uppermost mantle. From numerous quarry-blast
based observations in Pennsylvania and New York, Katz (1955)
reported an average crustal thickness of 34–35 km. A major project of
the University of Wisconsin in 1959 investigated the Great Plains and
adjacent Rocky Mountains in Montana (e.g., McCamy and Meyer,
1964). Their fence diagram shows Moho depths of 40–50 km.
Also Alaska and adjacent northwestern Canada became a target of
seismic research in the 1950s. One of the main results was the observation of clear differences in traveltimes for various azimuths in many
of the areas studied. The College Fiord shots to the northeast gave a
crustal thickness of 48–53 km, while to the southwest in the region
of the Kenai Peninsula the crust appeared as 10–15 km thinner.
Northwest of Skagway, the Moho was found at 36–42 km depth,
but north of Skagway it is only 35 km (Berg, 1973; Hales and Asada,
1966).
A seismic expedition into the Andean region (Tatel and Tuve,
1958) found depths to the Moho of 65–70 km under the Altiplano
of Peru and Chile and 51–56 km at the flanks of the plateau. A Belgian
Antarctic expedition in 1959 and 1960 made seismic-refraction and
other geophysical measurements near the Belgian station in the
Breidvika Bay (about 70°S, 24°E), but, although long recording distances
had been planned, it unfortunately failed to determine the Moho depth
due to bad-weather conditions (Dieterle and Peterschmitt, 1964). However, by surface wave dispersion studies, the crustal thickness underneath Antarctica was determined to be 35 km in East Antarctica and
25 km in West Antarctica (Evison et al., 1959).
The seismic refraction method for work at sea was already well
established before the development of the first systematic experiments
targeting the continental crust. The initial investigations concentrated
particularly on the ocean basins and were mainly two-ship operations
(for details see Ewing and Ewing, 1959). The experiments of Ewing
and coworkers in the 1950s concentrated mainly on the Northwestern
Pacific, but the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea were also investigated in several areas. The estimated Moho depth below the deep
basins averaged around 10 km. Worldwide offshore expeditions were
carried out by U.S. and British researchers in the Eastern Atlantic, the
Pacific, and the Mediterranean Sea. Also the Indian Ocean became
the focus of several seismic refraction investigations. Furthermore,
numerous Soviet expeditions were undertaken (e.g., Galperin and
Kosminskaya, 1958, 1964; Neprochnov, 1960). During the 1940s
and 1950s oceanographic research had made considerable progress
and publications appeared in healthy numbers in the international
journals. Therefore, by the end of the 1950s, it was suggested by scientists of the Scripps Institution of Oceanography to sum up the present
knowledge in a comprehensive work “The Sea”, which was published
in three volumes, edited by M.N. Hill (Hill, 1963a). The achievements
of marine controlled-source seismic work were described in detail
in the first seven chapters of Section 1 “Geophysical exploration” of
Volume 3. Within this framework, a detailed overview and summary
on oceanic crustal structure studies was published by Raitt (1963),
based on the results of seismic-refraction experiments in the 1950s
(Fig. 6).
By the end of the 1950s, a basic knowledge on global crustal structure had been established, based on a considerable number of seismic
refraction seismic investigations, that recorded man-made explosions
out to distances of several hundreds of kilometers, as described in reviews by Steinhart and Meyer (1961) and Closs and Behnke (1961,
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1963). These reviews are reproduced in the Appendix of Prodehl and
Mooney (2012). Ewing (1963a) also gave detailed and critical
reviews of state of the art regarding methodology and its limitations,
including the state of instrumentation and major field problems.
5. Worldwide crustal studies in the 1960s
The development of new types of instruments which had begun in
the 1950s continued in the 1960s and led to the production of powerful
instruments for wide-angle seismic profiling in large numbers, in
particular in Western Europe, North America, and the USSR. With this
equipment, a major breakthrough in the study of the Earth's crust
could be achieved, and major fieldwork began in Europe (Closs,
1969), in the USSR (Kosminskaya et al., 1969), and in the United States
(Healy and Warren, 1969). While seismic energy in central Europe was
mostly based on quarry blasts, borehole or underwater explosions were
organized in most other parts of the world. At the end of the 1960s, networks of seismic profiles covered the western United States (Pakiser,
1963; Prodehl, 1979), the central Europe (German Research Group for
Explosion Seismology, 1964; Giese et al., 1976), the northern Europe
(Vogel, 1971), and the southwestern USSR (Sollogub et al., 1972).
Under the heading of the priority program “Geophysical Investigation of Crustal Structure in Central Europe” and the following “Upper
Mantle” program, a rather detailed picture of the crust and the shape
of the Moho in central Europe could be developed. Contour maps of
depth to Moho and other seismic parameters were published for
Germany and for the Alps (German Research Group for Explosion
Seismology, 1964; Giese and Stein, 1971; Giese et al., 1976), based
on a dense network of seismic refraction profiles. Most of the seismic
refraction data had been acquired by systematic use of quarry blasts,
although several series of underwater explosions were used in remote Alpine lakes, such as Lago Lagorai in 1961 and 1962, and in
Lago Bianco in 1963 and 1964 (Fig. 7; Choudhury et al., 1971; Giese
et al., 1967; Giese et al., 1976). Detailed seismic refraction profiles
were also obtained in and around the Massif Central in France
(Perrier and Ruegg, 1973), in Italy (Giese and Morelli, 1973), in and
around Britain, applying land–sea operations (Bamford, 1971), and
during the Trans-Scandinavian Deep Seismic Sounding project (Vogel,
1971). The numerous data sets confirmed that the Moho depth under
most parts of central and western Europe (Britain, France, Germany)
is rather uniform and undulates around 30 km. Under the Alps, maximum depths of 50 km were measured, while Moho depth of around
40 km was determined below the center of the Baltic Shield in Scandinavia, and not more than 30 km below the Caledonides of Britain and
southern Scandinavia.
In 1963 a large seismic crustal project was initiated in eastern and
southeastern Europe, when 13 international profiles were planned
traversing Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland,
Romania, Yugoslavia, and in particular southern Russia and Ukraine
including the adjacent Black Sea area (Kosminskaya et al., 1969;
Sollogub, 1969). In 1971, five of the international profiles were partly
completed and ready for a first publication (e.g., Radulescu and
Pompilian, 1991; Sollogub et al., 1972, 1973; Vogel, 1971). The
Moho contour map of Sollogub et al. (1972), which summarizes the
interpretations of the Soviet scientists until the end of the 1960s,
displays best the complex structure with variations in Moho depth
between 35 and 55 km in the area of southern Russia and the Ukraine
(the Voronezh Massif), up to 40–50 km depth under the western
Carpathians in Poland and Czechoslovakia and the Dinarides in
Yugoslavia, and to less than 25 km in central Hungary (the Pannonian
Basin). In the USSR, explosion seismic profiling also continued in various
regions across the country, including marine studies (Zverev and Tulina,
1971). A Moho depth contour map of the entire USSR published by
Belyaevsky et al. (1973) is the result of a compilation of some 215 crustal sections along deep-seismic sounding profiles of over 50,000 km
length, obtained during the 1960s and before. Using both seismic and
gravity data, Morelli et al. (1967) compiled a Moho map for all of Europe
from the British Isles in the west to the Russian (East European)
platform in the east. This would not have been possible without the
very fruitful international collaborations within the controlled-source
seismology community, both regarding experiments and interpretation
as well as mutual exchange of data and results.
In North America a major seismic refraction survey was initiated
in the 1960s by the U.S. Geological Survey (Pakiser, 1963; Warren,
Fig. 6. Example of data from the Mid-Pacific expedition in 1950. The traces illustrate the variation in signal characteristics with frequency. From Raitt (1956); reproduced by permission of the Geological Society of America.
C. Prodehl et al. / Tectonophysics 609 (2013) 9–44
15
Fig. 7. Example record sections from the intensive exploration of crustal structure in the Alps in 1963–64. From Giese et al. (1976); reproduced by permission of Springer
Science + Business Media.
1968), and several university projects also focused on seismic crustal
research. The main target was the crustal structure of the western
United States. The first seismic-refraction recording of 1961 resulted
in 45–50 km crustal thickness under eastern Colorado (Jackson et
al., 1963). However, the field work served primarily to test thoroughly the new seismic-refraction equipment for recording, communication and timing (Warrick et al., 1961). In the remainder of 1961 and
in the following two years, a network of 64 seismic-refraction profiles
was recorded by the U.S. Geological Survey in Nevada and California
as well as in adjacent areas of Idaho, Wyoming, Utah, and Arizona.
In addition, two recording lines extended into the western Snake
River Plain of Idaho and the southern Cascade Range in California.
Other profiles were recorded in the Coast Ranges of California, in
the Colorado Plateau, and in the Middle Rocky Mountains. Also nuclear test sites were included in the program. Following many publications on individual profiles and areas, the complete data set was
later published in a U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper in the
form of record sections by Prodehl (1979) including a fence diagram
and a Moho depth contour map for much of the western United
States. Moho depths were found to be on average 30 km under the
Basin and Range province, and more than 40 km in the surrounding
Sierra Nevada, Colorado Plateau and middle Rocky Mountains, as
well as below the southern Rocky Mountains and the adjacent Great
Plains (Prodehl and Lipman, 1989; Prodehl and Pakiser, 1980). Another large cooperative project, EDZOE, covered much of Canada and
aimed at studying the structure of the North American Great Plains
and the Rocky Mountains (e.g., Berry, 1973; Berry and Forsyth, 1975).
Other investigations in the 1960s covered areas in California and
Arizona (Walter and Mooney, 1982; Warren, 1969) and in the central
United States (McCamy and Meyer, 1966; Mitchell and Landisman,
1971; Stewart, 1968; Tryggvason and Qualls, 1967; Warren, 1968;
Warren et al., 1966, 1973). A special crustal survey of 1965 explored
the southern Appalachians around the Cumberland Plateau Seismic
Observatory near Minville, Tennessee (Prodehl et al., 1984; Warren,
1968). A reconnaissance survey with 20–50 km spacing of the recording units was carried out across the eastern coastal plains to the
Atlantic Ocean where it connected to the ECOOE (East Coast On-shore
Off-shore Experiment) survey (Hales et al., 1968; Warren, 1968). The
available interpretations on crustal structure in the United States of
North America were reviewed from time to time (see, e.g., Healy and
Warren, 1969; Pakiser and Steinhart, 1964;) and in particular compiled
for a transcontinental geophysical transect across the United States between 35° and 39°N latitude (Pakiser and Zietz, 1965; Warren, 1968).
On the basis of the numerous new data gathered in the 1960s, Warren
and Healy (1973) created fence diagrams of crustal cross sections
throughout the United States and compiled a Moho map for the entire
United States with a table of references.
Another focus became the Lake Superior region (Steinhart and Smith,
1966). The Lake Superior experiments, which involved all major North
American research institutions comprised detailed crustal studies, and
in particular the EARLY RISE project of 1965, and opened another dimension by recording man-made events to distances of several thousand
kilometer, thus demonstrating that parts of the uppermost mantle
could be systematically studied with controlled-source seismology.
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C. Prodehl et al. / Tectonophysics 609 (2013) 9–44
In Japan, considerable progress was made in instrumentation and
seismic fieldwork for crustal studies from 1964 (Research Group for
Explosion Seismology, 1966). From the resulting data, crustal cross sections were derived and it was concluded that the northern part of the
NE Japan arc is characterized by a low (~7.5 km/s) uppermost mantle
velocity (Aoki et al., 1972; Okada et al., 1973; Yoshii and Asano, 1972).
In Australia several large-scale experiments provided initial results
on crustal thickness for southeastern and northern Australia (Denham
et al., 1972; Cleary, 1973; see also Finlayson, 2010). In Africa, the first
seismic investigation of the East African rift system was initiated
in Kenya by British scientists (Griffiths et al., 1971). The very first
explosion seismic investigation in South America concentrated on the
Andes with a reconnaissance survey of the Peru–Bolivia Altiplano
involving recording distances of 320–400 km (Ocola and Meyer, 1972).
Also during the 1960s experimental seismic reflection profiling surveys were undertaken in different parts of the world with the aim of imaging the whole crust and determining Moho depths, in particular in
Canada (e.g., Clowes et al., 1968; Kanasewich and Cumming, 1965),
Germany (e.g., Dohr and Fuchs, 1967; Liebscher, 1964), the USSR (e.g.,
Beloussov et al., 1962; Kosminskaya and Riznichenko, 1964) and Australia
(Mathur, 1974; Moss and Dooley, 1988). These experiments demonstrated that near-vertical profiling methods used in oil and gas exploration can
be applied to imaging geological structures within basement rocks and
that reflections from the deep crust and the Moho can be recorded at
long recording times. As an example Liebscher (1964) derived depth
contour maps of the two main crustal boundaries in southern Germany,
the Conrad and the Mohorovičić-discontinuities at about 20 and 30 km
depth, by calculating histograms of the number of reflections per time
interval based on long recordings from the seismic reflection industry.
