CHAPTER 10:
JOB SATISFACTION & QUALITY OF WORK LIFE
Chapter Outline
1.
2.
Conceptualizing Job Satisfaction
Satisfaction Defined
Supervision
Coworkers
Work
Pay & benefits
Recognition
Company
Physical conditions
Management policy
Communication issues
3.
4.
Job Enrichment
Work meaningfulness
Responsibility
Knowledge of results
Quality of work life
Job depth
Job rotation
Job enlargement
Interpersonal relationships
Individual differences
Managerial style
Meshing technology
Strategy to enhance satisfaction
Information management
Involvement
Skills
Self-trust
Comfort
Alignment
The concern for satisfaction and quality of work life (QWL) is as old as the Greek
and Roman writers who believed that certain natural attitudes in the mind place primary
importance on people and their well-being. This ancient focus on social and personal
issues was “rediscovered” in the 20th Century with the human relations movement. As
human relations matured into participative management, these approaches did not
underrate or sacrifice concerns for efficiency. It was realized that both concerns must
be dealt with simultaneously and independently.
Conceptualizing Job Satisfaction
Job satisfaction is one of the most significant areas of concern in organizations.
Although direct relationships between satisfaction and productivity do not consistently
occur (see Chapter 1), an analysis of job satisfaction assists in understanding other
organizational outcomes. For example, satisfaction predicts employee absenteeism
and turnover (Cummings, Long, & Lewis, 1986; Katz & Kahn, 1978; Athanasiou,
Robinson, & Head, 1974). When employee satisfaction is high, organizational members
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miss work less and stay in their organizational roles longer. When satisfaction levels
decline, absenteeism increases and employees begin seeking work elsewhere.
Researchers have viewed satisfaction as an important variable in organizations.
In 1976, Lock found that professional journals had devoted space to more than 3,300
studies on the topic. That was over 3 decades ago. Today, a significant amount of
research on satisfaction continues.
Satisfaction defined. Job satisfaction is the emotional response people have to
the work place, including the work that they do, pay & benefits, promotions, physical
conditions, and relations (including communication) with co-workers and supervisors.
Communication & supervision. In the early 1900’s, Frederick Taylor
recognized that supervisory-subordinate relations were central in organizational
processes. Likert (1973) considered communication as basic to participative
management. Subsequent research has clearly shown that this relationship and
communication are significant predictors of job satisfaction (Baird & Diebolt, 1976; Hain
& Widgery, 1973; Long, 1979; Cummings, Lewis, & Long, 1980). In addition, research
has clearly shown that satisfaction increases as participation increases (Katz & Kahn,
1978; Hurt & Tiegen, 1977).
Workers who have high job satisfactions also want the freedom to make
suggestions to supervisors (Redding, 1972). It is important that subordinates have
access to supervisors and supervisors must be willing to give information to
subordinates. Falcione, McCroskey, & Daly (1977) observed that satisfaction with one’s
supervisor –
. . . appears most closely associated with perceived communication
behavior (perceived listening, understandingness, quality), and to a lesser
extent with oral communication apprehensiveness and self-esteem. Thus,
the supervisor’s behaviors, particularly communication behaviors, might
be expected to enhance or detract from subordinate satisfaction (p. 373).
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Communication & co-workers. The amount of communication between peers
on the job is important. Those who interact the least are the least satisfied (Vroom,
1964). Low levels of interaction create communication isolation, resulting in withdrawal
from organizational life, increasing absenteeism, and turnover (MacDonald, 1976; Hain
& Tubbs, 1974). Persons motivated by a “need for affiliation” actually become less
productive if they are placed in a position where they are unable to interact with others.
Communication & work. It is critical for employees to be able to give and ask
for information about their jobs. Workers want information about what is expected on
the job (Redding, 1972). When employees believe they get little information about their
work, they have lower levels of satisfaction (Hackman & Lawler, 1971). The clarity of
information about work has a significant impact on satisfaction (Maher & Pierson, 1970).
Workers want information about any planned changes job roles.
Employees have reported a need to give information to others about their work
(Long, 1979; Katz & Kahn, 1978). It is common to find employees citing an inability to
give information, i.e., participate in decision-making, as a contributor to their
dissatisfaction.
Communication & pay and benefits. Richmond and McCroskey (1979)
examined relationships between managerial style and satisfaction. The styles they
evaluated ranged from managers who “tell” subordinates what to do, to those who “sell”
their ideas or plans, to those who “consult” with employees, to those who “join”
employees in participative, meaningful decision making. They found a significant
relationship between “joining” strategies and satisfaction with pay.
As for company benefits, most work has focused on diffusing or giving
information to employees about their benefits (Driver, 1979). Research has yet to find a
definitive relationship. It would seem reasonable to assume a relationship with
communication exists, but sorting out issues here remains to be done.
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Communication & recognition from others. Few dislike being recognized for
their efforts. Locke (1973) found recognition to be an invaluable predictor of
satisfaction, particularly among blue-collar workers. Herzberg reported similar findings,
indicating that nearly half the industry workers he surveyed were dissatisfied because
they didn’t get credit for suggestions.
