Bare Bones REVISION GUIDE
AQA
Sociology
Unit 3
Beliefs in Society
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crossAcademe
Bare Bones | REVISION GUIDE
AQA | A2 | Sociology | Unit 3
Beliefs in Society
John Barter Series Editor: Jill Swale
faith
burqa
y
ts
social solidarity
lis
ch
rites
profane
civil religion
collective conscience
spiritual direction
church leaders
Religious beliefs and social stability .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Religious beliefs and social change .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Religious organisations .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Ethnicity .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Gender .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Class, age and sexuality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Secularisation: the theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Secularisation: the evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
The contemporary religious world .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
ISBN 978-1-907251-71-9
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ccupdates the course by reference to
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cult
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Science, ideology and religious belief . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
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About the exam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
© Cross Academe Ltd 2012
ccprovides the essential content you need
to succeed in the AQA Unit 3 Beliefs in
Society exam;
morals
consensus
beliefs
revolution
lic
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fundamentalists
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new religious movements spiritual
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et
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emerging church movement rituals believing without belonging
charismatic leadership
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new age religion
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totemism y ideosecularisation
lo postmodern
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spirituality
prayer socince p ro gicareligious
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d te l cospirit
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Contents
icon
baptism
This Bare Bones Revision Guide:
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tel. 01634 729825
Design by:
Juha Sorsa
Published by:
Cross Academe Limited
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ccsuggests how to approach exam
questions for each topic, identifying
the relevant knowledge required,
showing how to apply Assessment
Objective 2 skills of Interpretation,
Analysis, Application and Evaluation,
and giving practical advice about how
to organise your answers.
Time constraints make it impossible for
you to revisit all the material studied during
your course. This guide enables you to
consolidate your Knowledge and Understanding (Assessment Objective 1) by
focusing on the central concepts, studies,
perspectives, examples and other key
facts of the course.
At the same time you need to remember
that more marks are awarded in the
A2 exams for Assessment Objective 2,
so look out for the many Evaluation points
in the guide and try to think of more of
your own.
The Question Analysis sections will remind
you how to earn AO1 and AO2 marks
by referring explicitly to Items, by categorising factors and by drawing conclusions.
These pointers will help you to make
sound analytical judgements. Relating the
topics to recent news is much appreciated
by examiners, earning Application and
Evaluation marks. You can continue
to build on this skill by looking out for
relevant breaking news yourself as you
revise.
faith
burqa
social solidarity
icon
baptism
rites
profane
civil religion
collective conscience
spiritual direction
church leaders
morals
consensus
sect
cult
beliefs
revolution
church
nts
y
me
fundamentalists
ve
civ
il re
lig
new religious movements spiritual
y
mo
o
ci e
re al sorshipn
li lid
b gio arity
s
About the exam
posneti
cs
ne tmod
tw
ne
or ern
w
k
sc religi so
hism ou ci
s
et
AQA A2 Sociology Unit 3: Beliefs in Society
charismatic leadership
new age religion
ch
h ritaptissmity
d
fait
ch es
cre
ali
atah
pit fs
c
li e
be
ideosecularisation
totemism
lo postmodern
spirituality
iety
prayer soc nce p ro gicareligious
sect
d te l cospirit
ork ca
tw gnifi us en s ta ntro
ne al si nslogy secondom n ti l
ci
e
ary ina s m
so ns theo sts
so ti
cial o
Eu
n
ro
coationostali
ev pean ex isation
libertec
ts
a
en
n
r
ng ceptioion
pe r amovem
e na
ts
hwiereligniougs eliesthic vnew a licalislsm
ne
a nt ence ic ge
ev testaconsci ny paariou religio
tr sne n
p rollective mo
t leglobaia
rc ss
ge
lis hy
he eis
sm so ad ati
co
urc
sa lt
cu dsiaecth
sion
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ita ts
med lis
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ev e re lig rol
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emerging church movement rituals believing without belonging
Question 1
Unit 3
The Unit 3 exam is an hour and a half long and carries 60
marks. It is worth 40% of the A2 qualification and 20% of the
whole A-level. This means you have 1 ½ minutes for each mark
(slightly more than at AS).
The specification says that you need to:
ccknow relevant theory from sociologists of religion, with an
emphasis on the contemporary. The references you make
should be up to date;
ccbe able to explain the theory and examples with reference
to sociological methods. How the evidence was collected
will affect what a sociologist finds;
ccbe aware of the relationship between the things you discuss
and ‘socialisation, culture and identity’ and ‘social differentiation, power and stratification’.
bbEXAM TIP
An easy way for good candidates to do badly is to fail to stick
to the time limits for each question. Do not fall into this trap.
Assessment Objectives
In order to gain high marks you need to be aware of the
application of Assessment Objectives (AOs) to each question.
AO1: Knowledge and Understanding
ccExplain the key details of relevant theories and evidence
accurately (Knowledge).
ccIllustrate the ideas with relevant and appropriate examples
(Understanding).
AO2: Evaluation, Application, Interpretation
and Analysis
ccOffer strengths and weaknesses of the theories and
evidence discussed (Evaluation).
ccLink the ideas you discuss back to the question
(Application).
ccOffer examples and supporting ideas from relevant Items
(Interpretation).
ccWeigh up the meaning of the theories and evidence based
on the relevance of the examples and evaluative comments
offered (Analysis).
Mark allocation
The Assessment Objectives are assessed over the three
questions you need to answer in the exam:
Question 1 will ask you to ‘Identify and briefly explain three
reasons that could be offered to explain…’:
cc9 marks are on offer and these will break down into three
lots of three marks;
ccbullet-point the three reasons as this makes it easier for the
examiner to find them. It will also encourage you to make
sure each reason is clear, separate and distinct;
ccthe answer should be descriptive as there are only AO1
marks awarded. You just need to show that you know and
understand the material. No evaluation is required;
ccremember to PEE in this answer! This means the structure
for each reason will be: Point (P) + Explanation (E) +
Elaboration or Example (E). Three sentences for each
reason should be enough.
Question 2
Question 2 will have the following format: ‘Using material from
(a given) Item and elsewhere, assess (a specified issue).’ Of
the 18 marks available, 6 are for AO1 and 12 are for AO2. The
question commands that you use information in the Item and
use information that you have learnt during your course. If you
ignore this, you will be in the lower mark bands.
Best marks will come by:
treating
this as a mini-essay. Structure it with an introduccc
tion, main part and conclusion;
ccdefining key terms in the question;
ccreferring each point back to the question to show relevance;
cclinking points to a sociologist, with a supporting example
(or examples);
ccoffering alternative sociologists and/or examples as
comparisons and criticisms.
Questions 3 and 4
Questions 3 and 4 will be essay questions for 33 marks each.
You must answer one of them. They may focus on a single
area of the specification but, increasingly, essay questions
require you to join two or more areas of the specification, such
as ‘science’ and ‘secularisation’, or ‘functions of religion’ and
‘social groups’. It is essential, therefore, that you allow time for
thinking and planning. There are a maximum of 15 marks for
AO1 and 18 for AO2. Best marks will come by following the
advice above for Question 2.
bbEXAM TIP
Use the AQA website for practice papers and mark schemes
and to read Examiners’ Reports. The mark schemes will help
you get immediate feedback on the practice questions you
write, while the Examiners’ Reports will tell you the things past
students have done well (or not so well) and how to meet the
Assessment Objectives.
1
Kingsmead School
faith
burqa
social solidarity
icon
baptism
rites
profane
Bare Bones REVISION GUIDE
civil religion
collective conscience
spiritual direction
church leaders
morals
consensus
sect
cult
beliefs
revolution
church
nts
y
me
fundamentalists
ve
civ
il re
lig
new religious movements spiritual
y
mo
o
ci e
re al sorshipn
li lid
b gio arity
s
posneti
cs
ne tmod
tw
ne
or ern
w
k
sc religi so
hism ou ci
s
et
charismatic leadership
new age religion
ch
h ritaptissmity
d
fait
ch es
cre
ali
atah
pit fs
c
li e
be
ideosecularisation
totemism
lo postmodern
spirituality
iety
prayer soc nce p ro gicareligious
sect
d te l cospirit
ork ca
tw gnifi us en s ta ntro
ne al si nslogy secondom n ti l
ci
e
ary ina s m
so ns theo sts
so ti
cial o
Eu
n
ro
coationostali
ev pean ex isation
libertec
ts
a
en
n
r
ng ceptioion
pe r amovem
e na
ts
hwiereligniougs eliesthic vnew a licalislsm
ne
a nt ence ic ge
ev testaconsci ny paariou religio
tr sne n
p rollective mo
t leglobaia
rc ss
ge
lis hy
he eis
sm so ad ati
co
urc
sa lt
cu dsiaecth
sion
mis tion
ita ts
med lis
ge io n
an
ev e re lig rol
ag l contfane
w
ne logica pro
ideo
emerging church movement rituals believing without belonging
Science, ideology and
religious belief
Religion
Sociologists tend to have two main ways of defining religion:
functional and substantive.
Functional definitions
Functional or inclusive definitions focus on how religion draws
people together physically, socially and mentally, so that they
share the same norms and values. These definitions would
include the main religions of the world, such as Christianity
and Islam, but non-traditional ‘religions’, such as supporting a
football team or a political party, might also be included.
Substantive definitions
Substantive or exclusive definitions reflect the view that for a
belief system to be a religion, its beliefs must focus on something beyond human power, such as a god. These definitions
would include the main religions of the world, such as Christianity and Islam, but football or politics would be excluded.
On substantive definitions, religion could encompass
individual or group interpretations of God(s), holy rules and
events. It could be privatised (kept ‘secret’ at home) or shared
with others. Holders of religious beliefs may be unable to verify
them scientifically but may have absolute certainty of their
truth.
Evaluation Bruce (1996) argued that it is better to use the
substantive definition, as this is what most ‘ordinary people’
see as ‘religion’. However, as sociologists seek to explain
social behaviour, it might be argued that a functional definition
of religion should be used as this encourages us to think about
what religion does for people and society.
bbEXAM TIP
Make sure you offer a clear definition of religion for all of your
33-mark essays and justify why you are using this definition
(rather than another). In 18-mark answers it is worth defining
religion more briefly.