A special project applying the common depth point techniques of exploration seismics to crustal scale dimensions was successfully carried
out by R. Meissner in 1964 in the Bavarian Molasse basin. Shot points
and the relatively few mobile recording units (Fig. 8) were systematically moved apart around a central common depth point to make
recordings to the wide-angle distance range for each target depth
(Meissner, 1966, 1967). A similar project was designed a few years
later in the Rhenish Massif. Both near-vertical and wide-angle reflections were successfully recorded and interpreted by Meissner and
colleagues (cf. Giese et al., 1976). Also in central and southeastern
Australia reflection profiling in basins provided strong reflections
from the Moho in the 1960s, but were only published much later
(Dooley and Moss, 1988; Moss and Dooley, 1988).
In parallel with the field methodology, the art of interpretation was
developed. For seismic-refraction profiles, the interpretations in the
1960s were almost exclusively based on the correlation of waves by
travel times, read from picked arrival times, plotted in time–distance
graphs and correlated by straight or curved lines, but gradually seismic
phase correlation using record sections became common. Furthermore,
new developments in the theory of seismic wave propagation became
available by the use of the rapidly developing new computer technology. The known methods were made more efficient and new methods
were developed to interpret the increasing number of new observations. This enabled the recognition of fine structure in the crust and at
the crust–mantle boundary. Mueller and Landisman (1966) demonstrated evidence for, what was believed to be, a globally existing crustal
low-velocity zone. Independently, Giese (1968) investigated the characteristics of reflected waves in detail. He showed that, in the ideal
case of a sharp discontinuity, the reflection appears as a hyperbola of
the corresponding traveltime curve in a time–distance diagram, and
that the curvature of the traveltime curve and its position changes
when the discontinuity is replaced by a transition zone with a strong,
finite velocity gradient. Giese (Giese, 1968; Giese and Stein, 1971; see
also chapters in Giese et al., 1976) also demonstrated that many observations may be explained by crustal velocity inversions. Based on wide
and near-angle observations, Meissner (1966, 1967; see also chapters in
Giese et al., 1976) discussed the reflectivity of the lower crust, which in
Fig. 8. A mobile seismic station from University of Munich in the early 1960s, equipped
with a 3-component seismometer, and recording with three galvanometers on photographic paper; left and right two timing systems based on reception of radio signals.
Photograph by C. Prodehl.
places is very strong. Detailed studies led to the model of the ‘Moho’ as a
transition zone (Meissner, 1973). In general, seismic investigations of
the Moho were interpreted by a laminar transition zone of a few kilometers thickness, including stepwise increase and decrease, down to a
layer with P-wave velocity around 8 km/s in the uppermost part of
the upper mantle (Meissner, 1973).
At sea, all instruments in use in the 1950s and 1960s, were essentially echo sounders utilizing pulses of low frequency sonic energy
and a graphic recording system that displayed the data in the form
of cross sections. The analysis methods, available also during the
1960s (Ewing, 1963a), used least-squares slope-intersect solutions
for picked first arrivals, but did not allow for velocity gradients. On
the basis of many observations in the Atlantic Ocean, a detailed overall picture of the oceanic crust was established (Ewing, 1969), but
significant deviations from this average were found on the flanks of
the Mid-Atlantic ridge. Numerous new data were also gathered in the
Indian and Pacific Ocean (e.g., Francis and Raitt, 1967; Francis and
Shor, 1966; Kosminskaya et al., 1973; Neprochnov et al., 1969; Shor
and Raitt, 1969; Shor et al., 1970, 1971; Sutton et al., 1971; Zverev,
1970). Detailed surveys involved, for example, the surroundings of
the islands of Hawaii and archipelagos to the northeast of Australia
(Furumoto et al., 1973). For the first time, the existence of seismic
anisotropy of the uppermost mantle was discussed and investigated
by a series of special anisotropy experiments in various areas of the
Pacific Ocean (e.g., Backus, 1965; Francis, 1969; Raitt et al., 1969, 1971).
A wealth of data was acquired in the 1960s, based on the integration of gradual improvement in seismic-refraction and reflection
techniques, instrumental development and the art of interpretation.
In many experiments seismic energy produced by effective explosive
sources was recorded out to large distances of several hundred
kilometers. Moho contour maps of Europe (Morelli et al., 1967), the
USSR (Belyaevsky et al., 1973) and the United States (Warren and
Healy, 1973) were based on a large number of published models,
which became available by the end of the 1960s. The models not
only resulted in a relatively complete picture of the gross velocity–
depth structure of the Earth's crust below the northern hemisphere,
but also detected specific properties of different tectonic areas such
as shields, platforms, orogens, basins, rift zones, and other. By the
end of the 1960s, computer algorithms for computation of synthetic
seismograms were ready for application (e.g., Fuchs and Müller,
1971; Müller, 1970). In total, the development allowed for new understanding of the crustal structure, including fine structure of the
hitherto homogeneously layered crust. In particular, the character of
the crust–mantle boundary was attracting new interest.
C. Prodehl et al. / Tectonophysics 609 (2013) 9–44
6. The 1970s: focus on anomalous crustal structures and the
subcrustal lithosphere
The 1970s can be characterized by several highlights. Making use
of the rapidly developing new computing facilities, fast traveltime
programs allowed for a rapid interpretation of large quantities of
observed data. The reflectivity method (Fuchs and Müller, 1971) enabled the calculation of synthetic seismograms including the full
wave field in laterally homogeneous structures. Development and application of the time-term method led unexpectedly to the detection
of uppermost mantle velocity anisotropy under the continents
(Bamford, 1973; Bamford et al., 1979). Its existence in the oceanic
upper mantle has been recognized much earlier.
In the USSR, the unique and unprecedented seismic refraction and
wide-angle reflection studies were carried out in late 1960s to early
1990s using Peaceful Nuclear Explosions (PNE) as sources (Egorkin
and Pavlenkova, 1981; Egorkin et al., 1987; and summaries in Fuchs,
1997; Sultanov et al., 1999). The PNE explosions comparable to magnitude 5–6 earthquakes were complemented by chemical explosions. Reversed seismic data along eight 3000–4000 km long PNE profiles (four
sub-latitudinal and four sublongitudinal) were recorded with
3-component seismographs located at ca. 10 km intervals and provided
spectacular images of the crust and the upper mantle seismic structure
down to a depth of ca. 700 km (Burmakov et al., 1987; Mechie et al.,
1993, 1997; Morozova et al., 1999; Nielsen and Thybo, 2006; Nielsen et
al., 2003; Ryberg et al., 1995).
With the relatively powerful instrumentation developed in the
1960s and acquired in large numbers in the 1970s, in particular in
Western Europe, North America, and the USSR, controlled-source
seismology approached new frontiers. Underwater shots in the Lake
Superior experiment of 1965 had shown that controlled seismic
sources could efficiently be recorded to at least 2000 km distance if
the recording conditions were favorable. In particular, it was recognized that the hitherto uniform Pn phase at distances of several hundred kilometers in reality consists of a number of phases reflected
from various depth levels in the uppermost mantle (e.g., Ansorge,
1975; Ansorge and Mueller, 1971). This enabled seismic investigation
of hitherto unknown depth ranges below the Moho and led to the detection of fine structure in the lower lithosphere down to 80–100 km
depth. A considerable number of long-range profiles was subsequently organized and recorded throughout Europe, accompanied by coincident detailed crustal studies. 1000 km long lines through France
(Hirn et al., 1973, 1975; Sapin and Prodehl, 1973), Britain (Bamford
et al., 1978; Faber and Bamford, 1979), along the axis of the Alps
(Alpine Explosion Seismology Group, 1976; Yan and Mechie, 1989),
through the Rhenish Massif (Mechie et al., 1983) and a 2000 km long
line through Scandinavia (Guggisberg and Berthelsen, 1987; Guggisberg
et al., 1991; Perchuc and Thybo, 1996) became well-known experiments.
Long-range profiles were also recorded in the oceans (cf. the
compilation of long-range profiles by Prodehl, 1984; see also Fuchs
et al., 1987). The seismic structure of the crust and upper mantle
was imaged in the Pacific Ocean (e.g., Asada and Shimamura, 1979;
Goltvyanitsa and Iliev, 1977; Orcutt and Dorman, 1977), the Atlantic
Ocean (e.g., RRISP Working Group, 1980; Steinmetz et al., 1977), the
Indian Ocean (Neprochnov et al., 1976), and in the Mediterranean
(e.g., Hirn et al., 1977; Steinmetz et al., 1983). A general result of
these investigations was that details of the hitherto unique phase Pn
phase could be interpreted by fine structure in the uppermost mantle,
whereby the uppermost part of the mantle underlying the Moho was
interpreted as a high-velocity lid representing the lower lithosphere,
overlying the asthenosphere with low upper-mantle velocity.
Another highlight of the 1970s was the advancement in the understanding of rifting processes. Detailed studies were carried out in
the central European Rift System through Germany and France by
advanced seismic refraction programs in the Upper Rhinegraben
and the Rhônegraben (summarized in Fuchs et al., 1983; Prodehl
17
et al., 1995). The projects demonstrated the presence of a shallow
Moho beneath the graben areas. Numerous seismic profiles were
recorded across the deep Dnieper–Donets rift and the Donbas region
in the USSR (Beloussov et al., 1980). In the basin areas around the
Tornquist–Teysseire-Zone in Poland, an anomalous crustal block
was identified with Moho depths at around 50 km between the approximately 30 km thick Variscan crust of central Europe and the
40–50 km thick crust of the East European Platform (Guterch et
al., 1983). The countries around the Mediterranean were also covered by several seismic crustal profiles in the 1970s, including Portugal
(e.g., Prodehl et al., 1975), Spain (Explosion Seismology Group
Pyrenees, 1980; Working Group for Deep Seismic Sounding in Spain
1974–1975, 1977), Morocco (Makris et al., 1985), Greece (e.g., Makris,
1977), and Israel (Ginzburg et al., 1979). In Italy both the northern
Apennines and adjacent Mediterranean Sea including the island of
Corsica and southernmost Italy were the focus of seismic land and sea
investigations (e.g. Morelli et al., 1977).
In the Afro-Arabian rift system crustal seismic surveys were undertaken in the western Jordan–Dead Sea transform (Ginzburg et al.,
1979), in the Afar triangle of Ethiopia (Berckhemer et al., 1975), and
in Saudi Arabia (Gettings et al., 1986). Major projects in North America
investigated the Mississippi embayment (Mooney et al., 1983), the Rio
Grande rift (Olsen et al., 1979) and the suggested hot spot of the Yellowstone–Snake River plain area (Braile et al., 1982; Smith et al., 1982).
In the 1970s, for the first time, large scale seismic near-vertical incidence reflection experiments were organized with more than 100 km
long profile lines, which provided new insight into details of crustal
structure and composition of the earth's crust down to Moho. Academic
researchers took advantage of the expertise, techniques and the equipment of the petroleum industry, to determine internal structure of the
whole crystalline crust in addition to geophysical models in terms
of velocity, density and attenuation (Oliver, 1986). In the 1970s,
the first national large-scale seismic-reflection programs were initiated. COCORP (COnsortium for COntinental Reflection Profiling) in
the United States (e.g., Oliver et al., 1976) was purely a seismic reflection
program. This was soon followed by the Canadian equivalent COCRUST
(COnsortium of Canadian university and government CRUSTal seismologists) (Mereu et al., 1989) which, however, carried out combined reflection and refraction studies. Similar large-scale seismic near-vertical
incidence reflection profiles (Fig. 9), accompanied by wide-angle reflection observations (Fig. 10), were recorded in Germany (Bartelsen et al.,
1982; Meissner et al., 1980). In addition to the internal crustal reflectivity, the Moho could usually be defined as the depth where crustal reflectivity vanishes.
The 1970s was also the decade, when ocean-bottom seismometers
(OBS) and ocean-bottom hydrophones (OBH) were developed by several institutions and successfully tested in experiments around the
world. Numerous new investigations with airguns and expendable sonobuoys carried out in the 1970s led to a detailed picture of the oceanic
crust. A worldwide study of the lower crust and upper mantle using
ocean bottom seismographs (OBS) and shots by large airguns in the
oceans was carried out by the Shirshov Institute of Oceanology, Moscow
in the period from 1977 to 1984 (e.g. summary by Neprochnov, 1989).
Matching reflectivity method synthetic seismograms with deep-ocean
seismic data proved powerful in unraveling details of the basement
structure (e.g. Fowler, 1976; Spudich and Orcutt, 1980). It was shown
that the structure was better represented by velocity gradient zones
than by discrete constant-velocity layers (e.g. Kennett, 1977). There
was also research on determining if seismic anisotropy is observable
in the oceanic crust. Bibee and Shor (1976) assessed a large number of
standard marine refraction studies and concluded that anisotropy in
the crust is insignificant, whereas mantle velocities increase with age
and show about 5% anisotropy, with the highest velocity in the direction
perpendicular to the local magnetic anomalies. A localized low-velocity
zone at a fast-spreading ridge was detected for the first time by OBS refraction experiments on the northern East Pacific Rise (Minshull, 2002;
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C. Prodehl et al. / Tectonophysics 609 (2013) 9–44
Orcutt et al., 1976). This zone was interpreted as resulting from the
presence of a magma chamber containing partially molten rocks.