Communication & promotion. Very little formal research has been conducted
in this area. Training sessions dealing with equity, discrimination, and harassment and
the relationship with job evaluations and promotional considerations often rely on
communication methods to deal with those issues and associated conflicts. Yet, formal
research findings are far and few between.
Communication & the company. Reviews of organizational literature report
significant (though not all strong) relationships between satisfaction and whether
employees are late to worker or absent due to illness or other reasons (Locke, 1976).
Likewise, employee retention levels are a consequence of satisfaction levels. The clear
implication is that when satisfaction levels decline, turnover and absenteeism will
increase.
It is common for unsatisfied workers to state that they feel they don’t identify with
or belong to the organization. They talk about the organization as them, never we,
which further perpetuates alienation. This is often a problem in hospitals (Worobey &
Cummings, 1983), particularly with nurses, and has been linked with low levels of
satisfaction and high levels of absenteeism and turnover. This area of research has
also shown that when hospitals devote resources to communication training and
encourage participation, the sense of alienation is reduced and dissatisfaction is
decreased.
Communication & physical conditions. This area is rarely addressed in
communication or motivation research. Most studies about physical conditions have
focused on productivity. Even in the field of ergonomics (person-technology interface),
satisfaction-condition relationships are unexplored. The proliferation of information
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technology hallmarks the need for a great deal of research in this area. We anticipate
development of knowledge in this area early in the 21st century.
Communication & management policy. Policy is reflected in job descriptions
and procedures for carrying out activities. Examples include employee handbooks,
organizational charts, steps for completing tasks, and communication policy. Beyond
these examples, organizations may use e-mail, bulletin boards, etc., for announcing
new policy or staff meetings at which employees are given information. Despite the fact
that organizations use comprehensive communication methods, little research has been
conduct to link the ways people communication and their management policies.
However, we do know that the way supervisors and subordinates communicate with
each other, regardless of content, is important. But, this knowledge is based on
management style (e.g., autocratic vs. democratic), rather than methods used for
communicating policy.
Communication issues. Most of us dislike or are unwilling to communicate at
times. However, for some persons, this condition is chronic. In 1968, Phillips
introduced a construct called communication reticence (elsewhere it has been called
unwillingness to communicate, predisposition toward verbal behavior, anxiety,
apprehension, and discomfort). The concept was developed from a series of clinical
case studies involving students who experienced and exhibited dramatic anxieties
across a range of situations. This psychological property of communicators has a link to
satisfaction. For example, Berger (1972) considered perceived self-credibility to be a
role skill or aptitude. He stated, “While conducting research concerning self-persuasion,
we have observed that when persons refuse to participate in the study, their stated
reasons for doing so frequently concern their self-perceived lack of ability to give a
convincing performance (pp. 254-266). These low-levels of esteem are often
manifested as reticence, anxiety, or discomfort in communication. Further, satisfaction
research shows that those who communicate less tend to be more isolated and less
satisfied. Some argue that if given an opportunity, employees will participate,
overcoming negative aspects of non-participation. In contrast, however, “reticence”
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researchers indicate that persons who are uncomfortable will withdraw from
communication opportunities.
Persons with high reticence levels may need special counseling (called
systematic desensitization) by trained professionals. For most employees, however,
research conducted during the last part of the 20th century has shown that employees
have greater satisfaction when: (1) the employee is willing to participate in
communication activities and (2) the employee perceives him/herself to be trustworthy,
skilled, involved, and comfortable in communication activities (Cummings, Lewis, &
Long, 1980; Long, 1979).
In summary, available research provides a significant contrast between high and
low levels of communication and satisfaction. When communication levels are low,
employees typically report isolation, more absenteeism, higher turnover, tardiness,
frustration, and low satisfaction levels. Although the relation is not direct, these
conditions adversely impact on productivity. In contrast, high communication levels
reflect increased willingness to participate and assume more responsibility. More highly
satisfied employees have increased levels of trustworthiness in relationships, skill,
involvement, and comfort during communication.
Job Enrichment
Hackman and Oldham (1976) led the way in designing work to optimize
satisfaction levels. The general area is called job enrichment, suggesting a primary
purpose of matching employees with jobs they see as satisfying. Turner and Lawrence
(1965) suggested 5 required work attributes for satisfaction: variety, autonomy,
required interaction, optional interaction, and responsibility. Based upon these
categories (and others’ research), Hackman and Oldham developed a model with 3
broad categories: core job characteristics, psychological sta tes, and outcomes: (from
Hackman & Oldham, “Motivation Through the Design of Work: Test of a Theory,”
Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 16 (1976): 250.)
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Job Characteristics
Psychological States
Outcomes
Skill Variety
Task Identity
Task Significance
Experienced meaningfulness of
the work
Possible predictor of
satisfaction
Experienced responsibility for
outcomes of the work
High internal work
motivation and increased
sense of responsibility
Knowledge of the actual results
of the work activities
Enables worker to adjust as
needed
Autonomy
Feedback from job
Work meaningfulness. The psychological state of work meaningfulness has to
do with how important one believes his/her job to be. This consists of 3 ingredients:
skill variety, task identity, and task significance. Variety is the degree to which a job
requires several different activities that call upon an increasing number for worker skills.