Science
Science can be seen to have the following characteristics:
ccempirical measurement — evidence gained from objective
research against a measured scale;
cca standardised method that is replicable and produces
quantitative data — both are easily checked, making
science high in reliability;
ccit produces evidence that is seen to be factual and so is
generally held in high esteem.
As science can ‘prove’ its arguments, Wilson (1976) suggested
that it was seen as more rational than religion, which was
based on ‘blind faith’ and was unable to produce evidence to
support its arguments. For example, historically Christianity
saw the earth as flat, with heaven above and hell below.
When science was able to prove the world was round,
Christianity found this very difficult. In the modern era,
Christian Fundamentalists are pushing to have creationism
given equal footing with evolutionary theory in science lessons.
Evaluation Interpretivists claim that all science contains
a high degree of subjectivity as scientists are motivated to
study their own interests and are testing hypotheses that they
developed themselves.
Kuhn (1962) and Feyerabend (1975) argued that scientists
tend to stick to accepted theories (or paradigms) and are not
as objective or open-minded as we might expect. Scientific
progress only occurs when scientists dare to go against the
accepted wisdom of their colleagues.
Ideology
Ideology can be seen as a set of, usually false, beliefs (not facts).
Users of the term tend to share a belief that ideology is an
illusion and enables one group to control another. Marxists and
feminists view ideology as lacking any proof. They think people
subject to ideological control are likely to be unable to think for
themselves as it produces acceptance of the received ‘truth’:
ccMarxists argue that the ruling class produces ideology to
create ‘false class consciousness’, where the working class
does not realise its capacity to change the inequality to
which it is subject;
ccneo-Marxists argue that the state produces ideology to gain
control over society (Althusser) or that the dominant group
(usually) produces hegemonic ideology to rule the subject
class (Gramsci);
ccfeminists argue that patriarchal ideology is used by men to
control women.
Atheists and agnostics are trying to counter what they consider
to be the archaic religious beliefs and ideologies that still seem
to gain what they feel is uncritical exposure in the media.
Probably the most famous atheist in the UK is Richard
Dawkins, who wrote the book The God Delusion (2006) to
explain to people that they did not need blindly to follow the
religion of their parents. He feels that religion is generally bad
for people on the grounds that it prevents personal liberation.
He argues that there is little evidence for the existence of
God: arguments to the contrary represent indoctrination
and delusion (or false belief). Personal freedom comes from
science, which allows us to calculate, and produce evidence
2
Kingsmead School
faith
burqa
social solidarity
icon
baptism
rites
profane
civil religion
collective conscience
spiritual direction
church leaders
morals
consensus
sect
cult
beliefs
revolution
fundamentalists
church
nts
y
me
civ
il re
lig
ve
Is science an ideology?
new religious movements spiritual
y
mo
Evaluation
ccSupport for Dawkins came from writer Peter Hitchens, who
wrote the book, God Is Not Great: How Religion Poisons
Everything (2007). Together they were seen as contributing
to the growth of New Secularism.
ccDawkins is criticised by some scientists who hold religious
beliefs, such as McGrath and McGrath (2007), for being
subjective, offering a ‘highly selective manipulation of facts’
and little in the way of real scientific analysis.
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ci e
re al sorshipn
li lid
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and reasoned arguments to explain our world. There are some
things science cannot yet answer, but Dawkins feels we have
to accept that. Putting the unanswered questions of life, such
as why the world was created, down to God is irrational and
delusional.
posneti
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ne tmod
tw
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or ern
w
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sc religi so
hism ou ci
s
et
AQA A2 Sociology Unit 3: Beliefs in Society
charismatic leadership
new age religion
ch
h ritaptissmity
d
fait
ch es
cre
ali
atah
pit fs
c
li e
be
ideosecularisation
totemism
lo postmodern
spirituality
iety
prayer soc nce p ro gicareligious
sect
d te l cospirit
ork ca
tw gnifi us en s ta ntro
ne al si nslogy secondom n ti l
ci
e
ary ina s m
so ns theo sts
so ti
cial o
Eu
n
ro
coationostali
ev pean ex isation
libertec
ts
a
en
n
r
ng ceptioion
pe r amovem
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ts
hwiereligniougs eliesthic vnew a licalislsm
ne
a nt ence ic ge
ev testaconsci ny paariou religio
tr sne n
p rollective mo
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rc ss
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lis hy
he eis
sm so ad ati
co
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sa lt
cu dsiaecth
sion
mis tion
ita ts
med lis
ge io n
an
ev e re lig rol
ag l contfane
w
ne logica pro
ideo
emerging church movement rituals believing without belonging
religion (using a functional definition).
ccHowever, Giddens (2011) argued that the vast majority of
scientists are objective and genuinely seek the truth: it is
the uses to which the data are put by commentators that
are ideological. For example, some critics of the science
of climate change choose to use scientific data if this helps
them show that climate change is not an issue to concern
us and to ignore the vast majority of current science that
contradicts their views.
bbEXAM TIP
Make a list of reasons why religion, science and ideology
could be considered similar. Make another list of how they
might be different. You can use these lists to structure essays
on this area.
bbQUESTION ANALYSIS
Is ‘science’ really a science or is it just another ideology?
‘Science is scientific’
Positivists like Comte and Durkheim assumed that science
was the highest form of human thinking and that it produced
facts through objective measurement. In his study of suicide,
Durkheim (1897) argued that sociologists could produce
‘social facts’.
Boronski (1987) argued that scientific method includes:
ccobservation of events;
cchypothesis formation;
ccexperimentation to test the hypothesis;
cclaws, predictions and generalisations based on the
results, leading to a theory;
ccquestioning and testing of the theory by other ‘scientists’
to check its reliability;
objectivity
by all scientists.
cc
‘Science is ideological’
ccAlthough science is accepted as ‘fact’ and something
separate from religion, faith and ideology, critics such as
Feyerabend (1975) argue that it is nothing of the sort. They
suggest that it is impossible to approach the study of social
or natural life ‘scientifically’. Objectivity is impossible as:
• scientists choose their topic of study, indicating a
personal interest in the topic and slanting their views.
This affects the hypotheses and the judgements made;
• scientists set out to prove each other correct, rather than
wrong (Kuhn, 1970);
• even if they work ‘blind’, their work will be financed and
led by others who will want certain outcomes from their
work.
ccThus science is just another form of ideology and the
‘worship’ of science as ‘all-powerful’ is a new form of
1. Identify and briefly explain three reasons that could be
offered to explain why science is just another form of
religion. (9 marks)
Remember that you need to PEE (Point, Evidence, Explain)
three distinct reasons. You might refer to Science being like
religion in that it:
cccreates norms, values and consensus;
ccis worshipped as an ‘all-powerful’ system of belief;
ccacts as an ideological control mechanism.
2. Using material from the given Item and elsewhere, assess
the claim that science and religion are equally ideological.
(18 marks)
ccUse appropriate key concepts, references to relevant
theories (Marxists and feminists) and refer to specific
sociologists like Feyerabend.
ccOffer positivism as a critique of this statement.
ccPlan your points before you write and tick them off as you
cover them.
3. Assess the view that it is science rather than religion that
is the major ideological force in contemporary society.
(33 marks)
ccMake sure you define all the key terms: religion, ideology
and science.
ccMake use of Marxist and feminist theory, which argue that
science is used as an ideological control mechanism.
ccEvaluation will come from the use of references to
positivism to say that science may have replaced religion
as the source of ultimate truths, but these are liberating
rather than controlling, so science cannot be ideological.
ccUse references to interpretivists, Kuhn and Feyerabend,
to evaluate the positivist view that science is objective and
beyond ideology.
ccAnalysis will be based on weighing up and justifying which
position you think is more correct.
3
Kingsmead School
faith
burqa
social solidarity
icon
baptism
rites
profane
Bare Bones REVISION GUIDE
civil religion
collective conscience
spiritual direction
church leaders
morals
consensus
sect
cult
beliefs
revolution
church
nts
y
me
fundamentalists
ve
civ
il re
lig
new religious movements spiritual
y
mo
o
ci e
re al sorshipn
li lid
b gio arity
s
posneti
cs
ne tmod
tw
ne
or ern
w
k
sc religi so
hism ou ci
s
et
charismatic leadership
new age religion
ch
h ritaptissmity
d
fait
ch es
cre
ali
atah
pit fs
c
li e
be
ideosecularisation
totemism
lo postmodern
spirituality
iety
prayer soc nce p ro gicareligious
sect
d te l cospirit
ork ca
tw gnifi us en s ta ntro
ne al si nslogy secondom n ti l
ci
e
ary ina s m
so ns theo sts
so ti
cial o
Eu
n
ro
coationostali
ev pean ex isation
libertec
ts
a
en
n
r
ng ceptioion
pe r amovem
e na
ts
hwiereligniougs eliesthic vnew a licalislsm
ne
a nt ence ic ge
ev testaconsci ny paariou religio
tr sne n
p rollective mo
t leglobaia
rc ss
ge
lis hy
he eis
sm so ad ati
co
urc
sa lt
cu dsiaecth
sion
mis tion
ita ts
med lis
ge io n
an
ev e re lig rol
ag l contfane
w
ne logica pro
ideo
emerging church movement rituals believing without belonging
Religious beliefs and
social stability
Sociologists emphasising social stability in society are
generally called structuralists. They argue that structures (or
institutions) of society, like religion, contribute to stability (or a
lack of change) in society.
ccFunctionalists view this effect positively as it prevents
changes that would make society unstable.
ccMarxists and feminists view it negatively as it prevents
necessary change.
bbEXAM TIP
Examiners use a variety of expressions to refer to issues of
social stability:
cc‘hinders social change’;
cc‘inhibits social change’;
cc‘acts as a conservative force’.
These terms all mean the same thing.
ccThis theory illustrates how the organic analogy works in
reality. Religion is interdependent with other institutions.
ccBy thinking that totemism was ‘simple’, Durkheim can be
said to be ethnocentric.
ccHis argument may lack validity. The secondary evidence he
used may have been based on opinion rather than fact, so
he may not have been measuring what he claims to have
measured.
Malinowski
Malinowski (1884–1942), also a functionalist, supported
Durkheim through a study of the religious rituals of the
Trobriand Islanders in the South Pacific Ocean. Using
participant observation, he noticed how religious beliefs and
rituals were called upon when the village fishermen were going
out into the open sea, which was potentially very dangerous.