Other seismic studies in the 1970s were concentrated on the slowspreading Mid-Atlantic Ridge (Neprochnov et al., 1976). Here, early
OBS refraction data showed no evidence for neither a low-velocity
zone corresponding to magma chamber nor a strong velocity contrast
at Moho. Instead, the crust–mantle boundary was defined by a gradual
increase in velocities (Fowler, 1976, 1978; Minshull, 2002).
The numerous crustal studies acquired a large amount of crustal
data which was available by 1980. Meissner (1986) published a crustal thickness map for the whole of Europe. Both Kosminskaya and
Pavlenkova (1979) and Zverev and Kosminskaya (1980) published a
representative collection of crustal and uppermost mantle cross sections for various regions of the USSR. Based on the results of 273 publications, a global crustal thickness map was published by Soller et al.
(1981). The new edition of the “Landolt–Börnstein” series of special
volumes devoted to geophysics (Fuchs and Soffel, 1984) includes a
chapter on the main features of parameters describing the crust and
uppermost mantle as available at the end of the 1970s. The data
was compiled in tables giving details such as thickness of the entire
crust, of the upper and lower crustal layers, and the corresponding
average velocities (Prodehl, 1984; see also Appendix of Prodehl and
Mooney, 2012).
Fundamental for future decades, new achievements in theory and
instrumentation were made in the 1970s. A new type of analog instrument, the so-called “cassette recorder” (Fig. 11), was developed in the
United States and was built in large numbers (~150) during the late
1970s. It was easy to handle and allowed planning of future experiments with a much greater density of individual stations than before,
aiming for intervals of 1 km or less between stations (Healy et al.,
1982; Murphy, 1988). It was successfully tested in 1978 in Saudi Arabia.
During the second half of the 1970s, the ray method was developed (Červený et al., 1977), which led to the development of several
ray tracing algorithms for calculation of theoretical traveltimes and
synthetic seismograms in models of complex tectonic structures
(Fig. 12). These algorithms were to become standard tools for interpretation of seismic data in the 1980s and following decades up to
the present day. Several other groups were also writing synthetic
seismogram routines based on the ray theory (e.g. McMechan and
Mooney, 1980; Spence et al., 1984).
7. The 1980s: the decade of large-scale seismic-reflection campaigns
and the first decade of ray-tracing modeling of seismic-refraction data
The 1980s was characterized by increased interest in details of the
Earth's crust and crust–mantle transition zone, the Moho. Computer
programs for ray tracing were available for application to the interpretation of the fast growing amount of data for crustal and upper
mantle research.
In Europe, three developments advanced knowledge of the Moho
and lithospheric structure substantially: (1) Crustal research in
Europe received a new impulse from reflection seismology; (2) The
European Geotraverse carried out a continent-crossing, large-scale
seismic-refraction traverse; and (3) Continental deep drilling was accompanied by detailed reflection–refraction surveys.
Following the establishment of COCORP in the United States and
COCRUST in Canada in the late 1970s, national groups in Europe rapidly
were formed in the early 1980s, such as BIRPS (British Institutions Reflection Profiling Syndicate) in Britain (Klemperer and Hobbs, 1991),
DEKORP (DEutsches KOntinentales Reflexionsseismisches Programm)
in Germany (Meissner et al., 1991), ECORS (Etude de la Croûte
Continentale et Océanique par Réflexion et Réfraction Sismique) in
France (Bois et al., 1986), BELCORP (Belgian Continental Reflection
Program) in Belgium, NFP (National-Fond Project) in Switzerland, in
Czechoslovakia, and CROP (CROsta Profonda) in Italy. All seismic reflection surveys accomplished by 1988 were compiled in a location map by
Sadowiak et al. (1991). The multinational program BABEL (Baltic And
Bothnian Echoes from the Lithosphere) was initiated for studying the
Baltic Shield and transition into younger Europe in the Baltic Sea by
integrated seismic methods (BABEL Working Group, 1991a, 1991b;
BABEL Working Group, 1993a, 1993b).
All programs were based on the ideas developed in the late 1970s
by COCORP to investigate the Earth's crust in great detail by applying
vertical-incidence reflection profiling, although some programs integrated the studies with other seismic and seismological observation
and other geophysical interpretations. COCORP, in contrast to most
of the early near-vertical incidence seismic reflection work of the
1950s–1960s in Canada, Germany, the USSR, USA, and Australia,
contracted the field surveys to a commercial reflection company and
applied commercial processing and interpretation techniques to the
new data for imaging the whole crust (Oliver et al., 1976). The same approach was used by the national European large-scale seismic reflection
programs. From 1985, also the Australian Geological Survey Organisation (AGSO) acquired a large number of deep seismic reflection profiles
in offshore and onshore Australia (Finlayson, 2010).
In 1984 a series of international symposia on seismic probing of
the continents and their margins was started with the main focus
initially on discussion of large-scale seismic-reflection surveys and
their impact on our knowledge of the Earth's crustal structure.
With time, the scope of these symposia became significantly broader
(Barazangi and Brown, 1986a,b; Matthews and Smith, 1987; Leven
et al., 1990; Meissner et al., 1991, Clowes and Green, 1994; White
Fig. 9. Crustal scale reflection seismic section from the mid 1970s across the Urach geothermal anomaly in SW Germany. The section shows some the early observations of strong
lower crustal reflectivity. After Bartelsen et al. (1982). Reproduced by permission of Schweizerbart, Stuttgart, Germany (www.schweizertbart.de).
C. Prodehl et al. / Tectonophysics 609 (2013) 9–44
19
Fig. 10. Example of state-of-the-art crustal refraction seismic interpretation by the incoming computerized ray tracing methods. The profile forms part of the Urach data set, also
illustrated in Fig. 9. After Bartelsen et al. (1982); reproduced by permission of Schweizerbart, Stuttgart, Germany (www.schweizertbart.de).
et al., 1996; Klemperer and Mooney, 1998a,b; Carbonell et al., 2000a,
2000b; Thybo, 2002; Davey and Jones, 2004; Snyder et al., 2006; Ito et
al. 2009, Thybo et al., 2011).
The large-scale project ‘European Geotraverse’ covered a corridor
through all major tectonic units of Europe from the North Cape to
Tunisia, North Africa by multidisciplinary data acquisition and interpretation centered around a large-scale seismic-refraction survey (Blundell
et al., 1992). For organizational purposes, the seismic-refraction investigation was split into northern (EUGENO-S Working Group, 1988;
Guggisberg et al., 1991), central (EUGEMI Working Group, 1990;
Scarascia and Cassinis, 1997) and southern (Egger et al., 1988) sections
and was carried out over a period of several years. The Swiss national
seismic reflection profile NFP20 through the central Alps was integrated
into the EGT program (Valasek et al., 1991) to provide additional
Fig. 11. Cassette player based mobile seismic equipment from the late 1970s, developed by J.H. Healy et al. This type of small, light-weight equipment provided the background for intensified controlled source profiling. From G. Fuis; published by
permission of the author.
detailed image of the subduction of the European crust under the
Alps. The Iberian LIthosphere Heterogeneity and Anisotropy (ILIHA)
Project was designed as project no. 11 of the European Geotraverse, because only the Iberian peninsula had dimensions where large sea shots
could be recorded up to 800–1100 km distance on reversed long-range
profiles traversing the assumed homogeneous Hercynian crust under
different azimuths (ILIHA DSS Group, 1993).
Projects on the British Isles and surrounding seas did not only involve the seismic reflection experiments by BIRPS. The North Sea project involved both refraction and reflection work (Barton and Wood,
1984). The CSSP (Caledonian Suture Seismic Project) profile traversed
northern Britain with shots in the North and Irish Seas (Bott et al.,
1985) and stimulated the first seismic crustal profile through Ireland
(Jacob et al., 1985), which was soon followed by several seismic
campaigns using both land and sea profiling in and around Ireland
(Landes et al., 2005).
In the USSR, deep seismic sounding (DSS) investigations actively
continued through the 1980s, and the dense network of seismic profiles, including continuing three-component magnetic recordings on
the super-long PNE profiles, covered almost the whole territory of the
country (Burianov et al., 1985; Druzhinin et al., 1990; Garetskii et al.,
1990; and summaries by Beloussov et al., 1992; Benz et al., 1992;
Pavlenkova, 1996; Fuchs, 1997). In particular, numerous controlledsource refraction profiles were acquired in the Urals after the 1960s,
and in the early 1990s the Urals orogen was covered by eight long
DSS profiles (Ryzhiy et al., 1992). Due to small station spacing between
some hundred meters to ten kilometers in different seismic campains,
the crustal structure of the orogen was resolved in detail. The results
show a pronounced crustal root (50 to 60 km) below the axis of the
Urals (Druzhinin et al., 1990). These results from refraction profiles
were confirmed by interpretations of seismic data along the RUBIN
PNE profile (Egorkin et al., 1987). The increasing interest in deep continental drilling and the search for suitable super-deep drill sites initiated
a variety of large-scale seismic-refraction and reflection surveys, particularly in the USSR around the Kola super-deep drillhole (Kozlovsky,
1984, 1988) and in central Europe at two proposed drill sites in Germany
(Emmermann and Wohlenberg, 1989).
In the Afro-Arabian rift, major crustal research activities concentrated in the Red Sea area. Several symposia were held to report on
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C. Prodehl et al. / Tectonophysics 609 (2013) 9–44
Fig. 12. Examples of early synthetic seismic sections calculated by the popular ray tracing method developed by Červený and Pšenčik. From Červený and Pšenčik (1984). © Commonwealth of Australia (Geoscience Australia) 2013. This product is released under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Australia License. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/au/deed.en.
C. Prodehl et al. / Tectonophysics 609 (2013) 9–44
the state of the art (e.g., Le Pichon and Cochran, 1988; Makris et al.,
1991). In 1984 a second survey explored the eastern part of the
Jordan–Dead Sea transform in Jordan (El-Isa et al., 1987). In the East
African Rift in Kenya the first international KRISP (Kenya Rift International Seismic Project) operation took place in 1985 (Henry et al.,
1990).
For India, Mahadevan (1994) summarized all crustal seismic surveys undertaken by the end of the 1980s. A total of 6000 km had
been acquired along 20 long-range refraction and wide-angle reflection profiles. The investigations aimed, in particular, at the crustal
structure of basins and rift systems, adopting continuous profiling
over major portions of the deep-sounding profiles. Using geophone
spacing of 200 m and shotpoint intervals of 20–40 km, recordings
with useful energy were obtained up to distances of 400 km.
In China, a major collaborative program between Chinese institutions and European and North American institutions began for deep
crustal studies of Tibet. A joint Sino-French study, one of the first
large explosion seismology operations in the region, investigated
the Himalayan border and the adjacent Lhasa block to the north
(e.g., Hirn et al., 1984). For detailed crustal studies of the whole of
China, in the 1980s some 250 standardized instruments for deep seismic sounding, recording on two-channel magnetic tape cassettes,
were distributed among various research groups of the State Seismological Bureau of China. This marked the start of a major activity of
seismic research which has continued in China since then (Li and
Mooney, 1998).
In Japan, onshore seismic crustal research in the 1980s was mainly
carried out in the frame of the national Earthquake Prediction Program
and focused on the upper crustal structure, searching particularly for
major fault zones and tectonic lines (e.g. Ikami et al., 1986; Matsu'ura
et al., 1991).
The emphasis of deep crustal research in Australia was on seismic
reflection surveys (Finlayson, 2010). During 1980–1982 deep reflection
data were acquired in the central Eromanga basin in southwestern
Queensland, resulting in 1400 km of continuous profiles up to 270 km
long in a regional grid (Moss and Mathur, 1986). Following these successful studies, the Australian COntinental Reflection Profiling Program
(ACORP) was initiated and in 1985 two major north–south oriented
deep seismic reflection surveys were conducted in central Australia
for acquisition of 486 line kilometers across the Arunta block and the
Amadeus basin (Wright et al., 1990).
In North America, COCORP continued its seismic-reflection program and many new areas were systematically covered (Brown
et al., 1986). In parallel, the new seismic-refraction equipment of
the U.S. Geological Survey led to increased activity. One of the many
new projects was a large-scale seismic refraction experiment across
the Basin and Range province, parallel to the 40° COCORP survey
(Catchings and PASSCAL Working Group, 1988). In the southwestern
USA, the PACE project (Pacific to Arizona Crustal Experiment) aimed
at studying the evolutionary history of metamorphic core complexes
of the western Cordillera (McCarthy et al., 1991). New crustal data
were also collected in the southern Rio Grande rift area (Prodehl
and Lipman, 1989; Sinno et al., 1986). In northeastern United States
and adjacent Canada a seismic refraction/wide-angle reflection experiment crossed the northern Appalachians and the Andirondack
Massif into the Grenville province of the North American craton
(Hughes and Luetgert, 1991).