Identity is the degree to which a job captures the “feeling” of completing a whole task
and how strongly the worker feels associated with the task. Significance refers to the
extent to which the worker perceives that the job has an impact on the organization and
outcomes. Thus, if a worker perceives a high level of variety, identity, and signification,
there may be a positive impact on some aspect of satisfaction.
Responsibility for outcomes. The experience of responsibility is directly
related to perceived levels of autonomy. Autonomy is the degree to which the job is
perceived as providing a worker independence and freedom to modify schedules and
procedures. Without freedom and independence, employees have not sense of
responsibility for outcomes. The argument is as follows: If individuals have a sense of
increased autonomy, then they will feel that their own effort, initiative, and decisions
have a “real influence” on how work is done. Therefore, an increase in autonomy
should stimulate increased levels of internal motivation and responsibility for outcomes.
Knowledge of results. As information about work results becomes more
frequent and immediate, the worker’s opportunity to make timely adjustments is
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enhanced. Feedback may come from a variety of sources – the supervisor, quality
control personnel, and self-assessments. The frequency of a typical performance
appraisal (quarterly, twice a year, or annually) rarely enables adjustment in a timely
manner.
Quality of Work Life
During the past 3 decades, Quality of Work Life, or QWL, has emerged as an
umbrella term to describe what was formerly called “organizational climate.” QWL
concepts have a growing research base and are often linked with satisfaction studies.
QWL elements include job depth, job rotation, job enlargement, interpersonal
relationships, individual differences, managerial style, and meshing technology with
workers.
Job depth. The amount of power an individual has to alter or influence the work
or the immediate environment (Wool, 1973). Depth is related autonomy, responsibility,
and internal work motivation.
Job rotation. Job rotation refers to the opportunity to move from one set of
activities (or job) to another. This may reduce boredom, enhance skills, and provide a
broader perspective of the entire organization.
Job enlargement. Enlargement refers to the degree of increasing scope or
range of what a worker does, i.e., breadth of activities. It is usually linked to increased
responsibility and reduced organizational costs (Reif & Schoderbek, 1966).
Interpersonal relationships. During the middle 20th century, relationships were
not regarded as a critical area by organizational behaviorists. Since that period,
however, “team” approaches to organizational problem solving have proliferated.
Consequently, research has emphasized work-group size, cohesiveness, trust, and
employee interdependence as predictors of outcomes.
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Individual differences. Many theorists in the QWL tradition have a
psychological orientation that emphasizes the existence of individual differences. The
concern here is that understa nding the individual differences in people is important for
facilitating a good “fit” between the employee and job role. The important assumption is
that a good match has a positive impact on satisfaction (Trist, Murray, & Pollack, 1963).
Managerial style. Style is a matter of behavior patterns and expectations. QWL
researchers have found that style has a strong impact on comfort, growth, and
participation (Hackman and Suttle, 1977). Likert’s (see chapter 4) research in
confirmed his hypothesis that a “joining” or participatory-type style had a much more
positive impact on productivity and satisfaction when compared to more autocratic
approaches (e.g., tell, sell, and consult).
Meshing technology. The landmark work conducted by Trist and Bamforth (see
chapter 4) in socio-technical system balance highlighted the fact that inherently superior
technology may induce lower productivity and satisfaction levels. In addition,
researchers have also begun to consider the impact of technology (especially computer
technology) and its fit with individual dignity, which has consequences for esteem and,
ultimately, satisfaction.
Strategy to Enhance Satisfaction
Clearly, people have an emotional response to work. At times, it may be difficult
to distinguish among satisfaction, enrichment, QWL, and communication issues.
Nonetheless, research and practice has shown that certain communication practices
can positively influence emotional responses.
Information management. Provide employees the opportunity to participate in
vertical and horizontal communication. Getting and giving information provides a sense
of belonging, reduces isolation, maintains relationships, can improve supervision, and
has a positive impact on satisfaction. Overall, the leads to perceived communication
openness and influences perceptions of QWL.
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Communication involvement. Enhance opportunities for employees to become
actively involved. Involvement contributes to QWL. Workers who look forward to
communication opportunities perceive a higher value is placed on their work. Involved
workers tend to be more satisfied with work, pay, supervision, co-workers, and
management policies.
Communication skills. Increased communication skill has a positive impact on
job satisfaction, particula rly on work, pay, supervision, co-workers, and management
policies. The continual emphasis placed on communication-skill training by progressive
organizations and supportive research stresses the importance of this strategy.
Comfort. Communication comfort (or apprehension) is related to satisfaction
with work, pay, supervision, co-workers, and management policies. Those with anxiety
and low self-confidence are less satisfied. Under low comfort conditions, “required”
communication may be detrimental and call for role redefinition or special
training/counseling to assist in overcoming anxiety.
Today, research and practice suggest that a movement toward role exchange, in
contrast to role specialization, in supervisory-subordinate communication is much more
likely to increase satisfaction. Theorists agree that increased participation will enhance
QWL and enrichment. These are key ingredients in reducing absenteeism and
turnover.
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