This suggested that the function of religion was to create
social stability by reducing stress, as the islanders felt that
‘god’ would protect the fishermen and so they and their
families worried less about the dangers.
Evaluation
Functionalist views
Functionalists argue that generally society runs smoothly and
that people get along with each other and share the same
ideas (consensus). Religion is just one institution or structure
that adds to stability in society by acting as:
cca ‘social glue’, binding people together;
cca promoter of social harmony and social order;
cca provider of norms and values.
In other words, it helps bring people together in a happy and
secure community.
Emile Durkheim
ccDurkheim (1858–1917), a functionalist, argued that religion
helped create social stability by creating a ‘collective
conscience’ — moral beliefs, norms and values shared by
the whole society.
ccThe collective conscience was expressed in religious rituals
that bound people together as a group. He referred to this
as ‘social solidarity’.
ccThe religion Durkheim studied (using secondary reports)
was the totemism of native Aboriginal Australians. He felt
this was religion in its most simple and obvious form.
ccThis research led Durkheim to believe religion represented
aspects of the community as sacred and that the
community was worshipping itself.
Evaluation
ccDurkheim’s use of the functional definition of religion opens
up new ways of thinking about and studying religiosity.
ccFunerals in modern society support Malinowski’s idea that
religious beliefs and rituals reduce stress and bind people
together by making it easier for them to cope with loss.
ccLongitudinal participant observation made Malinowski’s
judgments more valid. Seeing these rituals and events
repeated many times meant that he could be more
confident that he was seeing what was really there.
ccHowever, by being so involved with the group he was
studying, Malinowski’s judgements could be subjective
and lack reliability.
Bellah
Bellah (1967) put Durkheim’s ideas in a more contemporary
context. He used the idea of Civil Religion to explain how
national symbols and events can be used to create social
solidarity. For example, the people of the USA feel bound
together when they celebrate national events. As in any other
religion, Civil Religion has its ‘sacred’ heroes (past presidents),
‘sacred’ places (e.g. the White House), ‘sacred’ morals (e.g.
freedom, democracy).
Evaluation
ccBocock (1995) supported Bellah’s idea of civil religion by
applying it to the national mourning in the UK following the
death of Princess Diana (1997).
ccHowever, the New York bombings of 11 September, 2001,
and the London bombings of 7 July, 2005, show that not
everyone subscribes to the civil religion of a society: it can
lead to conflict.
ccMarxists would say that the civil religion is based on the
ideology of the ruling class rather than consensus.
4
Kingsmead School
profane
sect
church
Althusser (1918–90), as a neo-Marxist, introduced the idea
of the Ideological State Apparatus (ISA). He saw the state,
essentially the political elite and institutions, acting relatively
rites
spiritual direction
church leaders
cult
Althusser
icon
baptism
civil religion
collective conscience
morals
consensus
beliefs
revolution
When discussing the strengths and limitations of theories
of religion and social stability, back-up your opinions with
evidence from the news. This will impress examiners as it
means that you can think for yourself and really do understand
the meaning of the theories.
fundamentalists
bbEXAM TIP
faith
Evaluation
ccHistorically, monarchs used the idea of the ‘divine right of
kings’ to justify their wealth and power, arguing it was God’s
will that they were in charge.
ccMarx lacked evidence to support his claims and overlooked
how religion creates consensus and stability.
ccSome societies, like China and Cuba, claim to be communist,
but religion persists. This suggests that there may be other
reasons for the continued existence of religion.
burqa
Marx (1818–83) argued that under capitalism:
ccthe ruling class or ‘bourgeoisie’ exploits the working class
or ‘proletariat’ to increase its own wealth;
ccreligion is part of the superstructure, passing on the
ideology of the ruling class, spreading false class
consciousness and preventing revolution;
ccreligion is the ‘opiate of the masses’. Opium, a poppy
derivative, was the equivalent in Marx’s day of morphine
and heroin today. It numbed pain and made people feel
exhilarated. He felt religion did the same: it helped the
poor get through the week until the next ‘hit’ the following
Sunday;
cceventually religion and inequality would be exposed.
Revolution and communism (an equal society) would result.
The working class would no longer feel the pain of exploitation and would no longer need religion.
social solidarity
nts
Karl Marx
y
me
Marxists argue that society contains the potential for instability
and conflict due to class inequality. Religion acts to paper over
the cracks.
civ
il re
lig
ve
Marxists’ views
new religious movements spiritual
y
mo
Referencing up-to-date examples is always a good idea,
so it would be hard to imagine writing about civil religion in
an essay without reference to the Queen’s Diamond Jubilee
celebrations in London and across the country. Would you say
they bound the nation together?
o
ci e
re al sorshipn
li lid
b gio arity
s
bbEXAM TIP
posneti
cs
ne tmod
tw
ne
or ern
w
k
sc religi so
hism ou ci
s
et
AQA A2 Sociology Unit 3: Beliefs in Society
charismatic leadership
new age religion
ch
h ritaptissmity
d
fait
ch es
cre
ali
atah
pit fs
c
li e
be
ideosecularisation
totemism
lo postmodern
spirituality
iety
prayer soc nce p ro gicareligious
sect
d te l cospirit
ork ca
tw gnifi us en s ta ntro
ne al si nslogy secondom n ti l
ci
e
ary ina s m
so ns theo sts
so ti
cial o
Eu
n
ro
coationostali
ev pean ex isation
libertec
ts
a
en
n
r
ng ceptioion
pe r amovem
e na
ts
hwiereligniougs eliesthic vnew a licalislsm
ne
a nt ence ic ge
ev testaconsci ny paariou religio
tr sne n
p rollective mo
t leglobaia
rc ss
ge
lis hy
he eis
sm so ad ati
co
urc
sa lt
cu dsiaecth
sion
mis tion
ita ts
med lis
ge io n
an
ev e re lig rol
ag l contfane
w
ne logica pro
ideo
emerging church movement rituals believing without belonging
independently of the economic ruling class. Its purpose was
to gain ideological control and to keep the working class at
the bottom of the social hierarchy. Religion was one part of the
ISA: it told the people that those at the top deserved to be the
leaders and that they should be listened to. Life may be tough,
but it would improve in heaven.
Evaluation
ccThe Queen is head of the UK state, head of the Commonwealth and head of the Church of England.
ccThe Archbishop of Canterbury is the day-to-day head of
the Church of England, but he and 25 other senior church
leaders currently have guaranteed places in the House
of Lords, advising the government on policies and laws
(though reform of the House of Lords may change this);
ccThe state supports many church-linked schools that
socialise young people according to the requirements of
the Bible.
ccHowever, the government often sees announcements by the
church leaders as critical and unsupportive, and churches
have very little impact on government policies and laws.
bbQUESTION ANALYSIS
1. Identify and briefly explain three reasons that could be
offered to explain why religion can be seen to produce
social stability. (9 marks)
ccAim to use key concepts (e.g. norms, stress relief, false
class consciousness) to make three clear and distinct
points.
ccOne reason might be:
‘Religion can be seen to contribute to social stability in
society by providing the morals, norms and values in
society. This is argued by functionalists, who suggest
that people learn them and then know how to behave and
get along. The outcome is social stability as people fit in.
For example, the Ten Commandments teach people not
to kill or to steal. Society runs more smoothly as a result.’
2. ‘Religion binds the members of society together and
creates social stability.’ To what extent do sociological
arguments and evidence support this view of contemporary
religious belief and practice? (33 marks)
ccExplain how religion is seen by functionalists and Marxists
to contribute to social stability — they differ on whether this
is positive or negative.
ccYou also need to offer evaluation and analysis by assessing
the strengths and weaknesses of each theory and by using
historical and/or current events to illustrate them.
ccOffer a full conclusion, in which you briefly sum up the main
arguments for each side of the debate and then offer your
views (with reasons) on whether you believe that religion
does bind communities and whether or not it creates social
stability.
5
Kingsmead School
faith
burqa
social solidarity
icon
baptism
rites
profane
Bare Bones REVISION GUIDE
civil religion
collective conscience
spiritual direction
church leaders
morals
consensus
sect
cult
beliefs
revolution
church
nts
y
me
fundamentalists
ve
civ
il re
lig
new religious movements spiritual
y
mo
o
ci e
re al sorshipn
li lid
b gio arity
s
posneti
cs
ne tmod
tw
ne
or ern
w
k
sc religi so
hism ou ci
s
et
charismatic leadership
new age religion
ch
h ritaptissmity
d
fait
ch es
cre
ali
atah
pit fs
c
li e
be
ideosecularisation
totemism
lo postmodern
spirituality
iety
prayer soc nce p ro gicareligious
sect
d te l cospirit
ork ca
tw gnifi us en s ta ntro
ne al si nslogy secondom n ti l
ci
e
ary ina s m
so ns theo sts
so ti
cial o
Eu
n
ro
coationostali
ev pean ex isation
libertec
ts
a
en
n
r
ng ceptioion
pe r amovem
e na
ts
hwiereligniougs eliesthic vnew a licalislsm
ne
a nt ence ic ge
ev testaconsci ny paariou religio
tr sne n
p rollective mo
t leglobaia
rc ss
ge
lis hy
he eis
sm so ad ati
co
urc
sa lt
cu dsiaecth
sion
mis tion
ita ts
med lis
ge io n
an
ev e re lig rol
ag l contfane
w
ne logica pro
ideo
emerging church movement rituals believing without belonging
Religious beliefs and
social change
While functionalists, Marxists and feminists argue that the
function of religion is to keep society stable by inhibiting
or preventing change in society, Max Weber and some
neo-Marxists link religion with social change.
The development of Christianity
Christians tend to believe:
ccJesus Christ was the son of God;
ccthe Virgin Mary conceived Jesus by ‘immaculate
conception’ (i.e. by miracle);
ccJesus travelled around Palestine (now Israel), telling people
about God. This method of preaching by going out to
people is called evangelism;
ccJesus died by crucifixion to save all humans from sin and to
allow them access to heaven;
cchis followers, the disciples, were given the task of evangelising after Jesus rose to heaven. In order to speak to
people in other countries who spoke different languages,
the Holy Spirit gave them the ‘gift of tongues’ (the ability
to speak and be heard in any language) on Pentecost.