The Canadian research program COCRUST (Mereu et al., 1989) was
followed by LITHOPROBE (e.g., Clowes, 1993), a joint program of all
Canadian geophysical institutions for systematic crustal and uppermostmantle investigation of the Canadian territory by multidisciplinary
research, including coincident seismic refraction and reflection data
acquisition. Furthermore, a seismic transect through Alaska, the TransAlaska Crustal Transect project (TACT) was covered by seismic data
in several steps from 1984 to 1990 (Fuis et al., 2008; Plafker and
Mooney, 1997). Braile et al. (1989) and Mooney and Braile (1989)
21
summarize the seismic refraction profiles recorded in North America
until about 1988.
Major activities of crustal seismic research in South America were
initiated when a geoscientific interdisciplinary research group “Mobility
of active continental margins” was established in 1982 at the Free
University of Berlin, Germany. The main objective was to investigate
the Andes of Chile. Several onshore seismic-refraction profiles with
lengths up to 260 km in northern Chile and adjacent Bolivia and
Argentina were acquired (Wigger et al., 1994). Energy was primarily
obtained from quarry blasts in copper mines, but also some selforganized borehole shots were added. Underwater shots in the Pacific
Ocean were also arranged, fired by the Chilean navy close to the Chilean
coast.
With improved technology the Antarctica could also be investigated by seismic research projects. The Institute of Geophysics of the
Polish Academy of Sciences undertook several expeditions to explore
the structure underneath West Antarctica from 1979 until 1988
(Janik, 1997). Seismic refraction profiles were also recorded in 1980
and 1981 at the southern end of the Ross Sea to investigate the
east–west boundary of the McMurdo Sound (McGinnis et al., 1985).
A particular aspect of the new era of continental crustal research in
the 1980s was the acquisition of coincident, high-resolution seismic reflection and refraction data. Comparative studies of these two fundamentally different types of data could potentially provide new insight
into the relation between macro- and micro-structure of the crust and
lithosphere. The different incidence-angles and frequency ranges of the
seismic waves of near-incidence and wide-angle reflection data often
led to different presentations of crustal structure. Mooney and Brocher
(1987) compiled a global review of coincident seismic reflection/
refraction studies of the continental lithosphere until the mid-1980s.
An important result was that the Moho depth derived from the two
methods was largely identical. Initially COCORP did not carry out
wide-angle piggyback experiments and the different types of data
were only jointly discussed after some time. In central Europe, Canada
and Australia, close cooperation between the “reflection” and “refraction” groups began early. The Canadian research programs COCRUST
and LITHOPROBE involved the use of both methods. In Europe, ECORS
profiling was always accompanied by coincident wide-angle operations
as were the first long reflection profiles accompanying the search for
deep drill sites in southern Germany. The Alpine part of the EGT refraction line was covered by the Swiss reflection seismic program. Almost
all seismic-reflection profiles of BIRPS, ECORS, and DEKORP from
Caledonian and Variscan basement showed clear termination of crustal
reflectivity at the Moho. The same observation was made on seismicreflection profiles recorded in the Basin and Range province and other
extensional areas of the mobile Western United States (see review by
Mooney and Meissner, 1992, of crustal reflectivity for deep seismic
reflection profiles around the world). Later reflection studies have
shown that in the cratonic areas the termination of crustal reflectivity
is often uncertain since the crust, as defined from seismic refraction
and wide-angle reflection data, often includes non-reflective zones,
also in the lower crust (e.g. Abramovitz et al., 1997).
A comprehensive review of the seismic velocity structure of the continental lower crust (Fig. 13) was published by Holbrook et al. (1992),
who included a table of lower-crustal velocities in different tectonic
environments. Other compilations contain summaries of crustal and
upper mantle structure based on controlled source seismology observations, both seismic reflection and refraction, for different continents or
large parts of those continents, e.g. by Meissner et al. (1987) for Europe,
Beloussov et al. (1992) for the territory of the former Soviet Union,
Braile et al. (1989) and Mooney and Braile (1989) for North America,
and Mechie and Prodehl (1988) for the Afro-Arabian rift. A series of
discussion workshops (Olsen, 1995, Ziegler, 1992a,b,c) led to the publication of reviews of continental rifts.
In the oceans, the number of marine seismic experiments investigating the entire crust with advanced techniques literally exploded
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C. Prodehl et al. / Tectonophysics 609 (2013) 9–44
from the beginning of the 1980s. The experiments were designed for
obtaining large offsets and large-aperture seismic refraction/wide
angle reflection data as well as near-vertical incidence reflections
with dense spatial sampling. Non-explosive sources became sufficiently effective in the 1980s to be successfully recorded over long
distance (of several hundred kilometers) ranges at sea and onshore
in onshore–offshore experiments. The number of ocean bottom
seismographs increased substantially during the 1980s which led to
offshore data acquisition at much better signal-to-noise ratios than
could be obtained with strings of hydrophones, which always are
affected by noise from the towing ship. By careful planning of the
observations, BABEL Working Group (1991b) succeeded in making
onshore observations of seismic signals from airgun shots in the
shallow water Baltic Sea to distances beyond 700 km in the low noise
environment of the Baltic Shield.
Only a few examples of marine surveys can be mentioned here.
The Shirshov Institute of Oceanology, Moscow, continued studies of
the oceanic crust and upper mantle in the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific
oceans (e.g. summary by Neprochnov, 1989). The North Atlantic
Transect (NAT Study Group, 1985) provided a major improvement
on the knowledge of the structure of the oceanic crust and its variability on regional scale. White et al. (1990) demonstrated widespread
occurrence of intracrustal reflectivity in the western Central Atlantic
Ocean. The research project RAPIDS (Rockall And Porcupine Irish
Deep Seismic project) of the Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies
and partners acquired data along two orthogonal wide-angle seismic
profiles totaling 1600 km. A 1000 km long east–west seismic profile
from Ireland to the Iceland Basin, across troughs, basins and intervening
banks, was constructed by acquisition along a series of 200–250 km long
individual profiles (e.g., Hauser et al., 1995). The ocean–continent transition at continental margins was studied, for example in the vicinity of the
northern Japan trench (Suyehiro and Nishizawa, 1994) and across the
east Oman continental margin north of the Masirah Island ophiolite
(Barton et al., 1990). An extended offshore marine survey targeted the
crustal structure off Norway on the Voering plateau (Zehnder et al.,
1990) and along the Lofoten margin (Mjelde et al., 1992). The 1981
Large Aperture Seismic Experiment (LASE) was one of the first experiments on the Atlantic continental margin of North America (e.g., Trehu
et al., 1989).
8. The 1990s and early 2000s: the introduction of digital recording
enables simultaneous recording of seismic-refraction and
teleseismic data
The change from analog to digital recording caused a major breakthrough for recording and interpretation techniques in the early
1990s. The desire for increasingly high density recording increased
the demand for recording devices, which triggered further collaboration between research groups. Thus, seismic projects were carried out
as part of large-scale research programs that involved a multitude of
Fig. 13. Seismic crustal model of the Schwarzwald area, where a very reflective lower crust was intensively studied in the 1980s. From Gajewski and Prodehl (1987).
C. Prodehl et al. / Tectonophysics 609 (2013) 9–44
collaborating institutions, and also led to further interdisciplinary
cooperation between scientists from various geoscientific fields.
In North America, IRIS/PASSCAL, in close cooperation with the U.S.
Geological Survey in the United States and LITHOPROBE in Canada,
took the lead in the development of new digital recording devices
that were produced in large numbers. As a result, research groups
from the whole world could apply for access to instruments, with
high recording and storage capacity, for teleseismic and large-scale
seismic refraction projects. In Europe, scientists did not manage to establish a large European equipment pool. Instead, powerful national
pools were established such as at GFZ Potsdam in Germany in 1990
and in Britain from 2000. Nevertheless, many European projects in
Europe and Africa depended on the strong support of the US equipment (Fig. 14).
The large number of digital recording devices that can record continuously over long time periods has opened a new dimension for crustal
investigations. Digital technology had taken over, and recording devices
for controlled source seismology had been replaced by digital equipment in the 1990s, with further improvement of the technology in the
beginning of the 2000s. The EarthScope program provided new funding
for acquisition that enabled PASSCAL to renew their instrumentation to
include nearly 1000 instruments for both long-term seismological and
short-term seismic projects. In a similar manner, Australian equipment
was steadily improved (Finlayson, 2010). In 2000 the British seismic
community was awarded a grant from NERC to acquire large numbers
of Guralp 6TD and 40 T seismometers, together with a number of the
Guralp 3Ts, bringing the British scientists to the forefront of observational broadband seismology (Maguire and SEIS-UK, 2002). In Germany,
in 2000 GFZ-Potsdam began to gradually renew its instrument pool for
short-period and broad band seismology by replacing worn-out RefTek
and PDAS data loggers with a new system, Earth Data PR6-24. Up to
mid-2007 almost 240 of these new data loggers have been acquired
and made available to the geophysical community.
One of the first projects with the new dedicated digital refraction
seismic equipment was LEGS (LEinster Granite Seismics) in the southeastern Ireland (Hodgson et al., 2000) with the support of 200 TEXAN
stations from the University of Texas at El Paso and 100 TEXAN stations
from the University of Copenhagen (Fig. 14). VARNET (VARiscan front
NETwork) was a cooperative seismic and magnetotelluric research program studying the Variscan front in southwestern Ireland, mainly based
on the instrumental pool of GFZ Potsdam. The project determined the
overall crustal thickness in Ireland to be 32–33 km, reducing to 28 km
below the center of the main granite body and near the coast of southern
Ireland (Landes et al., 2003).
Fig. 14. The very small and light Texan instrument provided the basis for true
high-density recording in land-based controlled source profiling. These instruments
are still being intensively used in experiments worldwide in the 2010s and more
than 3000 instruments are available around the world. Photo by C. Prodehl.
23
One of the very first east–west cooperation in the field after 1989 was
the DEKORP 3/MVE 90 seismic reflection survey, a modern seismicreflection line across the former inner-German border, exploring the
Saxothuringian area of the central-European Hercynian mountain
system from the Hessen depression in the west to the Erzgebirge in the
east (DEKORP Research Group, 1994). In 1995 by a parallel seismicrefraction survey, GRANU-95, combined with seismic reflection measurements, followed across the Saxonian Granulite Mountain metamorphic core complex (DEKORP and OROGENIC PROCESSES Working
Groups, 1999; Enderle et al., 1998). DEKORP continued its activities
into Northeast Germany in 1996. The DEKORP-BASIN Group, centered
at GFZ Potsdam, undertook a major seismic-reflection survey in the
southeastern Baltic Sea and in the lowlands of East Germany. In the
Baltic Sea, a grid of marine seismic-reflection profiles was recorded,
covering the area between southern Sweden, Denmark, the island of
Bornholm, and the region of northeastern Germany between the Bay
of Kiel and the island of Ruegen (Bleibinhaus et al., 1999; DEKORP/
BASIN Research Group, 1998, 1999; Krawczyk et al., 2002). The marine
survey was extended on land into northeastern Germany by a detailed
seismic-reflection profile BASIN 9601 along a 330 km long, SSW directed line from the island of Ruegen to the Harz Mountains (Bayer et al.,
1999) In general, the reflection Moho in the Baltic Sea was observed
at 28–35 km depth.
Following the many successful marine seismic-reflection and refraction investigations of the 1980s carried out in North Sea and the
adjacent Skagerrak, two major seismic projects were carried out in
the 1990s: in 1992 a BIRPS experiment and in 1993 the MONA LISA
project (Marine and Onshore North Sea Acquisition for LIthospheric
Seismic Analysis). The BIRPS project of 1992 was a two-ship coincident near-vertical and wide-angle experiment to determine the continental structure of the central North Sea (Singh et al., 1998). The
principal results along the 135 km long profile were an upper crustal
thickness of 19 km and a Moho depth of 32–34 km. The main aim of
the MONA LISA project was to image plate collision structures and reflectivity characteristics of the crust and uppermost mantle in order
to map the Caledonian Deformation Front and possible remains of
the Tornquist and Iapetus lithospheric plates and to identify rifting
processes by profiles crossing the Central Graben and the Horn
Graben of the North Sea (MONA LISA Working Group, 1997). The interpretations (Abramovitz and Thybo, 2000; Abramovitz et al., 1998)
reveal a three-layered crust of Baltica in the north thinning from
34–35 km to 29–30 km at the Tornquist Suture Zone and changing
into a 24–25 km thick two-layered crust of East Avalonia in the
south. Furthermore, detailed seismic investigations of the deep structure were carried out in the transition zones west and north of
Spitsbergen (Czuba et al., 1999) as well as in eastern Greenland and
its margin on the western side of the northernmost Atlantic Ocean
(e.g., Mandler and Jokat, 1998). In Denmark, in 2004 and 2005 project
ESTRID (Explosion Seismic Transects around a Rift In Denmark) investigated primarily the lower crust and Moho around the Silkeborg gravity
high in central Denmark underneath the Mesozoic sedimentary Danish
Basin. Along the E–W profile the Moho shows a substantial relief with
depth variation between 27 and 34 km (e.g., Thybo et al., 2006) and
28–33 km along a NS profile (Sandrin and Thybo, 2008a,b). Seismic velocity shows extreme variation along the profiles with high velocities
(6.7 km/s at 10 km depth to 7.5 km/s at Moho) below the gravity
high, which the authors interpret as a magmatic intrusion with a total
volume of at least 40,000 km3 in a single magmatic body. Later additional experiments have shown that the volume is at least 60,000 km3
and that a layered structure around the Moho may represent mafic
underplating in sill-like structures that extend for up to 120 km
distance from the feeder dikes at the main magmatic body (Sandrin
et al., 2009; Thybo and Nielsen, 2011).
