Reading and Evaluating
Arguments
The Language of Composition:
Reading Writing Rhetoric
Second Edition
Learning Objectives:
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To recognize the elements of an argument
To recognize types of arguments
To evaluate arguments
To recognize errors in logical reasoning
I. What is argument?
A. An argument is a persuasive discourse, a
coherent and deliberate movement from a
claim to a conclusion.
B. A Rogerian argument is based on the
assumption that having a full
understanding of an opposing position is
essential to respond to it persuasively and
refuting it in a way that is accommodating
rather than alienating.
II. Parts of an Argument
A. ISSUE - problem or controversy about which
people disagree
B. CLAIM - the position on the issue
1. also called an assertion or
proposition
C. SUPPORT/EVIDENCE - reasons that the claim
is reasonable and should be accepted
D. REFUTATION - opposing viewpoints
III. Types of Claims
A. CLAIM OF FACT - statement that can be
proven or verified by observation or
research
1. “Within ten years, destruction
of rain forests will cause hundreds of
plant and animal species to become
extinct.”
B. CLAIM OF VALUE - states that one thing
or idea is better or more desirable than
another.
1. “Requiring community service
in high school will produce more
community-aware graduates.”
C. CLAIM OF POLICY - suggests what
should or ought to be done to solve a
problem.
1. “To reduce school violence, more
gun and metal detectors should be
installed in public schools.”
IV. Claim to Thesis
A. Closed Thesis
1. Limits the number of points the writer will
make
2. A reliable to focus a short essay, especially a
timed one
a. Because of its three-dimensional
characters, exciting plot, and complex
themes, The Harry Potter series has become
a literary classic.
B. Open Thesis
1. Does not list all of the points the
writer intends to cover in the essay.
2. The writer may intend to make 6 or
more points and it is not logical to list all
of them in a thesis.
a. The popularity of the Harry
Potter series demonstrates that
simplicity trumps complexity when
it comes to the taste if the
readers, both young and old.
V. Presenting Evidence
A. Relevant evidence specifically applies to
the argument being made.
B. Accurate information includes quoting
sources correctly without misrepresenting
what the sources say.
C. A good argument provides sufficient
evidence from multiple, credible sources.
V. Logical Fallacies - Potential
vulnerabilities or weaknesses in an argument.
A. Fallacies of Relevance
1. Red Herring – when a speaker skips to a
new and irrelevant topic to avoid the topic
of discussion.
a. Ad Hominem – occurs when
the speaker switches from the
topic at hand to discuss the
character of the other speaker.
2. Faulty analogy – focuses on
irrelevant or inconsequential similarities
between two things.
B. Fallacies of Accuracy – using evidence
that is either intentionally or unintentionally
inaccurate
1. Straw man fallacy – the speaker
uses poor or oversimplified examples in
order to ridicule the opponent.
2. Either/Or Fallacy (False Dilemma) – the
speaker provides two extreme options as the
only possible choices.
C. Fallacies of Insufficiency – occurs when
evidence is insufficient (hasty
generalizations)
1. Circular reasoning – repeating the
claim as a way to provide evidence.
VI. Types of Evidence
A. First-Hand
1. Personal experience
2. Anecdotes
3. Current events
B. Second-Hand
1. Historical information
a. post hoc ergo propter hoc –
correlation does not imply
causation
2. Expert opinion
b. Appeal to false authority
C. Quantitative – evidence represented in
numbers
1. Statistics
2. Surveys
3. Polls
a. Bandwagon appeal
VII. Shaping an Argument
A. The Classical Oration
1. Introduction (exordium)
2. Narration (narratio)
3. Confirmation (confirmatio)
4. Refutation (refutatio)
5. Conclusion (peroratio)
A. Inductive and Deductive Arguments
1. Inductive - reaches a general
conclusion from observed specifics.
“By observing the performance of a
large number of athletes, you could
conclude that athletes possess
physical stamina.”
2. Deductive - begins with a major
premise and moves toward a more
specific statement or minor premise.
“Athletes possess physical stamina.
Because Anthony is an athlete, he
must possess physical stamina.”
Strategies for Reading an Argument
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What does the title suggest? Preview!
Who is the author, and what are his or her
qualifications?
What is the date of publication?
What do I already know about the issue?
Strategies for Reading an Argument
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Read once for an initial impression.
Read the argument several more times.
Annotate as you read.
Highlight key terms.
Diagram or map to analyze structure.
Strategies for Evaluating Arguments
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Evaluate Types of Evidence - Is it
sufficient to support the claim?
Personal Experience - may be biased, so
do not accept it
Examples - should not be used by
themselves
Strategies for Evaluating Arguments
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Statistics - can be misused, manipulated
or misinterpreted.
Comparisons and Analogies - reliability
depends on how closely they correspond
to the situation.
Relevancy and Sufficiency of Evidence - is
there enough of the right kind to support
the claim?
Strategies for Evaluating Arguments
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Definition of Terms - should be carefully
defined and used consistently
Cause-Effect Relationships - evidence that
the relationship exists should be present
Implied or Stated Value System - are they
consistent with your personal value
system?
Strategies for Evaluating Arguments
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Recognizing and Refuting Opposing
Viewpoints
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Question the accuracy, relevancy or
sufficiency of the opponent’s evidence.
Does the author address opposing viewpoints
clearly and fairly?
Does the author refute the opposing viewpoint
with logic and relevant evidence?
Strategies for Evaluating Arguments
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Unfair Emotional Appeals
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Emotionally Charged or Biased Language
False Authority
athletes endorsing underwear
 movie stars selling shampoo
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Association
a car being named a Cougar to remind you of a
sleek animal
 a cigarette advertisement featuring a scenic
waterfall
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Strategies for Evaluating Arguments
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Unfair Emotional Appeals
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Appeal to “Common Folk”
an ad showing a product being used in an average
household
 a politician suggesting he is like everyone else
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Ad Hominem - attack on the person rather
than his/her viewpoint
“Join the Crowd” Appeal or Bandwagon
What emotional appeal is being used?
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Come early so you won’t have to stand in line –
because everyone knows you can make a deal
with Dave and save.
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As a test pilot, Susan Gibbs knows performance.
“That’s why I drive a Mustang,” she says.
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Olson’s pizzas are lower in fat and calories.
Other pizza makers don’t care about your health.
Emotional appeals continued…
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“We can work magic with your children,” says
Eileen of Eileen’s Day Care. “Call upon us, and
your children will be happy you did.”
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Liberty Bell Airlines flies anywhere in this great
land, from sea to shining sea.
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As a young man, Candidate Alan Wilson learned
what it means to work hard by spending long
hours lifting boxes and sweeping floors working in
a department store.
Errors in Logical Reasoning
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Non Sequitur (“It Does Not Follow”)
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False Cause
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“Because my doctor is young, I’m
sure she’ll be a good doctor.”
“Because I opened the umbrella when I
tripped on the sidewalk, the umbrella must
have caused me to trip.”
Either-Or Fallacy
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“Because of the violence, TV must be either
allowed or banned.”
For Each Argument:
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Identify the claim.
Outline the reasons to support the claim.
What types of evidence are used?
Evaluate the adequacy and sufficiency of
the evidence.
What emotional appeals are used?
Does the author recognize or refute
counter arguments?
Comparing the Arguments:
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Compare the types of evidence used.
Which argument did you find more
convincing? Why?
What further information would be useful
in assessing the issue?