Pentecostalist Christians emphasise this in their beliefs;
ccthe later development of Christianity is characterised by
schisms (or splits) as Christians argued about the true
interpretation of God’s word. The key schisms have been:
• 11th century: the Orthodox and Coptic Churches set up
in Eastern Europe and the Middle East;
• 16th century: the development of Protestantism including
Calvinism, the Lutheran Church and, later, the Church of
England. They were ‘protesting’ that the Catholic Church
did not seem to care about the poor;
• 18th century: Non-Conformist churches developed out
of a schism in the Church of England. They opposed the
king’s leadership of it and its links with the upper classes.
Max Weber
Weber (1864–1920) believed that the combination of human
actions led to developments in the structures of society. He
thought that individual religious beliefs (Calvinism’s Protestant
ethic), and the resulting actions by believers, gave rise to the
development of a new form of society (capitalism), showing
that religion can lead to social change. Capitalism is an
economic system based on:
ccmoney — instead of bartering/exchange;
ccmechanisation — the use of newly-developed machines for
mass production;
ccIndustrialisation — a factory-based system of mass
production.
Weber argued that capitalism did not develop in other parts
of the world because the Protestant ethic did not exist there.
For example, China had the right organisational structure (e.g.
a bureaucratic hierarchy to control projects), but it lacked the
motivational impetus or psychological spirit to make it happen.
Its major religion, Confucianism, encouraged people to adjust
to the natural world, rather than to master or control it.
Evaluation
ccMany people in present society are ‘workaholics’, working
more hours than they need to. This shows that the
Protestant work ethic has become a significant part of
capitalist culture.
ccThe Eurozone crisis, which arose from the banking crisis
2008, provides evidence for a link between the Protestant
work ethic and successful capitalism. Those countries
that are most in debt are Ireland, Italy, Spain and Portugal
(predominantly Catholic), as well as Greece (predominantly
Orthodox). Predominantly Protestant countries like Sweden,
Norway and Germany have had fewer economic problems.
ccHowever, Scotland developed capitalism much later than
other countries, despite being strongly Calvinist.
ccWeber’s theory assumed that ordinary people were as
strongly influenced by Protestantism as their leaders, which
may not have been the case.
Schisms in the Christian Church
Roman Church (Catholic version)
Schism 1
1000 AD
Coptic
North Africa
Middle East
Orthodox
Eastern Europe
Schism 2
1400–1500
State Protestantism
Smaller Protestant
religions like
Calvinism
Schism 3 1700+
Methodist
Baptist
Quaker
Salvation Ar my
Present day
6
Kingsmead School
God created the
world in six days
and rested on the
seventh.
Calvinists worked
hard for six days.
The seventh day was
devoted to thinking
about God.
Businesses need
employees who are
prepared to work
hard and are sober
enough to come
back fit, healthy
and prepared to
work hard again
on Mondays.
Under capitalism,
jobs are complex
and workers need
to be educated.
Having churches
teach reading
and writing saved
business extra
costs.
bbEXAM TIP
Weber’s ideas will make more sense if you know what different
strands of Christianity (especially Catholicism and Protestantism, including Calvinism and Pentecostalism) stand for.
bbEXAM TIP
You will get marks for interpretation if you can add references
to recent events, so look out for news stories where religions
have supported the need for change in society and use them
profane
sect
church
The more workers
a business has,
the more it can
produce.
rites
spiritual direction
church leaders
cult
Giving jobs to
the poor would
help them to be
responsible and
successful, pleasing
God.
icon
baptism
civil religion
collective conscience
morals
consensus
beliefs
revolution
Giving your wealth
to the poor would
make the poor lazy,
so God would not
appreciate this.
fundamentalists
If businesses are to
grow, owners need
to invest profits
in machinery and
in training their
workers.
faith
When wealth
was amassed by
Calvinists, they
would invest it in
their businesses
rather than live the
high-life on their
profits (as Catholics
seemed to do).
burqa
Those who were
successful in life
would not go to
heaven if they were
selfish and selfobsessed.
social solidarity
Capitalism relies on
employees working
hard to make
production efficient
and profitable.
civ
il re
lig
nts
Calvinists looked for
signs that they had
been chosen to go
to heaven. It was
felt that success in
life (e.g. in business)
would show that God
had chosen them, so
people worked hard
to be successful.
y
me
God had already
decided who
would be ‘the
elect’ (i.e. those
going to heaven).
This resulted in
‘salvation anxiety’.
Calvinists worried
about whether God
had chosen them.
new religious movements spiritual
y
ve
Contribution to
capitalism
o
ci e
re al sorshipn
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b gio arity
mo
Resulting
behaviours
charismatic leadership
new age religion
ch
h ritaptissmity
d
fait
ch es
cre
ali
atah
pit fs
c
li e
be
ideosecularisation
totemism
lo postmodern
spirituality
iety
prayer soc nce p ro gicareligious
sect
d te l cospirit
ork ca
tw gnifi us en s ta ntro
ne al si nslogy secondom n ti l
ci
e
ary ina s m
so ns theo sts
so ti
cial o
Eu
n
ro
coationostali
ev pean ex isation
libertec
ts
a
en
n
r
ng ceptioion
pe r amovem
e na
ts
hwiereligniougs eliesthic vnew a licalislsm
ne
a nt ence ic ge
ev testaconsci ny paariou religio
tr sne n
p rollective mo
t leglobaia
rc ss
ge
lis hy
he eis
sm so ad ati
co
s
Calvinist ideas
posneti
The impact of Calvinist ideas on capitalism is summarised in
the table below.
Educated workers
will know more and
aspire to a better life.
cs
ne tmod
tw
ne
or ern
w
k
sc religi so
hism ou ci
s
et
AQA A2 Sociology Unit 3: Beliefs in Society
Calvinists (and
other Protestants)
believed that the
illiterate should be
taught to read, so
they could read the
bible.
urc
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cu dsiaecth
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an
ev e re lig rol
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w
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ideo
emerging church movement rituals believing without belonging
as examples in your essays. For example, find out about the
Buddhist protests of 2007 in Burma. How much has changed
in Burma as a result of this religious impetus for change?
Neo-Marxism
Gramsci (1891–1937), a neo-Marxist, argued that the ruling
class controlled society by controlling the key ideas in it.
He called this hegemonic control. Religion contributed
to hegemony by helping to keep the working class falsely
conscious. However, working-class leaders could re-interpret
religion to emphasise God’s concern for the working class and
to provide support for revolution. So, unlike other Marxists,
Gramsci believed religion could lead to social change.
Evaluation
ccNeo-Marxist Maduro (1990) notes how Liberation Theology
in Central and South American countries, where people
have often been subject to dictatorship, tried to change
the hegemony. It had considerable influence, pressing the
Catholic Church to support protest movements in the fight
for equality.
ccHowever, Pope Benedict XVI, when he was Cardinal
Ratzinger, was very critical of Liberation Theology, and had
those who promoted it removed from their positions. As a
result, the movement failed. This supports the traditional
Marxist theory that religion inhibits social change.
bbQUESTION ANALYSIS
1. Identify and briefly explain three examples of why religion
could be seen to produce social change. (9 marks)
Use ideas like schisms, the Protestant work ethic and
hegemony.
2. Using material from the Item and elsewhere, assess the
reasons offered by sociologists for the link between religion
and social change. (18 marks)
Include points on Weber, neo-Marxism and fundamentalism as
well as the alternative arguments of functionalists and Marxists
that religion inhibits social change.
3. Assess the view that religion can contribute to social
change. (33 marks)
ccBegin with arguments that say religion does contribute to
social change (e.g. Weber and Gramsci). You will gain
interpretation marks if you can offer some insight into
Liberation Theology — what, where, who, why?
ccThen evaluate these points with the arguments of functionalists and Marxists that say religion inhibits social change.
ccIn the conclusion, sum up the main arguments for each side
of the social change debate and then offer analysis (with
reasons) as to whether you believe that religion does or
does not contribute to social change.
7
Kingsmead School
faith
burqa
social solidarity
icon
baptism
rites
profane
Bare Bones REVISION GUIDE
civil religion
collective conscience
spiritual direction
church leaders
morals
consensus
sect
cult
beliefs
revolution
church
nts
y
me
fundamentalists
ve
civ
il re
lig
new religious movements spiritual
y
mo
o
ci e
re al sorshipn
li lid
b gio arity
s
posneti
cs
ne tmod
tw
ne
or ern
w
k
sc religi so
hism ou ci
s
et
charismatic leadership
new age religion
ch
h ritaptissmity
d
fait
ch es
cre
ali
atah
pit fs
c
li e
be
ideosecularisation
totemism
lo postmodern
spirituality
iety
prayer soc nce p ro gicareligious
sect
d te l cospirit
ork ca
tw gnifi us en s ta ntro
ne al si nslogy secondom n ti l
ci
e
ary ina s m
so ns theo sts
so ti
cial o
Eu
n
ro
coationostali
ev pean ex isation
libertec
ts
a
en
n
r
ng ceptioion
pe r amovem
e na
ts
hwiereligniougs eliesthic vnew a licalislsm
ne
a nt ence ic ge
ev testaconsci ny paariou religio
tr sne n
p rollective mo
t leglobaia
rc ss
ge
lis hy
he eis
sm so ad ati
co
urc
sa lt
cu dsiaecth
sion
mis tion
ita ts
med lis
ge io n
an
ev e re lig rol
ag l contfane
w
ne logica pro
ideo
emerging church movement rituals believing without belonging
Religious
organisations
bbEXAM TIP
You will need to offer examples of religions that support or
disprove the distinctions made by Troeltsch.
Catholic Church
Size and structure
Is the size and structure of a religion related to the beliefs
and behaviours of the people who follow it? Work on this
area stems from Ernst Troeltsch (1865–1923), who identified
differences between churches and sects.
Churches
Churches were seen to:
ccbe national or international organisations;
cchave large-scale membership;
ccbe conservative (against change in society);
cchave leadership connected with the state;
ccaim to impose their ideas on the society;
ccbe hierarchical and run like any other organisation;
ccthink that other religions were untrue but should exist;
ccbe open to all classes;
ccapply their rules weakly to their members.
Sects
Sects were seen to:
ccbe small scale and relatively localised;
cchave active and enthusiastic members;
ccwant to change society and to look down on non-members;
ccthink that other religions were untrue and should not exist;
cchave charismatic leaders (i.e. leaders with persuasive
personalities, able to encourage great loyalty);
ccrequire members to prove their loyalty and religious
knowledge;
ccbe attractive to the poor.