EUROPROBE was founded in 1992 to encourage East–Central–West
European collaboration, supported by the European Science Foundation, as a Lithosphere Dynamics program for studies of the origin and
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evolution of the continent (Gee and Zeyen, 1996; Gee and Stephenson,
2006; http://www.geofys.uu.se/eprobe/). The program enabled the realization of nine major projects, which aimed to investigate the whole
lithosphere in close multinational collaboration between geologists,
geophysicists and geochemists. EUROPROBE projects which involved
both major controlled-source seismic and long-lasting teleseismic components were (1) the TESZ project investigating the Trans-European
Suture Zone in Scandinavia and Poland, (2) the Uralides project with
major seismic campaigns (the ESRU and URSEIS projects) in the Urals,
(3) the GEORIFT project to examine the crustal structure of the Paleozoic Dnieper–Donets rift, (4) the EUROBRIDGE project with focus on the
change in crustal structure from the Ukrainian to the Baltic Shield by
acquiring seismic refraction data along a seismic crustal traverse
between Ukraine and southern Sweden, (5) the PANCARDI project as
an interdisciplinary geoscientific frame for large-scale investigations
in the Carpathian area with main focus on the deep-earthquake region of Vrancea in the Romanian Carpathians, (6) the SVEKALAPKO
(SVEcofennian–KArelia–LAPland–KOla) project of multidisciplinary
investigations of the Fennoscandian Shield including seismic and
MT data acquisition campagnes, (7) the IBERIA project with focus
on imaging the lithosphere of the Variscan transpressional orogen
using deep seismic reflection profiling, wide-angle studies, (8) the
CAUCASUS project with focus on the Cenozoic collision-related
foredeep sedimentary basins along the northern slopes of the
Great Caucasus, and (9) the TIMPEBAR (TIMan–Pechora–BARents)
project to study the evolution of Europe's north-eastern Arctic shelf.
Only the last two of the EUROPROBE projects did not include a seismic
component.
The first collaborative seismic project between Russian and west
European scientists began in 1991 along the 3000 km long DSS profile
GRANIT between eastern Ukraine and the northern part of the West
Siberian basin (Rybalka and Kashubin, 1992). It included an anisotropy subproject, ASTRA, characterized by dense multi-azimuthal morecomponent recordings in the near-vertical to wide-angle incidence
offset range along several 280 km long profiles. Coincident with
the 1991 GRANIT line across the Middle Urals, in 1993 the ESRU
(Europrobe Seismic Reflection profiling in the Urals) project was carried out in a joint effort of Russian, Swedish, U.S. and German scientists.
Five seismic reflection experiments were carried out in the Middle Urals
until 1999, approximately at latitude 58°N, with a total length of
335 km (Juhlin et al., 1995, 1996; Kashubin et al., 2006). The ESRU
line, that crosses the orogen close to the Urals Deep Borehole SG4,
was followed by the URSEIS '95 transect that crosses the Urals at
about 53°N, ca. 400 km further south than the ESRU line and extends
from the East European platform in the Uralian foreland to the West
Siberian basin (Berzin et al., 1996, Carbonell et al., 1996, Knapp et al.,
1998). The URSEIS'95 project, at that time the largest international seismic project carried out in Russia after 1990, was an integrated seismic
experiment designed by scientists from Russia, Germany, the United
States, and Spain, to reveal the detailed crustal and upper-mantle structure of the Urals. Two independent groups (Carbonell et al., 2000b;
Stadtlander et al., 1999) found the presence of an at least 10 km thick
crustal root beneath the central part of the orogen, where the crustal
thickness increases from 43 to 45 km at the margins of the transect to
up to 53–56 km beneath the central part of the profile. Interestingly,
the center of this crustal root appears to be displaced by 50–80 km to
the east of the present-day maximum topography.
In the Baltic Shield, new reflection seismic profiles, FIRE 1–4, were
acquired in Finland from 2001 to 2003 across all major tectonic units
and boundaries of the Baltic Shield in Finland (FIRE Consortium,
2006). On the Kola pensinsula, the Russian company Spetsgeofisika
conducted in 2000–2002 a vibroseis CMP experiment across the western and central Mezen Basin and along a line across the Timan Range
as decided based on the data obtained in 1998–2000 (Kostyuchenko
et al., 2004). Several new long-range seismic refraction profiles have
been recorded in Russia in the early 2000s. Two of them transect the
Russian platform, from the Kola peninsula to the Caucasus (Mints,
2011), and across the Volga–Uralia subcraton (Trofimov, 2006).
The deep lithospheric structure of the East European Craton
between the exposed Proterozoic and Archean complexes of the
Baltic and Ukrainian Shields was studied along a ca. 2000 km long
EUROBRIDGE integrated transect (Bogdanova et al., 2006). The
main part of the EUROBRIDGE project was a major seismic refraction
and wide-angle reflection experiment, conducted in several legs
from 1994 to 1997 (EUROBRIDGE Seismic Working Group, 1999;
EUROBRIDGE'95 Seismic Working Group, 2001; Thybo et al., 2003).
The DOBRE (DOnBas REfraction and Reflection) project was continued
as an international collaborative project between researchers from
Ukraine, Poland, the Netherlands, Germany, Denmark, and the US
with, so far, five main data acquisition projects that largely cover the
Ukrainian territory. Initially, it concentrated on the Donbas Foldbelt of
the Dnieper–Donets rift system by comprising comprehensive seismic
surveys in 1999 and 2000 (DOBREfraction '99 Working Group, 2003;
Lyngsie et al., 2007; Maystrenko et al., 2003, Stephenson et al., 2006).
Centered in Poland, two major seismic refractions programs were
organized on the initiative of researchers from Copenhagen and
Warsaw within the context of the EUROPROBE program. The first
large seismic-refraction program of 1997, POLONAISE (POlish Lithosphere ONsets — An International Seismic Experiment), involved a
network of five long recording lines, using more than 600 field stations and 64 borehole shots for investigation of the deep lithospheric
structure in the Trans-European Suture Zone (TESZ) in east-central
Europe and the southwestern part of the East European Craton
(Guterch et al., 1999). The profiles provide a detailed overview of
the Moho in the study area (e.g. Grad et al., 2003; Janik et al., 2002;
Jensen et al, 1999). The second project CELEBRATION-2000 (Central
European Lithospheric Experiment Based on RefrAcTION) targeted
the Trans-European Suture Zone (TESZ) region, the southwestern
portion of the East European Craton (southern Baltica), the western
Carpathian Mountains, the Pannonian basin, and the Bohemian massif (Fig. 15; Guterch et al., 2001, 2003a). Here 1230 recording devices
were installed for one month to record shots and earthquakes along
10 lines covering southeastern Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia,
Hungary, and reaching into Austria and Germany in the west, and Belarus
and Russia in the northeast. In southeast Romania a major joint seismic
refraction and teleseismic survey was realized in 1999 and 2001 with
two crossing seismic-refraction lines through the earthquake-prone
Vrancea zone of the eastern Carpathians (Hauser et al., 2001; 2002,
2007) and a teleseismic survey covering the southeastern bend of the
Carpathians and its foreland (Martin et al., 2005).
The CELEBRATION'2000 project was carried out in close collaboration with the ALP'2000 project, which aimed at determining the
structure of the lithosphere in the eastern Alps around Austria. It
was followed by ALP 2002 with focus on the Eastern Alps and western
Carpathians (Brueckl et al., 2003, 2010, Sumanovac et al., 2009). Some
of the profiles traversed the Bohemian Massif in the Czech Republic,
while other profiles were centered in the Pannonian basin of Hungary,
also touching the Dinarides of Slovenia and Croatia. A total of
4300 km along 13 seismic refraction profiles were obtained, recorded
from 40 borehole shots by about 920 TEXAN stations from PASSCAL
and University of Copenhagen. The experimental layout of the two
ALPS projects allows for high-resolution inversion of velocity structure
and thickness of the crust in 3 dimensions based on a new interpretation method (Behm et al., 2007, Brueckl et al., 2010). Another
major large-scale interdisciplinary project in central Europe targeted
the Alps with a seismic-reflection traverse TRANSALP through the
Eastern Alps, carried out in several phases from 1998 to 2001. The
resulting data reveal a maximum crustal thickness of 55 km, and
two 80–100 km long transcrustal ramps are observed: north of the
axis: a southward dipping ‘Sub-Tauern-Ramp’ and south of the
crest a northward dipping ‘Sub-Dolomites-Ramp’ (Gebrande et al.,
2006; Lueschen et al., 2004).
C. Prodehl et al. / Tectonophysics 609 (2013) 9–44
The project SUDETES 2003 was launched in 2003 as a 3-D refraction seismic experiment to investigate the deep crustal structure of
the northern part of the Bohemian Massif, the largest outcropping
part of the Late Paleozoic Variscan orogen in Central Europe. 53
shots were fired into a network of six profiles, which, with an average
station spacing of 3–4 km, covered a total of 3450 km (e.g., Grad
et al., 2008; Majdanski et al., 2006). A passive teleseismic tomography
project, BOHEMA, was added from 2001 to 2003 with the aim of
developing a three-dimensional geodynamic model of the whole
lithosphere–asthenosphere system (Babuska et al., 2003). An overview
of all long-range controlled source seismic experiments in central
Europe from 1997 to 2003 was published by Guterch et al. (2007).
Major crustal research activities on the central European rift system were carried out in the early 1990s in the southern Rhinegraben
(e.g., Mayer et al., 1997) with seismic steep- and wide-angle observations and in the Limagne graben across the Massif Central with a joint
Fig. 15. Record sections from the large international Celebration'2000 experiment in
Central Europe. The large number of Texan instruments made it possible to make
dense simultaneous recording on all profiles, which also enables cross profile interpretation of the velocity field. After Guterch et al. (2001); reproduced by permission of
American Geophysical Union.
25
teleseismic–seismic-refraction survey (Granet et al., 1995; Zeyen
et al., 1997).
The main crustal research activities in the Mediterranean area
were carried out in Spain, Italy, and Greece. The Spanish national seismic reflection program ESCI (Estructura Sismica de la Corteza Iberica)
was initiated in the 1990s involving a combination of land and
sea-based projects in three key areas: the northwestern Hercynian
Peninsula, the northeastern Spain — Valencia trough, and the Betics;
450 km of onshore and 1325 km of offshore profiles in northern,
eastern and southern Iberia were recorded (Diaz and Gallart, 2009).
In 2001, the IBERSEIS deep seismic reflection transect across the SW
Iberian Massif and in 2007 project ALCUDIA was added with coincident Vibroseis normal-incidence reflection and refraction/wide-angle
reflection profiling (e.g. Palomeras et al., 2009). A detailed review on
crustal structure of the Iberian peninsula is given by Diaz and Gallart
(2009), who provide a location map of all seismic profiles observed in
on- and off-shore Spain since the 1970s. Cross sections from coast to
coast, and a Moho depth contour map accompanied by a topographic
map including the individual observation points, demonstrate the
gradual crustal thickening from near 10 km under the Atlantic margin
areas to 30 km under the Variscan Iberian Massif. Maximum crustal
thicknesses are observed at 50 km under the Pyrenees and 40 km
both under the Iberian Chain in eastern Spain and the Betic Chain in
Southern Spain. Towards east and south the crust thins abruptly to
15 km under the Valencia Trough and the Alboran Sea. Moho depth
is locally about 25 km below the Balearic Islands.
The Italian seismic reflection program CROP was particularly active
during its second phase in the 1990s (Scrocca et al., 2003) with seismic
reflection traverses through the Italian peninsula and a dense network
of profiles in the Mediterranean Sea. More than 8000 km of seismic profiles were recorded during two phases of the CROP MARE project in the
Ligurian, Tyrrhenian, and Ionian Seas. The Greek area was investigated
by two French–Greek marine-based projects, project STREAMERS
of 1992 targeting the Ionian Sea (Hirn et al., 1996), and the project
SEISGRECE of 1997 in the Gulf of Corinth. Moho is observed at 40 km
depth under the western Gulf north of Aigion and 32 km under its
north coast, north of Corinth (Clément et al., 2004).
Major efforts were undertaken to unravel the details of crustal
structure beneath the Afro-Arabian rift system, based on the experiences collected by the earlier expeditions. In 1990 and 1994 two
major international KRISP campaigns (Fig. 16) explored the crust
and upper mantle under the East African rift of Kenya combining
seismic refraction and teleseismic tomography investigations (Birt
et al., 1997; Fuchs et al., 1997; Prodehl et al., 1994). Prodehl and collaborators (Fuchs et al., 1997) summarize the projects undertaken
within the Afro-Arabian Rift System from 1969 to 1995. In 2001 the
northern end of the East African Rift system in Ethiopia was the target
of another major seismic experiment (Mackenzie et al., 2005; Maguire
et al., 2003), and international seismic campaign began in 2000 to
cover both sides of the Dead Sea transform in Jordan and Israel
(DESERT Group, 2004; DESERT Team, 2000).
In Asia a series of data acquisition projects (BEST — Baikal Explosion
Seismic Transects) were carried out around the Baikal Lake with participation from Novosibirsk, Ulan-Ude, Warsaw and Copenhagen in the
early 2000s. The new data demonstrated that crustal thinning does
not necessarily lead to Moho uplift as magmatic intrusions may compensate totally for the thinning (Nielsen and Thybo, 2009; Thybo and
Nielsen, 2009). This finding calls for care when crustal thinning is estimated for geodynamic modeling, as was already indicated by results
from similar seismic experiments at the DONBAS and East African rift
zones (Lyngsie et al., 2007; Thybo et al., 2003).
In India, the National Geophysical Research Institute at Hyderabad
undertook national large-scale COCORP-equivalent studies. Particular
targets were the structure and tectonics of the Aravalli–Delhi fold
belt in northwestern India (Prasad et al., 1998) and the crust of
southern India. Other investigations in the Himalayas and southern
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C. Prodehl et al. / Tectonophysics 609 (2013) 9–44
India used information from natural sources (Krishna et al., 1999, Rai
et al., 2006).
The seismic investigations of the crust and upper mantle in China
with explosion seismology of the 1980s were continued even more
intensively with the acquisition of many deep seismic sounding
(DSS) profiles in mainland China in the 1990s (e.g., Li et al., 2006).
It was, however, in particular Tibet that attracted scientists from all
over the world. One of the largest cooperative seismic projects was
INDEPTH in southern Tibet, which involved both near-vertical and
wide-angle seismic reflection methodology as well as teleseismic tomography, and was accomplished with major U.S. and German participation in several phases, starting in 1992 (e.g. Nelson et al., 1996).
The studies made observations of some of the thickest crust in the
world as well as unexpected melting in the upper crust below Tibet
(e.g. Makovsky et al., 1996; Ross et al., 2004).
Controlled source seismology in Japan was activated in the 1990s as
part of the Japanese Earthquake Prediction Program. Following the destructive Kobe earthquake of January 17, 1995, seismic measurements
were carried out in the surroundings of Kobe (e.g., Ohmura et al.,
2001). Other experiments in Japan have focused on the deep crustal
structure (Fig. 17), including the lower crust and Moho, beneath the
SW and NE Japan arcs (e.g. Iwasaki et al., 2002, 2004). A seismic reflection survey for deep structural studies was undertaken for the first
time in Japan in 1994, through the Hidaka Collision zone, Hokkaido.
Fig. 16. Small and light-weight seismic recorders used for the KRISP field campaigns in
the early 1990s. These industry type instruments were modified to include internal
high precision clocks. The small scale made them extremely valuable for use in the
logistically difficult environment in eastern Africa. Photo by C. Prodehl.
Subsequent reflection surveys in 1996–1997 provided a clear image of
delamination structure and a reflective lower crust in the collision
zone (Ito, 2002; Tsumura et al., 1999). Since then, integrated seismic
surveys with both reflection and refraction methods have been common in Japan, and detailed crustal sections were presented for NE
Japan and Hokkaido (e.g. Iwasaki et al., 2004; Sato et al. 2002).
Since 1985 the Australian Geological Survey Organisation (AGSO)
has conducted a large program of deep seismic reflection surveys
in off- and on-shore Australia. Several reviews (e.g., Clitheroe et al.,
2000; Collins et al., 2003; Finlayson, 2010; Goleby et al., 1994) summarize the results of crustal and upper-mantle studies of Australia.
Clitheroe et al (2000) supplemented onshore refraction information
with a systematic study of crustal structure using receiver functions
at more than 60 stations across the continent. This data set was further augmented with off-shore refraction results by Collins et al.
(2003) to produce a revised crustal thickness map. The latest compilation by Kennett et al (2011) uses more than 150 receiver function
results and information from more than 10,000 km of seismic reflection profiling to produce a much more detailed map of depth to
Moho. In general, within Archean regions of Western Australia the
Moho appears to be relatively shallow with a large velocity contrast,
while the Moho is significantly deeper under the Proterozoic North
Australian platform, under central Australia and under Phanerozoic
southeastern Australia.
To understand the processes involved in continental collision,
New Zealand, being deformed by the oblique collision of several
plates, was the object of a joint US–New Zealand geophysical project
SIGHT (South Island GeopHysical Transect), undertaken in 1995–
1996. The project involved both active source and passive seismology
(Davey et al., 1998). Another project in 2001–2002 investigated the
Central Volcanic Region or Taupo Volcanic Zone (TVZ) occupying
the northern half of the North Island of New Zealand (Harrison and
White, 2006; Stratford and Stern 2008).
In North America, LITHOPROBE projects investigated systematically the crust and uppermost mantle of Canada (e.g., Clowes et al.,
2005). The results are published in a series of interdisciplinary summary volumes of the Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences for each particular transect (e.g., Hajnal et al., 2005; Ludden and Hynes, 2000;
Wardle and Hall, 2002). Numerous detailed seismic studies were undertaken in the western United States along the coast, of which the
projects SHIPS around Seattle (Snelson et al., 2007), BASIX around
San Francisco (Brocher et al., 1991) and LARSE around Los Angeles
(Fuis et al., 1996, 2001) investigated the crustal structure in earthquakeprone regions in much detail. A similar project, JTEX, targeted the crustal structure beneath a large continental silicic magmatic system in the
Jemez Mountains of New Mexico (Baldridge et al., 1997). The “Deep
Probe” experiment of 1995 (Gorman et al., 2002; Snelson et al., 1998)
followed approximately the 110th meridian and spanned a distance
range of 3000 km from the southern Northwest Territories to southern
New Mexico targeting the velocity structure between the base of the
crust and depths of the mantle transition zone near 400 km depth.
Also in 1995, the interdisciplinary geoscience project CD-ROM
(Continental Dynamics — ROcky Mountain) was created with the
aim of realizing a detailed crustal and upper mantle interdisciplinary investigation of the Southern Rocky Mountains from central
Wyoming to central New Mexico, approximately along the 101st
meridian, involving integrated studies based on tectonics, structural
geology, regional geophysics, geochemistry, geochronology, xenolith studies and seismics (Karlstrom and Keller, 2005). The seismic
component involved seismic reflection and seismic refraction experiments in 1999 as well as teleseismic studies along a 1000 km
long north–south directed traverse along the southern Rocky Mountains
(Fig. 18).
In Central and South America, several seismic profiling projects
investigated the area of the deep drilling project in the Chicxulub impact crater, at the coast of the Yucatan peninsula, Mexico (e.g., Snyder
C. Prodehl et al. / Tectonophysics 609 (2013) 9–44
27
Fig. 17. Onshore recording of off-shore airgun shots. This type of profiling with dense arrays of onshore stations allows for hitherto unknown density of information, which may lead
the way to full waveform inversion of seismic structure. After Iidaka et al. (2004).
et al., 1999), northern Venezuela and the Carribean (Schmitz et al.,
2002, 2005, 2008), and central Brazil (Berrocal et al., 2004). The majority of seismic investigations in South America have been carried out
around the Andes mountains in Chile and the adjacent Pacific Ocean,
mainly by the German Collaborative Research Center 267 (CRC 267)
“Deformation Processes in the Andes” at Berlin and Potsdam, which
was funded by the German Research Society for 15 years and strongly
supported by various South American research facilities (Giese et al.,
1999). In the years 1994 to 1996 three major seismic projects PISCO
94, CINCA 95, and ANCORP 96 were conducted in northern Chile and
adjacent parts of Bolivia and Argentina (e.g., ANCORP Working Group,
2003). Also in 1995, within the multidisciplinary CONDOR (Chilean
Offshore Natural Disaster and Ocean Environmental Research) project,
a marine operation investigated the Valparaiso Basin offshore from
Valparaiso, central Chile, along two marine-seismic reflection and refraction profiles north and south of latitude 33°S (Flueh et al., 1998).
In 2000, southern Chile became the target of the Collaborative Research
Center CRC 267 at Berlin and Potsdam, Germany. The first project ISSA
2000 consisted of a temporary seismological network and a seismicrefraction profile. It was followed in 2001 by the project SPOC (Subduction Processes Off Chile, e.g., Krawczyk and the SPOC Team, 2003),
which involved a shipborne geophysical experiment and two predominantly land-based onshore–offshore experiments. The seismic arrays
also recorded teleseismic, regional and local events. Furthermore
broadband stations were deployed along some of the lines (Oncken
et al., 2006).
During the 1990s digital equipment also became available for
marine seismic research, with both digital streamers to study details
of sedimentary structure beneath the ocean bottom and a new generation of ocean-bottom seismometers, which were built in large numbers. Underwater explosions as energy sources had been banned
almost completely; instead powerful airgun arrays became available
Fig. 18. Record section from the CD-ROM experiment in central USA. here the large number of available Texan instruments were used to ensure very dense recording at 800 m
intervals. From Snelson et al. (2005); reproduced by permission of American Geophysical Union.
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C. Prodehl et al. / Tectonophysics 609 (2013) 9–44
which provide sufficient energy to be recorded over hundreds of
kilometers. Seismic research projects in the 1990s and 2000s were
largely devoted to the investigation of details of the mid-ocean rises,
such as the East Pacific Rise, and the subduction zones.
For example, projects around the Galapagos hot spot and the
Cocos–Nazca Spreading Center (e.g., Sallares et al., 2003) and the
Garrett Fracture Zone (Grevemeyer et al., 1998) were undertaken. A
large number of Japanese marine surveys, some of which also involved
onshore recordings, targeted the trench system in the Philippine Sea
and northwestern Pacific Ocean around Japan. In particular, the Nankai
Trough and the Japan trench south and east of Honshu has been intensively investigated (e.g., Kodaira et al., 2000; Miura et al., 2003;
Tsuru et al., 2002). A large number of marine surveys were made
around the Caribbean, the Mediterranean, and Indonesia subduction
systems.
A large number of seismic reflection surveys studied the margins
of Australia (Finlayson, 2010). In the Indian Ocean the Ninetyeast
Ridge was also investigated (Grevemeyer et al., 2001a).
In the Atlantic the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (e.g., Grevemeyer et al.,
2001b; Hooft et al., 2000), and the continent–ocean transitions were
major targets (Fig. 19). In particular in the northern Atlantic Ocean projects targeted the microcontinents and intervening basins off Ireland
(e.g., Mackenzie et al., 2002), the Norwegian margin (e.g., Raum et al.,
2002), the Faeroe–Iceland Ridge (e.g., Smallwood et al., 1999), the
northwestern Barents Sea southeast of Spitsbergen (Breivik et al.,
2002), the East Greenland Ridge (Dossing et al., 2008), and eastern
Greenland (e.g., Dahl-Jensen et al., 1998; Holbrook et al., 2001;
Schmidt-Aursch and Jokat, 2005). The Arctic-2000 transect in the Arctic
Ocean between 164°W and 165°E (Lebedeva-Ivanova et al., 2006)
and the investigation of the North American margin off Canada
(e.g., Funck et al., 2003) were other large marine projects.
In 2010 the first refraction seismic experiment was carried out in
the interior of Greenland as part of the Topo-Greenland project. An
international team of six scientists, led by the University of Copenhagen,
acquired data from 8 shot points with 350 Texan stations from PASSCAL
in two months on the ice cap along a 320 km long profile at 71°N
from eastern Greenland across the center of the ice cap. The data is
of very high quality and indicates a gradual deepening of the Moho
to ca. 50 km depth below the center of Greenland (cf. Artemieva
and Thybo, this volume). A recent Japanese experiment in Antarctica
has provided explosion data for full crustal studies. The interpretation
indicates that the Moho is ca. 40 km deep below a highly reflective
lower crust in Eastern Dronning Maud Land, Antarctica (Kanao et al.,
2011).
Special sessions on large national and international seismic programs became important components of the annual meetings of the
various national and international geoscientific organizations, such
as, e.g. the American Geophysical Union and the European Geophysical Union. Special meetings of earth scientists at regular intervals also
continue such as the meetings of the special subcommission of the
ESC (European Seismological Commission) “Structure of the Earth's
Interior”, the series of workshops held by Commission on Controlled
Source Seismology (CCSS), and the series of “International Symposia
on Deep Seismic Profiling of the Continental Lithosphere” which
continues biannually into the 21st century with meetings at Ulvik,
Norway, in 2000 (Thybo, 2002), in Taupo, New Zealand, in 2003
(Davey and Jones, 2004), in Mont-Tremblant, Quebec, Canada, in
2004 (Snyder et al., 2006), in Hayama, Japan, in 2006 (Ito et al., 2009),
in Saariselkä, Finland, in 2008 (Thybo et al., 2011), and in Cairns,
Queensland, Australia, in 2010.