Whereas Weber thought sects would either die out or grow
into churches, H. Richard Niebuhr (1894–1962) thought they
could grow into denominations (between churches and
sects, and more willing to compromise with members, other
churches and society).
Evaluation Exam essays will require you to consider how far
these distinctions are correct. They can be criticised on the
following grounds:
ccthey are ethnocentric because they are too concerned with
Christianity. Religions in the rest of the world are organised
differently;
ccthey are too simple and overly generalised. For example,
sects can remain sects: they do not necessarily die out or
become denominations or churches (e.g. The Jehovah’s
Witnesses and The Society of Friends (The Quakers)).
The Catholic Church is, perhaps, the most obvious example of
a church. It:
ccis global;
ccis organised hierarchically;
ccis influential on the governments of the world;
ccwants to prevent changes like the legalisation of abortion,
the use of condoms, and stem-cell research;
cchas been seen to prevent revolutions by supporting leaders
rather than workers, even when the leaders are despotic
and corrupt (such as when it put an end to Liberation
Theology in Central and South America).
It is hard to argue against the idea that the Catholic Church
matches the characteristics of a church as developed by
Troeltsch. However, you could reference the growth of
Pentecostalism as a threat to its continued dominance in
South America. Its dominance as a church is also affected
by the declining number of young men wanting to become
priests.
Mormonism
The Church of Latter Day Saints (The Mormons) is a good
example of a denomination:
ccit began as a sect. Its first members were recruited by
persuasion by the founder, Joseph Smith Jnr., in the 1820s;
ccas a sect, it was in conflict with the other religions and
government leaders of America. Its members were
persecuted and Smith murdered;
ccin recent years it has grown in membership and into a
denomination. Despite seeing itself as the only true church,
it co-exists peacefully with wider society, other religious
groups and the political leadership;
ccMitt Romney, a Mormon, won the Republican nomination
for the US presidency. Mormon opposition to abortion,
pornography, sex outside of marriage and homosexuality
have allowed him and the church to gain social acceptability and to make religious alliances.
Evaluation Critics argue that the Mormon Church, despite the
referenced changes, is still not accepted enough in society to
be seen as anything other than a sect.
bbEXAM TIP
Follow Romney’s career by watching the news. What impact
has his campaign had on people’s views on Mormons both in
the USA and the UK?
8
Kingsmead School
faith
icon
baptism
rites
profane
civil religion
collective conscience
spiritual direction
church leaders
morals
consensus
sect
cult
beliefs
revolution
fundamentalists
church
Evaluation of the church, denomination and sect theory
Whatever the group, Troeltsch assumed that religious
groups were institutions and had some level of organisation.
burqa
Concerns about sects like the Jehovah’s Witnesses, the
Church of Scientology, the Unification Church (the Moonies)
and the Jesus Fellowship (Jesus Army) suggest that society
sees them as being in opposition to its values. Indeed, they are
often viewed with suspicion by society and by other religions.
However, the advocacy of actors like Tom Cruise and John
Travolta has earned Scientology some acceptance. This may,
as Wallis (1976) suggested, give it the potential to become
a denomination. While Scientology and the Moonies attract
wealthy members, the Jesus Army fits the original characteristics of a sect by attracting the poor and homeless.
social solidarity
nts
Concerns about sects
y
me
Evaluation Holden’s work is largely based on qualitative data
gained from interviews and observations over a longitudinal
period. There is a large potential for ‘going native’ and making
subjective judgements.
civ
il re
lig
ve
Yet Holden says it maintains itself as a sect by:
ccdemanding adherence to a strict (but idealistic) set of values
which are exclusive (held only by the sect) and absolutist
(there is no scope for personal interpretation). These relate
to its millenarian theology that Jehovah will return to earth
to take 144,000 believers to heaven;
ccallowing no ambiguity in its beliefs. Its members are
expected to accept its principles without question or
reservation;
cchelping members maintain personal and communal security
in a risky and unsettling world, creating a strict differentiation between them and non-members. It is a ‘closed
community’ that marginalises members psychologically and
socially from mainstream society;
ccattracting converts who have previously felt they had limited
life-chances and who have generally been pessimistic
about the world as it is;
ccrefusing to accept that any other religious group’s beliefs
are true.
new religious movements spiritual
y
mo
An ethnographic study of this sect by Holden (2002) tells
us that the Jehovah’s Witnesses have several qualities of a
denomination:
cca predicted 12 million members across the globe by 2020;
cca central headquarters that tells members what to believe
and how to behave;
cca ‘visible hierarchy’ with a ‘complicated system of
command and promotion’ (despite its claims to have no
ordained clergy like denominations and churches).
o
ci e
re al sorshipn
li lid
b gio arity
s
Jehovah’s Witnesses
posneti
cs
ne tmod
tw
ne
or ern
w
k
sc religi so
hism ou ci
s
et
AQA A2 Sociology Unit 3: Beliefs in Society
charismatic leadership
new age religion
ch
h ritaptissmity
d
fait
ch es
cre
ali
atah
pit fs
c
li e
be
ideosecularisation
totemism
lo postmodern
spirituality
iety
prayer soc nce p ro gicareligious
sect
d te l cospirit
ork ca
tw gnifi us en s ta ntro
ne al si nslogy secondom n ti l
ci
e
ary ina s m
so ns theo sts
so ti
cial o
Eu
n
ro
coationostali
ev pean ex isation
libertec
ts
a
en
n
r
ng ceptioion
pe r amovem
e na
ts
hwiereligniougs eliesthic vnew a licalislsm
ne
a nt ence ic ge
ev testaconsci ny paariou religio
tr sne n
p rollective mo
t leglobaia
rc ss
ge
lis hy
he eis
sm so ad ati
co
urc
sa lt
cu dsiaecth
sion
mis tion
ita ts
med lis
ge io n
an
ev e re lig rol
ag l contfane
w
ne logica pro
ideo
emerging church movement rituals believing without belonging
However, recent research in this area suggests that people
no longer want to be told what to think or how to behave by
religious organisations:
ccHeelas and Woodhead’s (2001) Kendal Project suggests
that organisational religion is giving way to privatised
religion and spirituality, where religion and spirituality are
much more informal. Good examples can be found in the
New Age religions, which include beliefs and practices
such as aromatherapy, astrology, Feng Shui, herbalism and
homeopathy;
ccin a postmodern world it may be that people do these
things in their own way, and that religious organisations will
become relics of the past.
bbEXAM TIP
The use of religions as examples will earn you credit for
answers on this area. Use www.bbc.co.uk/religion to make
brief summaries of the history, beliefs and practices of the
religions discussed above. Aim to link them to Troeltsch’s
categories. Do they support his ideas?
bbQUESTION ANALYSIS
1. Identify and briefly explain three features of a church.
(9 marks)
Use three of the above characteristics and illustrate them with
reference to the Catholic Church. Offer point, explanation and
example.
2. Using material from the Item and elsewhere, assess the
reasons offered by sociologists for the rise of spirituality
and New Age religions. (18 marks)
ccTo answer this question it would help you to look at
pages 20–21 (The contemporary religious world) on postmodernism and pages 16–17 (Secularisation: the theory)
on Davie’s concept of ‘believing without belonging’.
ccChanges in society are leading people to value individual
interpretations over organisational ones. Spirituality and
New Age religions are sympathetic to these changes.
ccBruce would argue that this is one last step before full
secularisation.
3. Assess the view that changes in religions mean that
sociologists must change the way they categorise them.
(33 marks)
ccOutline the traditional views of Troeltsch, Weber and Niebuhr.
ccApply specific religions to see if the church, denomination,
sect distinction is still appropriate.
ccConsider:
•how churches, denominations and sects are changing in
the 21st century;
•the lack of structure of new spiritual and religious
movements and how this should change sociological
thinking about religions.
9
Kingsmead School
faith
burqa
social solidarity
icon
baptism
rites
profane
Bare Bones REVISION GUIDE
civil religion
collective conscience
spiritual direction
church leaders
morals
consensus
sect
cult
beliefs
revolution
church
nts
y
me
fundamentalists
ve
civ
il re
lig
new religious movements spiritual
y
mo
o
ci e
re al sorshipn
li lid
b gio arity
s
posneti
cs
ne tmod
tw
ne
or ern
w
k
sc religi so
hism ou ci
s
et
charismatic leadership
new age religion
ch
h ritaptissmity
d
fait
ch es
cre
ali
atah
pit fs
c
li e
be
ideosecularisation
totemism
lo postmodern
spirituality
iety
prayer soc nce p ro gicareligious
sect
d te l cospirit
ork ca
tw gnifi us en s ta ntro
ne al si nslogy secondom n ti l
ci
e
ary ina s m
so ns theo sts
so ti
cial o
Eu
n
ro
coationostali
ev pean ex isation
libertec
ts
a
en
n
r
ng ceptioion
pe r amovem
e na
ts
hwiereligniougs eliesthic vnew a licalislsm
ne
a nt ence ic ge
ev testaconsci ny paariou religio
tr sne n
p rollective mo
t leglobaia
rc ss
ge
lis hy
he eis
sm so ad ati
co
urc
sa lt
cu dsiaecth
sion
mis tion
ita ts
med lis
ge io n
an
ev e re lig rol
ag l contfane
w
ne logica pro
ideo
emerging church movement rituals believing without belonging
Ethnicity
below shows the level of religious commitment among British
ethnic minorities by giving the percentage of individuals with
specific religious commitments.
Defining ethnicity
Ethnicity has come to be seen as referring to a range of racial
groups (Asian, African, Caribbean, etc.) but this is just one
element of ethnicity. Inclusion of ‘cultural differences’ would
allow consideration of any group with a shared language,
customs and traditions. For example, white ethnic minority
groups, such as the recent Eastern European arrivals to the
UK, show different levels of religiosity from the indigenous
white people.
Ethnic minorities in the UK generally show more religiosity
than the majority white population, and ethnicity has played an
increasingly important role in patterns of religiosity in Britain.
Since the ending of colonialism in the 1950s, a range of ethnic
groups have come to the UK. Religion has been an important
part of the cultural identity of these migrants, so Britain has
seen an increasingly diverse pattern of religiosity. The figure
below shows the diversity of religious affiliation in the UK in
2011.