9. Passive seismology: receiver based studies
Although some parts of the world have managed to sustain progress
in controlled source seismology, particularly reflection profiling, in recent
years the regulatory environment in many countries can make large
explosions for refraction studies difficult. Since the 1990s developments in seismic instrumentation have meant that, rather than
being restricted to a few high-quality stations, broad-band seismic
recording of high-fidelity ground motion has become widely available at observatories and for portable instrument deployments,
with increasing numbers of stations. Such deployments now cover
broad continental areas including difficult environments such as deserts and the frozen continent of Antarctica.
The ready availability of high-quality seismological data has lead
to the development of a range of techniques oriented towards the
seismic structure near recording stations, particularly for the crust
and the crust–mantle transition (Moho). Such approaches mostly exploit the wave conversions and reverberations that accompany the
onset of the seismic signal.
The most popular approach has been the use of receiver functions,
which emphasize conversions between P and S waves induced by discontinuities in seismic wavespeed (see, e.g., Kennett, 2002, Section
28.2). For a group of related seismic phases the three components of
ground motion acquire the same spectral contribution from the
source, and will also share the propagation path until the local seismic
discontinuities. Thus, in principle, deconvolution of one component of
ground motion by another will remove the contribution from the
source and much of the propagation path. The resulting traces termed
receiver functions by Langston (1977) then bear the imprint of the local
wave propagation through, e.g., P to SV wave conversions. For an incident P wave from a distant source on a stratified crust, P–SV conversions will appear dominantly on the radial component of motion
(directed along the great-circle between source and receiver), with a
smaller contribution on the vertical component. The conversions can
then be emphasized by deconvolving the radial by the vertical component to produce a radial receiver function. There are merits in making
allowance for the influence of the free surface through a rotation of
components (Vinnik, 1977) or a transformation (Reading et al.,
2003b) since these procedures diminish the influence of the main P
wave on the receiver function trace. A comparable approach for incident S waves exploits conversions to P that lie dominantly on the vertical component. For such S wave receiver functions the P conversions
arrive before the main arrival and hence separate from any reverberations (Farra and Vinnik, 2000). This means that even though the frequency of S is lower and structural resolution is reduced, results can
be obtained from highly reverberative stations where P receiver functions are unhelpful (e.g. Ford et al., 2010).
There are many ways of implementing the receiver-function deconvolution in either the time domain (e.g. Julià et al., 2000; Ligorria
and Ammon, 1999) or in the frequency domain (e.g., Ammon, 1991;
Helffrich 2006; Park and Levin, 2000). Where the Moho transition is
sharp, a distinctive pattern of conversions is generated and crustal
properties for a simple one-layer model can be extracted by stacking
(Zhu and Kanamori, 2000). In more complex situations with gradient
zones, a common approach is to match observed and computed receiver
functions for specified models, normally some class of stratified structure.
Because the crust–mantle transition is generally the largest contrast in
seismic wavespeeds, the Moho conversion is commonly prominent, and
the depth to the transition and its character can therefore be extracted.
Alternatively with sufficient station density, the various paths
sampled by the receiver functions can be migrated to produce a direct
image in depth (e.g. Bertrand et al., 2002; Chen et al., 2006; Morozov
and Dueker, 2003). A related approach migrates the full scattered
wavefield across a dense network (Bostock and Rondenay, 1999,
Rondenay et al., 2002).
Much depends on the quality of the receiver function results. Stacking over many sources improves the stability of the trace and is routinely used. The use of sources over a wide range of azimuths allows a test
of a simple stratified model; dipping interfaces can be picked up by
distinctive azimuth patterns (see, e.g., Peng and Humphreys, 1997;
Bannister et al., 2003).
C. Prodehl et al. / Tectonophysics 609 (2013) 9–44
29
Fig. 19. Deep seismic reflection section from the Brazilian margin in the South Atlantic illustrating the continent to ocean transition, including the characteristic sea-ward dipping
reflections. After Mohriak et al. (1998).
The dependence of the receiver function trace on structural parameters is strongly non-linear, which can cause considerable difficulties
with simple linearized inversion (Ammon et al., 1990) with a strong
dependence on the starting model. Non-linear inversion schemes
with a broad exploration of parameter space (e.g. Sambridge 1999a;
Sandvol et al., 1998a; Shibutani et al., 1996) can overcome such difficulties, and have the advantage of producing an ensemble of models with
satisfactory fit as well as a single best-fit model. The ensemble enables
the nature of the constraints on structure to be more clearly expressed
(Sambridge, 1999b).
Irrespective of the inversion scheme used to match receiver function
traces, the position of seismic discontinuities are better resolved than
the absolute velocities. In some circumstances, it is possible to use
local surface wave dispersion, and to conduct a joint inversion of receiver functions and dispersion to improve controls on wavespeed and the
nature of discontinuities (e.g., Chang et al., 2004; Tkalčić et al., 2012).
A recent innovation in seismological work has been the exploitation of the ambient seismic noise field to extract structural information (Shapiro and Campillo, 2004). The stacked autocorrelation of
continuous ground motion at a pair of seismic stations extract the
Green's function, i.e., the response at one station due to a source at
the other. Generally, the surface wave portion can be quite well recovered over frequency ranges that are helpful for crustal studies.
With a network of stations effective surface wave tomography can
be conducted (e.g., Shapiro et al., 2005 and Moschetti et al., 2010 for
the USA; Yang et al., 2007 and Stehly et al., 2009 for Europe; Saygin
and Kennett, 2010, 2012 for Australia). Localized dispersion information can then be extracted to supplement receiver function results
(e.g., Tkalčić et al., 2012). Further, in principle, the stacked autocorrelation of the ground motion at a single station provides information
on the reflection structure beneath the site. This approach detects
the strongest discontinuity, often the Moho, and can provide a useful
supplement to other classes of results with only a relatively brief deployment of a month or two (Gorbatov et al., 2013).
We provide below a survey across the globe of the development of
passive seismic methods for crustal studies, to 2005, as for the controlled source work. The wide repertoire of receiver-function tools
and the dramatic spread of broad-band seismic stations has meant
that there has been a veritable explosion in crustal studies using
this approach. More than 100 papers on crustal structure and the
Moho using receiver function methods were published in 2010–
2011, and the flow shows no sign of abating. Indeed receiver function
studies play an important role in many of the other papers in this
volume.
A related method to receiver functions is the exploitation of P
wave reflections from the Moho associated with arrivals from distant
earthquakes. For distances in the range 35–50° an S wave is able to
couple to P waves in the crust on reflection at the surface. Such
waves have been exploited by Chen et al. (this volume) to map out
Moho thickness variations in Tibet.
9.1. Regional passive seismic studies to 2005
In North America, receiver function studies commenced with studies of individual stations or groups of stations (e.g. Ammon et al.,
1989; Cassidy and Ellis, 1993; Langston, 1977; Owens et al., 1987)
and then exploited existing dense networks as in southern California
(e.g. Ichinose et al., 1996; Zhu and Kanamori, 2000). With advent of
large deployments of portable broad-band instruments, receiver functions have been used to map variations in lithospheric structure and
Moho depth over substantial areas (e.g. Sheehan et al., 1997). The
Cascadia region was an early focus of activity (Cassidy and Ellis, 1993;
Langston 1977, 1979; Rondenay et al., 2002), and also the Basin and
Range province and its surroundings (Özalaybey et al., 1997; Peng and
Humphreys, 1997, 1998; Sheehan et al., 1997). A number of studies in
California revealed the complexity of crustal structure and notable
Moho topography (Baker et al., 1996; Jones and Phinney, 1998; Zhu
and Kanamori, 2000; Lewis et al, 2000). Receiver functions have enabled new Moho information to be collected in difficult northern terrains in Alaska and the Yukon (Ai et al., 2005; Lowe and Cassidy,
1995). The value of adding other classes of regional seismic information
was recognized by Langston (1994), and many subsequent studies use
receiver functions in association with surface wave dispersion or other
results, including controlled source studies where available. A major
project was the CD-ROM experiment of 1999, which provided a wealth
of active and passive source data on the Southern Rocky Mountains region (Burek and Dueker, 2005; Sheehan et al., 2005).
Work in Canada started with a broad survey across the national
seismic network (Cassidy, 1995a), with more detailed work on the
Cordillera (Cassidy, 1995b; Lowe and Cassidy, 1995). Studies have
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C. Prodehl et al. / Tectonophysics 609 (2013) 9–44
been directed at the nature of transitions in the Precambrian Shield
(Eaton and Hope, 2003; Zelt and Ellis, 1999) and the structure of
the High Arctic region (Darbyshire, 2003). Broad-scale studies in
North America have combined information from both permanent
and portable stations (Li et al., 2002; Ramesh et al., 2002).
Early studies in Central America concentrated on the Caribbean
islands (e.g. Cuba, Toiran, 2003) and the connection to South America
(Niu et al., 2007). Baumont et al. (2001) used receiver functions in the
central Andes, where studies of Moho topography were later undertaken by Yuan et al. (2002). Receiver functions have played an important role in constraining crustal structure across Brazil (An and
Assumpçao, 2004; Assumpçao et al., 2002; Franca and Assumpçao,
2004; Kruger et al., 2002). Portable instruments in Patagonia provided the first glimpse of crustal structure in this region (Lawrence
and Wiens, 2004).
In Australia broad-band deployments started with the SKIPPY
experiment that was exploited by Shibutani et al. (1996) and van
der Hilst et al. (1998) to provide enhanced crustal thickness information in eastern Australia in areas where there had been no prior refraction work. The full continental deployment was used by
Clitheroe et al. (2000) to add over 60 receiver function results for
Moho depth and nearly double the available information across the
continent. Subsequently, a set of detailed studies were made across
the cratons and sutures in Western Australia (Goleby et al., 2006;
Reading and Kennett, 2003; Reading et al., 2003a,b), and revealed systematic patterns of Moho variation between the cratonic sub-terranes.
In New Zealand receiver function inversion (Bannister et al., 2004)
has helped to elucidate the complex crustal structure and enigmatic
Moho across the Taupo volcanic zone.
The Kaapvaal seismic experiment in southern Africa covered a
broad sweep across the cratons and mobile belts with portable seismic stations, and led to a number of receiver function based studies
of crustal thickness in Southern Africa (Harvey et al., 2001; Midzi
and Ottemoller, 2001; Nair et al., 2006; Nguuri et al., 2001; Niu and
James, 2002; Stankiewicz et al., 2002; Wright et al., 2003). In eastern
Africa, there was early work combining information from receiver
functions and surface wave dispersion (Last et al., 1997). Extensive
deployments of portable instruments have supplemented the limited
number of permanent stations, and have begun to reveal the nature of
the East African rift along its length (Dugda et al., 2005); such studies
have been carried much further since by a number of groups. In
northern Africa, the first results came from the work of Sandvol et al.
(1998a, 1998b). Deployments of new broad-band stations around the
Mediterranean have improved knowledge of crustal structure in the
region (Marone et al., 2003; van der Meijde et al., 2003).
There has been considerable use of receiver function analysis in
the Middle East and Arabia, with early work by Sandvol et al.
(1998a) and Levin and Park (2000). Although most receiver function
studies employ seismic events at teleseismic distances (>30°), Park
and Levin (2001) were able to demonstrate effective results in Arabia
using regional events. Other studies of the Arabian Shield include
Sandvol et al (1998b), Kumar et al. (2002), Al-Damegh et al. (2005),
Julià et al (2003) and Tkalčić et al. (2006), who also included surface
wave dispersion results. The structure of the Sinai sub-plate was studied by Hofstetter and Bock (2004).
In Europe, Kind et al. (1995) showed the value of receiver function
results with analyses for the stations of the German regional seismic
network. Bertrand and Deschamps (2000) examined the complex
structure of the southern French Alps. The Appenines in Italy were
studied by Agostinetti et al. (2002) and Mele and Sandvol (2003)
with a clear demonstration of a deep crustal root. Ottemoller and
Midzi (2003) used receiver functions to expand coverage of crustal
structure in Norway. Many of the studies in Europe have been made
with experiments designed explicitly to exploit receiver function information, these vary from modest scale in Bohemia (Geiser et al.,
2000; Wilde-Piorko et al. 2005) and Romania (Diehl et al., 2005) to
very large-scale deployments as in TOR that had stations from northern Germany to the Baltic Shield and SVEKALAPKO in Finland
(Alinaghi et al., 2003; Goser et al., 1999; Wilde-Piorko et al., 2002).
The TRANSALP experiment employed both controlled source and passive seismic methods in a profile across the eastern Alps (Kummerow
et al., 2004). In the Hellenic arc Li et al. (2003) were able to image
crustal thickness variations and also follow the oceanic Moho of the
descending African plate beneath Crete. Receiver function results
have also proved valuable in the British Isles, where there were limited controls from controlled source results (Champion et al., 2006;
Tomlinson et al., 2003, 2006), and in Ireland (Landes et al., 2006). Receiver functions have been extensively used in studies of the crust in
Iceland (Du and Foulger 1999, 2001; Du et al., 2002; Schlindwein,
2006) even through the relatively high natural seismic noise means
that careful processing is required.
A number of studies have been made using receiver functions for
crustal structure and Moho depth in Turkey (Çakir and Erduran,
2004; Çakir et al, 2000; Saunders et al., 1998) and in Iran and the
Caspian Sea region (Doloei and Roberts, 2003; Hatzfeld et al., 2003;
Mangino and Priestley, 1998). Central Asia has been the focus of studies in the Tien Shan (Bump and Sheehan, 1998; Vinnik et al., 2004),
and particularly in Tibet (Galvé et al., 2002; Wittlinger et al., 2004)
with many later works often linked to controlled source information.
The Moho beneath the various parts of the Indian Shield has been
studied by Zhou et al. (2000), Kumar et al. (2001, 2004), Sarkar
et al. (2003), Rai et al. (2003), Ramesh et al. (2005a) and Tseng and
Chen (2006) complementing the earlier controlled source seismic
profiles. The evolution of the Moho under the Himalayas has been
addressed by Rai et al. (2006) with receiver function constraints. In
East Asia, early crustal studies using receiver functions were made
in the Philippines (Besana et al., 1995), and subsequently in China
(Mangino et al., 1999; Wu et al, 2001) and Taiwan (Kim et al., 2004;
Tomfohrde and Nowack, 2000). Receiver Functions in Japan have provided control on Moho depth in southwest Japan (Shiomi et al., 2006;
Yamauchi et al., 2003). The extensive station installations in Japan
since the 1995 Kobe earthquake have been exploited to produce high
resolution images of the Moho on the islands and in the descending
plates (Ramesh et al., 2005b). Chang and Baag (2005) have combined
receiver function results and surface wave dispersion in a study of
South Korea. In the Russian Far-East, Levin et al. (2002) have made
use of both permanent and portable stations to develop and image of
crustal structure and Moho depth in Kamchatka.
The presence of ice causes additional reverberations in receiver
functions so good control is required on ice thickness to secure reliable
results with the P-receiver functions, S-receiver functions with their
earlier conversions can be helpful in this regard (Hansen et al., 2009).
Nevertheless, receiver function analysis has provided substantial extensions of knowledge of the Moho in both Greenland and Antarctica.
In Greenland, Dahl-Jensen et al (2003) exploited the records from a
number of specially deployed stations to provide a general pattern
of Moho variation. However, subsequent S-wave receiver functions
gave different depths to the Moho in some locations, probably because
the P- and S-wave receiver functions preferably sample two different
discontinuities (Artemieva and Thybo, 2008). Work in Antarctica commenced with receiver function studies near the coast (Kanao, 1997),
and across the transition between West and East Antarctica using portable stations (Bannister et al., 2003). Reading (2004) used Antarctic receiver function results in a comparison with Australia, as a step towards
reconstructing Gondwanan lithosphere. Passive seismic methods continue to play a major role in studying the crustal structure of Antarctica,
through analysis of portable instruments deployed deep into the continent notably TAMSEIS (Lawrence et al., 2006) and the more recent
GAMSEIS (Hansen et al, 2010) where both receiver function and surface
wave dispersion were employed. Such studies have dramatically
improved knowledge of Moho depth in Antarctica (see Baranov et al.,
this volume).
C. Prodehl et al. / Tectonophysics 609 (2013) 9–44
10. Summary and conclusions
An overview of interpretation methods used in the 1990s for interpretation of combined active and passive studies was given at one of
the CCSS (Commission on Controlled Source Seismology) workshop
meetings, held in Dublin in 1999 (Jacob et al., 2000). Introduced in the
1970s (Červený and Horn, 1980; Červený et al., 1977; McMechan and
Mooney, 1980; Spence et al., 1984), the ray-tracing method has
remained an almost universal method for data interpretation. The
most commonly used programs include ray-theoretical and Gaussianbeam synthetic seismograms (Červený, 1985) and the ray-theoretical
ray tracing algorithm by Zelt and Smith (1992). Ray-tracing using a
finite-difference approximation of the eikonal equation was first introduced for calculation of first arrival times, and later improved in the
1990s to also calculate travel times of reflected arrivals and second
arrival refractions from prograde traveltime branches (Hole and Zelt,
1995). In addition commonly used methods in the processing of nearvertical incidence seismic reflection data, such as normal moveout correction and migration, were applied to refraction/wide-angle reflection
data (e.g., Lafond and Levander, 1995; Pilipenko et al., 1999, 2003). In
the 1990s, theory and associated computer programs on traveltime
tomography developed by Colin Zelt and others became popular and
evolved to a method widely applied as a first approach to model large
amounts of data as well as a check of the validity of a model (Zelt,
1998, 1999). Today there is hardly a publication on crustal and upper
mantle interpretation which does not first apply a tomographic approach to the seismic data, before refined ray-tracing modeling is
applied (for example, interpretations of the Polonaise and Celebration
2000 data, see e.g., Guterch et al., 2003a,b).
From the 1990s, large-scale teleseismic tomography projects
(so-called passive studies based on long-term recording of seismic arrivals from teleseismic earthquakes) were carried out in association
with large-scale seismic refraction programs (so-called active source
studies based on records of waves from controlled sources, such as
quarry blasts, borehole and underwater explosions, vibrators or
airguns), thus extending crustal and uppermost mantle research to
greater depth ranges. A few examples of such projects are the KRISP
and EAGLE investigations of the East African Rift System in Kenya
(Fuchs et al., 1997; Prodehl et al., 1994) and Ethiopia (Maguire
et al., 2003), the onshore–offshore investigations of the Andean region in South America (e.g., ANCORP Working Group, 2003; Flueh
et al., 1998; Giese et al., 1999; Krawczyk and the SPOC Team, 2003;
Oncken et al., 2006; Rietbrock et al., 2005), the INDEPTH expeditions
to Tibet (e.g., Brown et al., 1996; Nelson et al., 1996; Zhao et al., 1993,
1997, 2001), and the CD-ROM project in the Southern Rocky Mountains (Karlstrom and Keller, 2005). Other large-scale projects such
as the SKIPPY experiments in Australia (Kennett, 2003; van der Hilst
et al, 1994, 1998), and subsequent developments, were carried out
after refraction studies had been completed. The inversion of the
different aspects of the seismic wavefield to produce images of seismic wavespeed has developed in many ways (see, e.g., Kennett
2002, Part V). Full 3-D inversion schemes are now available for both
travel-time from body waves (e.g. Gorbatov and Kennett, 2003) and
the waveforms of surface waves (e.g. Fichtner et al., 2009).
Receiver function methods (Langston, 1977; Vinnik, 1977) have
taken on increasing importance in recent years as a contribution to
crustal studies. P-wave receiver function analysis developed in the
1980s and S-wave received functions (from the late 1990s) give
good control on major discontinuities in seismic wavespeed such
as the Moho. Station deployments of a few months are sufficient
in many locations, but the quality of receiver function results are
enhanced by longer durations of recording. The ready accessibility
of seismic data from permanent stations through international data
centers, and the expansion of deployments of portable instruments
with high-quality sensors is providing crustal-structure data in many
areas where prior controlled source studies were patchy or absent.
31
Mainly on regional scales, reviews on seismic data and results
have been repeatedly published, as was summarized in Tables of
Prodehl and Mooney (2012), including Moho and other contour
maps (e.g.; Artemieva and Meissner, 2012; Artemieva and Thybo,
2008; Belyaevsky et al., 1973; Braile et al., 1989; Collins et al., 2003;
Finlayson, 2010; Freeman and Muller, 1992; Giese et al., 1976; Grad
et al., 2009; Healy and Warren, 1969; Kosminskaya, 1969; Li and
Mooney, 1998; Meissner, 1986; Morelli et al., 1967; Pavlenkova,
1996; Tesauro et al., 2008; Thybo, 2000; Warren and Healy, 1973;
Woollard, 1975). New compilations for different continents, oceans,
and their large parts are presented in this volume. Recent efforts to
produce Moho maps for the continents have used a wide range of
information, building strongly on refraction and reflection results,
but using also receiver functions and gravity information to fill-in
areas and link results (e.g. Grad et al., 2009 and Molinari and
Morelli, 2011 for Europe, Keller et al., 2005 for the western United
States, and Kennett et al., 2011 for Australia).
The idea of compiling all data available world-wide was already
born shortly after Mintrop's first review, in the early 1950s when,
e.g., Macelwane (1951) and Reinhardt (1954) compiled and published all hitherto available explosion seismic data in tables, and
when Closs and Behnke (1961, 1963) constructed world-wide crustal
cross sections, based on the knowledge obtained until the end of the
1950s. A tabular collection of then known facts of physics in general
was published by the Springer Publishing Company (Heidelberg–
New York–Tokyo) in the early 1950s in the series of handbooks
“Landolt–Börnstein”: Numbers and Functions from Natural Sciences
and Techniques, of which Volume III (Bartels and ten Bruggencate,
1953) was dedicated to astronomy (editor P. ten Bruggencate) and
geophysics (editor J. Bartels) and appeared in 1952.
Subsequent worldwide overviews on the seismic velocity structure
of the lithosphere obtained from controlled-source seismic data can be
found in monographs, which are not readily available (e.g., Reinhardt,
1954; Soller et al., 1981; Steinhart and Meyer, 1961). In the early
1980s, the Springer Publishing Company edited a new series of the
“Landolt–Börnstein” handbooks presenting a worldwide overview on
Natural Sciences and Techniques. Group V was dedicated to Geophysics
and Space Research, with Subvolume V/2 in particular to Geophysics
of the Solid Earth, the Moon and the Planets. In this volume V/2 a
world-wide compilation of explosion seismic data on crust and uppermost mantle structure was published in tabular form as representative
velocity–depth functions for the crust together with the corresponding
location maps for Europe, North America, and the rest of the world
(Prodehl, 1984).
In the late 1990s and early 2000s, Lee et al. (2002) compiled the
International Handbook of Earthquake and Engineering Seismology, in
which Mooney et al. (2002) provided an overview of the results for
the continents available until the end of the 1990s, while Minshull
(2002) gave an overview on the achievements of marine seismology,
probing the Earth's crust underneath oceans and continental margins.
The most recent worldwide history and results of controlled-source
seismology experiments and their main results was compiled by
Prodehl and Mooney and published in 2012 by the Geological Society
of America as Memoir 208. It contains a series of crustal thickness
contour maps for the world (Fig. 20) and for the individual continents,
accompanied by maps showing the individual data points, based on
the data points available in the data base until about 2008 (Fig. 21).
More than a decade after Prodehl's and Soller's global compilations, a 2° × 2° cell model called 3SMAC was constructed (Nataf and
Ricard, 1996). It was derived using both seismological data and
non-seismological constraints such as chemical composition, heat
flow, and hotspot distribution, from which estimates of seismic velocities and the density in each layer were made. Two years later, CRUST
5.1 was introduced (Mooney et al., 1998) incorporating twice the
amount of active source seismic data as 3SMAC. At this time also regional compilations of depth-to-Moho values for the Middle East
32
C. Prodehl et al. / Tectonophysics 609 (2013) 9–44
C. Prodehl et al. / Tectonophysics 609 (2013) 9–44
33
Fig. 21. World map of seismic data locations used for constructing the Moho map in Fig. 20. From: Prodehl and Mooney, 2012. Exploring the Earth's crust — history and results of
controlled-source seismology, Fig. 10.8-01. Geol. Soc. Am. Memoir 208: 764 p. Reproduced by permission of the Geological Society of America.
and North Africa were published (Seber et al., 2001). The 5° × 5°
resolution of CRUST 5.1, however, was still too coarse for regional studies.
In 2000, CRUST 2.0 updated the ice and sediment thickness information of CRUST 5.1 at 1° × 1° resolution, while basically redistributing
the crustal thickness data onto a 2° × 2° grid (Bassin et al., 2000).
Without the addition of a significant amount of new data, however, the redistribution of information available for CRUST 2.0 did little
to clarify the crustal structure at higher resolution. Therefore, recently
announced CRUST 1.0, that is now under final testing, is expected to
overcome many problems of the two early global crustal models.
Additionally, the Global Seismic profiles Catalog (GSC) is being
assembled since the 1990s at the Office for Earthquake Studies, U.S.
Geological Survey, in Menlo Park, California under the leadership of
Walter Mooney and Shane Detweiler. This continuously growing
data base, having assembled more than 50 years of data on seismic
crustal and uppermost-mantle structure studies, had already throughout the 1990s enabled the construction of various worldwide syntheses
of crustal parameters or the compilation of syntheses on selected
continental and oceanic areas (e.g., Christensen and Mooney, 1995;
Chulick and Mooney, 2002; Mooney, 2002, 2007; Mooney et al.,
1998). Similar studies have been undertaken by many other research
groups worldwide. This volume presents these regional databases,
which include the results of the most recent studies as well as earlier
results, which were not always published in easily accessible places.
Finally, regional databases are assembled and summarized in a new
global crustal database presented in this volume.
Acknowledgments
The component of the paper reviewing controlled-source seismology research is partly based on Geological Society of America Memoir
208 (Prodehl and Mooney, 2012). The authors thank Walter Mooney
and Alex Ferguson, Office for Earthquake Studies of the U.S. Geological
Survey at Menlo Park, California, for compiling and drafting Figs. 20
and 21. The Geological Society of America provided permission to republish the figures.
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