Religion in
Great Britain
2011
Any other
religion 1.1%
No religion
23.2%
Sikh 0.7
Muslim 4.4%
Christian
68.5%
Jewish 0.4%
Hindu 1.3%
Buddhist 0.4%
Ethnic religiosity
A number of debates surround the question of ethnic minority
religiosity and why ethnic minorities appear to be more
religious than their host communities. These include:
Cultural transition
Bruce (2002) argued that:
ccreligion provides ethnic minorities with access to people
who have been in the UK for longer, providing contacts for
jobs, homes and other services, thereby enabling the newly
arrived to make a successful transition into British life;
ccethnic minorities will lose their religious traditions as
they become more settled and accepted by the wider
population.
Evaluation
ccEvidence suggests this is not true in any significant way
yet. Ethnicity is still a strong indicator of people’s religious
behaviours.
ccBruce’s assertion was based on Herberg’s studies of white
Jewish migrants, but such ‘rules’ may not apply so well to
Asian, African and Caribbean migrants. Their skin colour
makes it less easy for them to blend in as ‘naturally’ British,
even when they and their parents have been born in Britain.
ccHowever, support for Bruce comes from Samed (2006)
who suggested there is evidence of young working-class
Muslims, who are thought to be the most enthusiastic about
religion of all Britain’s minorities, being more secular than
their parents.
An uncertain world
The Census and Labour Force Survey report (2006)
predicted a growing religious diversity within households as
people from different ethnic minorities inter-marry and as
some in a household lose their religion and adopt more secular
values.
Research shows a higher commitment to religion by ethnic
minorities than is found in the white population. The table
Religious commitment (% support)
ccHolden (2008) found that young Asians generally, and young
Muslims in particular, reported greater levels of religious
conviction than their white counterparts.
ccJacobson (1998) found that young Pakistani Muslims were
not being secularised because Islam provided them with
a certainty they were unable to find in other areas of their
lives, as racism and being caught between two cultures
created uncertainty.
Indian
Pakistani
Bengali
Caribbean
African
Follows a religion
90
96
98
67
93
Applies religious rules
79
89
92
83
93
Participates in more than just festivals
76
79
76
84
91
Rates religion as important or very important
69
92
95
72
92
10
Kingsmead School
faith
burqa
social solidarity
icon
baptism
rites
profane
civil religion
collective conscience
spiritual direction
church leaders
morals
consensus
sect
cult
beliefs
revolution
church
nts
y
me
fundamentalists
ve
civ
il re
lig
new religious movements spiritual
y
mo
Empowerment
o
ci e
re al sorshipn
li lid
b gio arity
s
Evaluation
ccModood et al. (1994) found that while first-generation
Asians were more likely to exhibit the thoughts illustrated in
Jacobson’s study, second-generation Asians were likely to
offer more diverse responses.
ccEbaugh and Chafetz (2000) suggested that this may be
because newly arriving parents apply their religion’s rules
more strongly than they did in the home country in order
to keep their children, especially their daughters, in line.
This creates conflicts between the two generations and the
children often come to see the religion as problematic.
posneti
cs
ne tmod
tw
ne
or ern
w
k
sc religi so
hism ou ci
s
et
AQA A2 Sociology Unit 3: Beliefs in Society
charismatic leadership
new age religion
ch
h ritaptissmity
d
fait
ch es
cre
ali
atah
pit fs
c
li e
be
ideosecularisation
totemism
lo postmodern
spirituality
iety
prayer soc nce p ro gicareligious
sect
d te l cospirit
ork ca
tw gnifi us en s ta ntro
ne al si nslogy secondom n ti l
ci
e
ary ina s m
so ns theo sts
so ti
cial o
Eu
n
ro
coationostali
ev pean ex isation
libertec
ts
a
en
n
r
ng ceptioion
pe r amovem
e na
ts
hwiereligniougs eliesthic vnew a licalislsm
ne
a nt ence ic ge
ev testaconsci ny paariou religio
tr sne n
p rollective mo
t leglobaia
rc ss
ge
lis hy
he eis
sm so ad ati
co
urc
sa lt
cu dsiaecth
sion
mis tion
ita ts
med lis
ge io n
an
ev e re lig rol
ag l contfane
w
ne logica pro
ideo
emerging church movement rituals believing without belonging
of Pentecostal churches amongst British blacks. According
to Christian Research (2006), between 1998 and 2006
roughly three new Pentecostal churches opened in the UK
every week. The majority were for black communities.
Evaluation While Jakody et al. (2006) found 57% of young
men and 37% of young women from a range of ethnic
minorities reported attending a religious meeting once a week
or more, this means that a significant minority of young men
and a majority of women had not. This suggests that not
all young people from ethnic minorities see an answer in
religion.
Relative deprivation
Furseth and Repstad (2006) reported that:
ccmigrant women often find that a commitment to religion
empowers them in their new lives, where they are generally
marginalised by both their own and the host communities;
ccwomen find new roles within the religion that were not
open to them in their homelands. They also get themselves
involved in inter-religious discussion, allowing for greater
integration in the new society;
ccfor example, improved education meant young Muslim
women in the UK felt better able to debate the Koran with
their men-folk and to challenge some of the cultural restrictions placed on them in its name (Butler, 1995). However,
they still come second to the men, who used religion to
assert a leadership role that they were unable to find in the
host society.
Evaluation
ccRadical feminists would suggest that women from ethnic
minorities are only ‘religious’ because the males of the
community force them to be. Honour killings are just one
example of what happens to women who do not live their
lives the way that men expect them to. This is hardly
empowerment.
ccHowever, Islamic scholars argue that honour killing and
maltreatment of women have nothing to do with religion.
bbEXAM TIP
Go to www.stophonourkillings.com and find two or three
up-to-date examples that you could quote in the exam. This
will gain you marks for Application and Interpretation.
Hope for the future
ccIn a study of the People’s Temple (Jonestown), which
ended in mass suicide, Hall (2003) felt that the lack of racial
integration and equality in the US led black Americans
to find Jim Jones’s message of racial and class equality
appealing. It gave marginalised people hope for the future.
ccThe same might be offered as a reason for the fast growth
A similar argument comes in the form of relative deprivation,
used by Bruce (2002) to explain the rise of Islamic Fundamentalism. Finding social mobility blocked in the host society,
some British Muslims have come to re-imagine Islam as
supportive and communal, believing that a ‘return’ to Muslim
law would make their lives better. Some become prepared to
fight for it.
Evaluation A postmodernist argument would say that we
should be careful to avoid seeing people as sharing group
identities: individuals will develop their own identities and
these will be inconsistent and negotiated.
bbEXAM TIP
Students often over-generalise in exam answers. The phrase
‘tend to’ is useful in showing awareness to the examiner. For
example, ‘People of Pakistani descent tend to be Muslim’
would be seen as far more accurate than ‘People of Pakistani
descent are Muslim’. Although the vast majority are Muslim, it
is not true in all cases.
bbQUESTION ANALYSIS
1. Identify and briefly explain three reasons why ethnic
minorities might be more religious than the host culture.
(9 marks)
Offer PEE on three of the following: cultural transition;
certainty; empowerment; hope for the future; relative
deprivation.
2. Using material from the Item and elsewhere, assess
sociological explanations for the importance of religion
to ethnic minorities in society. (18 marks)
ccReferences to cultural transition, certainty, empowerment,
hope for the future and relative deprivation will give your
essay a theoretical foundation.
ccFor AO2 marks, identify evidence that supports or goes
against these ideas.
ccOffer analysis in a conclusion that outlines the arguments
you find most persuasive and why.
11
Kingsmead School
faith
burqa
social solidarity
icon
baptism
rites
profane
Bare Bones REVISION GUIDE
civil religion
collective conscience
spiritual direction
church leaders
morals
consensus
sect
cult
beliefs
revolution
church
nts
y
me
fundamentalists
ve
civ
il re
lig
new religious movements spiritual
y
mo
o
ci e
re al sorshipn
li lid
b gio arity
s
posneti
cs
ne tmod
tw
ne
or ern
w
k
sc religi so
hism ou ci
s
et
charismatic leadership
new age religion
ch
h ritaptissmity
d
fait
ch es
cre
ali
atah
pit fs
c
li e
be
ideosecularisation
totemism
lo postmodern
spirituality
iety
prayer soc nce p ro gicareligious
sect
d te l cospirit
ork ca
tw gnifi us en s ta ntro
ne al si nslogy secondom n ti l
ci
e
ary ina s m
so ns theo sts
so ti
cial o
Eu
n
ro
coationostali
ev pean ex isation
libertec
ts
a
en
n
r
ng ceptioion
pe r amovem
e na
ts
hwiereligniougs eliesthic vnew a licalislsm
ne
a nt ence ic ge
ev testaconsci ny paariou religio
tr sne n
p rollective mo
t leglobaia
rc ss
ge
lis hy
he eis
sm so ad ati
co
urc
sa lt
cu dsiaecth
sion
mis tion
ita ts
med lis
ge io n
an
ev e re lig rol
ag l contfane
w
ne logica pro
ideo
emerging church movement rituals believing without belonging
Gender
Perspectives
ccFunctionalists have tended to assume that religion, like the
other institutions of society, is consensual, with differences
between genders based on accepted and acceptable
tradition. Generally, they have been blind to any gender
inequalities in religion.
Historically,
Marxists focused on class rather than gender
cc
inequality and assumed that any gender inequality would
disappear when revolution resolved class inequality.
ccFeminists see both male-dominated society and maledominated religion as supporting a general gender
inequality and patriarchal control over women.
bbEXAM TIP
Weaker students see feminism as a single perspective.
Those who gain higher marks are able to distinguish between
different types of feminism (such as liberal, Marxist and
radical). Make sure you know the differences.
Feminists on religion
ccEarly feminist Elizabeth Stanton (1895) said the bible had
been written and edited by men to create the message that
men should be in control and that women should do as men
required.
ccRuethur (1983) said that religion presented this message
as ‘God-talk’ (as directly from God) and that it justified
inequality as down to God’s will.
ccRadical feminist Mary Daly (1928–2010) argued that
religion was based on hostility and hatred of women
(misogyny): ‘Patriarchal beliefs and practices are at the
core of all the world’s religions’ (1978). Religion, she
maintained, was created by men to exploit women and to
condition them ideologically into accepting inequality as
normal. It had helped create a ‘myth of feminine evil’ and it
justified persecution of (untrustworthy) women.
ccThe nature of Daly’s radical feminism shows through in
her assessment of the violence and damage done to
women by religion. Women have suffered both mentally
and physically as a result of theology that is used to make
women who choose to have abortions and to use birth
control feel guilty. It obliges women to submit to their
husbands in the home and to male leadership outside the
home, degrading them verbally, symbolically and personally.
Women need to abandon religion in order to find selfrespect and liberation.
ccDaly identified the use of bible stories to show women as
bad and needing men to bail them out of problems they
create for themselves — for example, the story of Adam
and Eve:
• Adam, the man, is innocent and good and the protector
of Eve;
• Eve, the woman, is bad. She is tempted by the devil and
subsequently does as he requires (despite warnings from
Adam and God). For ‘Eve’ read ‘Evil’.
ccReference to God as male also reinforces patriarchy as
‘if God is male, then male is God’. In other words, God’s
paternalism and power is extended to all men, making them
superior to women. It leads to what Daly calls ‘super-male
arrogance’. This applies to religion in a functional sense as
well as in a substantive sense: in civil religion the powers
of God are applied to the president. Daly saw President
Nixon’s power and the violence he ‘unleashed’ in Vietnam
as legitimated in this way: ‘The Most Unholy Trinity of Rape,
Genocide and War is the logical extension of [his] phallocentric power.’
bbEXAM TIP
If you have forgotten the circumstances of the Adam and
Eve story, look it up — you will then be able to discuss it
confidently. But be careful not to write the story in detail.
Select the elements that are relevant to Daly’s theory and show
the link between the two.
Evaluation Daly’s views can be applied to all the world’s
religions:
ccHinduism: Furseth and Repstad (2006) point out that
although there are many gods in Hinduism, the vast majority
of them are male and that Hindu views of purity could be
seen as patriarchal. The Hindu holy book, the Vedas, says
women are impure when they are menstruating and should
not enter a temple. This could be seen as a religiously
sanctioned discrimination, as women who cannot enter a
temple cannot be seen as equal to men;
ccIslam: The Koran states that men and women are equal in
prayer before God, yet it also states that ‘Good women are
obedient’. One Hadith (a religious book used to interpret
Islamic law) argues that the word of a woman is worth only
half that of a man because women are lacking in intellect
and rationality (Roald, 2002).
Hassan (1990) felt that behind such inequalities were
notions of men being the strong creators and women being
temptresses, likely to prevent men following their religious
and family duties. This may only exist in some interpretations of Islamic texts, but it can be seen as a foundation for
the laws introduced in Afghanistan when the Taliban took
control in the 1990s. They applied strict interpretations of
Sharia Law through a range of rules:
• girls and women were not allowed to go to school or
work;
12
Kingsmead School
faith
burqa
social solidarity
icon
baptism
rites
profane
civil religion
collective conscience
spiritual direction
church leaders
morals
consensus
sect
cult
beliefs
revolution
fundamentalists
church
Evaluation It may be that religion is less patriarchal and
misogynistic than feminists suggest:
ccGiardini (1987) saw feminine traits of caring, forgiveness
and sympathy applied to God in Christianity. Via (1987)
argued that Jesus blessed women, used them as positive
examples in his teachings, and displayed feminine qualities
himself;
ccLinda Woodhead (2002) argued that feminists such as
Daly were too concerned with the messages in religious
books rather than the real experiences of religious women.
Feminists assume that women are ‘victims’ of patriarchal
religion but Woodhead said women re-interpret religion to
suit their needs. Whereas men use patriarchal interpretations of God as a judge, or ruler of the universe, reflecting
their view of their role, women interpret God as caring,
loving and family orientated, reflecting their roles;
cca good example of this is the growing number of white
converts to Islam, 62% of whom are women (Brice, 2007).
While the majority appear to convert in order to marry
a man born into Islam, this is not the case for 45% of
female converts who join after finding out more about
Islam and what it stands for: they do not generally see it as
patriarchal. Indeed, they feel that conversion is a positive
choice and 10% actually warned other potential converts
against conversion for marriage, feeling they should convert
only if they actually believe in Islam and feel that it is
appropriate for their norms and values. Conversion was not
easy, however. The families of the converting women often
could not understand their motives, and conflict arose as a
result. The women often found it was not easy to fit in or be
accepted by born Muslims, and were frustrated to find they
were often given poorer facilities than male Muslims;
ccthe ‘march of progress’ theory sees society and religion
becoming less patriarchal. However, Woodhead (2006) said
civ
il re
lig
nts
Daly and other radical feminists would suggest it is because
men undermine women and that they have no choice. Religion
then continues the process of making women feel they cannot
make their own decisions and that they need to do as men tell
them.
y
me
If religion is so patriarchal, why do many women:
ccattend religious institutions and believe in God more than
men;
ccreport greater levels of interest in, and personal
commitment to, religion?
new religious movements spiritual
y
ve
Female religiosity
o
ci e
re al sorshipn
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b gio arity
mo
accompanied by a relative;
women and girls had to wear a full body and face
covering (burqa) in public (Latifa, 2005).
charismatic leadership
new age religion
ch
h ritaptissmity
d
fait
ch es
cre
ali
atah
pit fs
c
li e
be
ideosecularisation
totemism
lo postmodern
spirituality
iety
prayer soc nce p ro gicareligious
sect
d te l cospirit
ork ca
tw gnifi us en s ta ntro
ne al si nslogy secondom n ti l
ci
e
ary ina s m
so ns theo sts
so ti
cial o
Eu
n
ro
coationostali
ev pean ex isation
libertec
ts
a
en
n
r
ng ceptioion
pe r amovem
e na
ts
hwiereligniougs eliesthic vnew a licalislsm
ne
a nt ence ic ge
ev testaconsci ny paariou religio
tr sne n
p rollective mo
t leglobaia
rc ss
ge
lis hy
he eis
sm so ad ati
co
s
• all women, on leaving their houses, had to be
posneti
cs
ne tmod
tw
ne
or ern
w
k
sc religi so
hism ou ci
s
et
AQA A2 Sociology Unit 3: Beliefs in Society
•
urc
sa lt
cu dsiaecth
sion
mis tion
ita ts
med lis
ge io n
an
ev e re lig rol
ag l contfane
w
ne logica pro
ideo
emerging church movement rituals believing without belonging
that where religion has not changed fast enough, this has
led some middle-class women to seek new forms of religion
and spirituality (e.g. New Age religions), but they still remain
‘religious’;
ccwomen use religion for access to friends and a supportive
community. Bernice Martin (2001) said female converts
to Pentecostalism find it attractive as they meet female
friends at church and can use Pentecostal interpretations to
moderate their husbands’ behaviour and make them more
family orientated. This may apply to other religions too;
ccLeila Ahmed (2011) opposed the largely white, radical
feminist view that Muslim women are undermined by the
veil. She argued that the hijab (head scarf) and niqab (face
veil) allow Muslim women to avoid the gaze of men. As
a result, they encounter fewer hassles. This clothing also
allows them access to places they could not otherwise visit.
bbEXAM TIP
You will find that many features of gender and ethnicity cross
over. Do not be afraid to apply evidence and concepts from
one area to another, if you think it is appropriate.
bbQUESTION ANALYSIS
1. Identify and briefly explain three reasons why women might
be religious. (9 marks)
Focus on positive experiences of community, access to men’s
worlds and patriarchal conditioning.
2. Using material from the Item and elsewhere, assess feminist
ideas on the importance of religion in a patriarchal society.
(18 marks)
ccUse references to Daly and radical feminism to give your
essay a theoretical foundation.
ccIdentify evidence that supports Daly, such as examples
from Christianity, Hinduism and Islam.
ccUse the alternative views of functionalists, like Woodhead
and Ahmed, to criticise Daly. Cite relevant examples as
evidence.
ccIn your conclusion, explain whether you agree or disagree
with feminist arguments on the importance of patriarchal
religion in society.
3. Assess the view that the function of religion is to make
women blind to their inequality. (33 marks)
An answer to this question will take a similar structure to that
to Question 2, but the emphasis needs to be more heavily on
whether:
ccreligion indoctrinates women into not seeing their inequality
and to accepting patriarchy (Daly); or
ccwomen are aware of patriarchy and use religion to get
around the limits it sets them (Ahmed, Martin); or
ccthere is, in fact, less patriarchy than in the past (March of
Progress) or none at all (functionalism).
13
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faith
burqa
social solidarity
icon
baptism
rites
profane
Bare Bones REVISION GUIDE
civil religion
collective conscience
spiritual direction
church leaders
morals
consensus
sect
cult
beliefs
revolution
church
nts
y
me
fundamentalists
ve
civ
il re
lig
new religious movements spiritual
y
mo
o
ci e
re al sorshipn
li lid
b gio arity
s
posneti
cs
ne tmod
tw
ne
or ern
w
k
sc religi so
hism ou ci
s
et
charismatic leadership
new age religion
ch
h ritaptissmity
d
fait
ch es
cre
ali
atah
pit fs
c
li e
be
ideosecularisation
totemism
lo postmodern
spirituality
iety
prayer soc nce p ro gicareligious
sect
d te l cospirit
ork ca
tw gnifi us en s ta ntro
ne al si nslogy secondom n ti l
ci
e
ary ina s m
so ns theo sts
so ti
cial o
Eu
n
ro
coationostali
ev pean ex isation
libertec
ts
a
en
n
r
ng ceptioion
pe r amovem
e na
ts
hwiereligniougs eliesthic vnew a licalislsm
ne
a nt ence ic ge
ev testaconsci ny paariou religio
tr sne n
p rollective mo
t leglobaia
rc ss
ge
lis hy
he eis
sm so ad ati
co
urc
sa lt
cu dsiaecth
sion
mis tion
ita ts
med lis
ge io n
an
ev e re lig rol
ag l contfane
w
ne logica pro
ideo
emerging church movement rituals believing without belonging
Class, age and
sexuality
Class and religiosity
Social class refers to a person’s socio-economic position:
how much money they have, their job and status. However, it
can also relate to their culture and the way they live their lives.
There are various ways to categorise class, but it is safe to
use the terms working, middle and upper class (unless you are
discussing Marxists, when ‘upper’ is changed to ‘ruling’ class).
Social class appears to have a significant impact on the
level of people’s religious behaviours and the types of religion
they follow. In simple terms:
ccthe working classes are not very religious;
ccthe middle classes tend to be more religious;
ccthe upper classes exhibit religious behaviours, though the
level of belief is less clear.
Evaluation Things are far from this simple:
ccDavid Martin (1978) and Grace Davie (1996) reported that
the urban and industrial working classes tend not to go
to church or to exhibit other religious behaviours. They tend
to report belief in God, but this may be a case of offering
what they feel is a socially desirable answer. Their lack of
religiosity may be due to Marxist political influences in the
community and at work, but may also be due to lack of time
or the feeling that God has not helped them in the past and
has nothing to offer;
ccDavie (1996) argued that the middle classes are either
strongly religious or strongly secular. When religious, their
economic wealth allows them to travel to their favourite
church rather than having to rely on going to the nearest
one, which may have proved to be much duller;
ccMartin’s (2002) study of global Pentecostalism suggested
that such generalisations about social class were not so
well applied to the rest of the world, where Pentecostalism
seemed to be meeting the needs of both middle and
working classes equally well. It justified the wealth of
the middle class as being a result of their hard work (the
Protestant work ethic) and provided the working class
with educational, medical and financial support;
ccTroeltsch argued that the upper classes were most often
associated with the official state-linked church, such as the
Church of England or Scotland in Britain, but official records
are hard to come by;
ccmembers of sects were seen by Troeltsch, in the early part
of the twentieth century, as being materially deprived — in
other words, the poor. Sects acted as protest and support
groups for such people. The present Jesus Army would
seem to fit this notion, as many of its recruits have been
homeless; however, the Church of Scientology, with very
wealthy members like Tom Cruise and John Travolta, does
not. It may be that sect members feel psychologically or
socially deprived, but it is clearly not possible to make
simple generalisations;
ccNew Age religions, according to Heelas and Woodhead
(2001), appear to be linked to the middle classes
(especially females), as people generally have to pay for
these ‘religious’ services.
Age and religiosity
In general, the older people are, the more religious they are:
ccolder people become more aware of death and prepare
themselves for it;
ccyounger people tend to be much more secular, perhaps
because they feel they have more interesting things to do
with their time.
The lack of religiosity in young people is quite often linked
with a lack of morality and used to explain why young people
appear to be more criminal than older people. David Cameron
and other politicians linked the riots of 2011 to this ‘problem’.
Cameron’s answer to this ‘broken society’ has been to
argue that we need to develop a ‘Big Society’, based on
volunteering and charity work. He has aimed to involve young
people in a summer scheme called the National Citizen Service
(NCS) in which they learn the value of communal activity by
doing something positive for society.
Evaluation Are young people less moral than older people?
Are schemes like NCS and the Big Society likely to work?
ccA 2012 study by Essex University’s Centre for Integrity
Studies, based on a survey of 2000 adults, appears to
support the idea that young people are less moral than
older people.
ccThe out-going Archbishop of Canterbury, Rowan Williams
(2012), has been very critical of Cameron’s idea of the Big
Society, arguing that it is ‘designed to conceal a deeply
damaging withdrawal of the state from its responsibilities to
the most vulnerable’.
ccFranklyn Addo (2012) argued that it was too simplistic to
blame young people for a decline in the moral fabric of the
country. While young people may be more liberal than their
grandparents’ generation, any moral decline was down to
more deeply rooted problems in society.
ccStanley Cohen (1972) is famous for arguing that young people
are consistently linked to moral breakdown by moral
entrepreneurs who make careers out of developing ‘moral
panics’.
The key issue for sociologists of religion is whether secular
young people will become more religious as they get older or
whether they will remain secular. If religions do not recruit new
14
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baptism
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profane
civil religion
collective conscience
spiritual direction
church leaders
morals
consensus
sect
cult
beliefs
revolution
fundamentalists
church
nts
Liberal views
y
me
ccSexuality — whether someone is heterosexual or
homosexual — is becoming an important issue for religions.
As Western societies become more individualist and
liberal (i.e. accepting of people’s behaviours if they do not
negatively impact on others), there is a growing acceptance
that although homosexuals may be a statistical minority,
they are not ‘bad’ people. Changes in laws have prompted
religions to respond to such claims.
ccThe following recent legislation has given homosexuals
freedom from discrimination:
• 2003: it became illegal for employers to discriminate
against gay people;
• 2005: the Civil Partnership Act allowed same-sex
couples to register as civil partners;
• 2011: Prime Minister David Cameron signalled his
acceptance of a move towards marriage rights for
homosexuals.
ccThese changes have led to fierce debate in churches.
The liberals in Christian churches want to respond
positively to these changes, but the conservatives (often
fundamentalists), who are opposed to the acceptance of
homosexuality, want to fight them.
civ
il re
lig
ve
Sexuality and religiosity
new religious movements spiritual
y
mo
Evaluation
ccBruce and Voas (2005) pointed out that as secularised
young people reach adulthood and have children, they will
not socialise their children to be religious.
ccDavie (2007) was less sure, arguing that there are other
ways for the children of secular parents to encounter
religious socialisation — for example, through religious
schooling, friends or the Internet. She suggests that
young people are especially interested in new religious
movements, as these organisations seem more exciting
and allow the young to feel in control of their own choices.
o
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s
members to replace those who die, they will also cease to
exist.
posneti
cs
ne tmod
tw
ne
or ern
w
k
sc religi so
hism ou ci
s
et
AQA A2 Sociology Unit 3: Beliefs in Society
charismatic leadership
new age religion
ch
h ritaptissmity
d
fait
ch es
cre
ali
atah
pit fs
c
li e
be
ideosecularisation
totemism
lo postmodern
spirituality
iety
prayer soc nce p ro gicareligious
sect
d te l cospirit
ork ca
tw gnifi us en s ta ntro
ne al si nslogy secondom n ti l
ci
e
ary ina s m
so ns theo sts
so ti
cial o
Eu
n
ro
coationostali
ev pean ex isation
libertec
ts
a
en
n
r
ng ceptioion
pe r amovem
e na
ts
hwiereligniougs eliesthic vnew a licalislsm
ne
a nt ence ic ge
ev testaconsci ny paariou religio
tr sne n
p rollective mo
t leglobaia
rc ss
ge
lis hy
he eis
sm so ad ati
co
urc
sa lt
cu dsiaecth
sion
mis tion
ita ts
med lis
ge io n
an
ev e re lig rol
ag l contfane
w
ne logica pro
ideo
emerging church movement rituals believing without belonging
Keith O’Brien (2012) argued that gay marriage would give
gay couples more impetus to adopt, which would deprive
children of a basic right to have a mother and a father;
ccgay sex is outside of marriage and therefore wrong;
ccgay sex is unnatural and for fun, so it is self-indulgent and
not as God intended;
ccthe clergy should act as positive role models and even
celibate gay clergy would not be able to do so;
cclegal changes in this country have negatively impacted
on the Catholic Church’s right to run its services, such as
adoption, according to biblical principles, as new British
law requires it to treat gay parents as equal to heterosexual
parents.
Evaluation Remember that postmodernists would see it as
too easy, as well as incorrect, to say that people act as a class,
an age group or a sexual preference group. In fact, people
are influenced by a combination of these and other factors.
They argue that sociologists should avoid looking for general
theories.
bbQUESTION ANALYSIS
1. Identify and briefly explain three social characteristics that
may affect how religious a person is. (9 marks)
Focus on one each from social class, age and sexuality.
2. Using material from the Item and elsewhere, assess
sociological explanations for the importance of social
characteristics being a major influence on people’s
religiosity. (18 marks)
ccOutline some of the arguments regarding the influence of
social class, age and sexuality on religiosity. You could also
include references to gender and ethnicity.
ccOffer evaluation from postmodernists that it is a matter of
individual difference, so generalisations are not possible.
ccOffer a conclusion to explain which arguments you find
most persuasive and why.
3. Assess the view that religion is an ideological conditioning
device that functions to divide people rather than unite
them. (33 marks)
Conservative views
In this essay you will need to think even more synoptically and
consider:
ccthe nature of ideology;
ccMarxist claims that religion is an ideological conditioning
device;
ccevidence showing how different social groups respond to
religion;
ccpostmodernist views that this line of thinking is now
outdated.
Conservative Christians argue that:
ccsex should be for the creation of children, and gay sex
clearly does not allow this possibility. Catholic Cardinal
Remember to evaluate each of the ideas you present and to
relate them to the essay title. In your conclusion, explain which
arguments you find the most persuasive and why.
Liberal Christians argue that:
ccit is down to God to judge, not people;
ccChristians should love the sinner, but hate the sin;
cccelibacy is an acceptable way forward for gay clergy;
ccJesus would bless a gay partnership if the couple were in
love and wanted to dedicate their lives to each other.
15
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faith
burqa
social solidarity
icon
baptism
rites
profane
Bare Bones REVISION GUIDE
civil religion
collective conscience
spiritual direction
church leaders
morals
consensus
sect
cult
beliefs
revolution
church
nts
y
me
fundamentalists
ve
civ
il re
lig
new religious movements spiritual
y
mo
o
ci e
re al sorshipn
li lid
b gio arity
s
posneti
cs
ne tmod
tw
ne
or ern
w
k
sc religi so
hism ou ci
s
et
charismatic leadership
new age religion
ch
h ritaptissmity
d
fait
ch es
cre
ali
atah
pit fs
c
li e
be
ideosecularisation
totemism
lo postmodern
spirituality
iety
prayer soc nce p ro gicareligious
sect
d te l cospirit
ork ca
tw gnifi us en s ta ntro
ne al si nslogy secondom n ti l
ci
e
ary ina s m
so ns theo sts
so ti
cial o
Eu
n
ro
coationostali
ev pean ex isation
libertec
ts
a
en
n
r
ng ceptioion
pe r amovem
e na
ts
hwiereligniougs eliesthic vnew a licalislsm
ne
a nt ence ic ge
ev testaconsci ny paariou religio
tr sne n
p rollective mo
t leglobaia
rc ss
ge
lis hy
he eis
sm so ad ati
co
urc
sa lt
cu dsiaecth
sion
mis tion
ita ts
med lis
ge io n
an
ev e re lig rol
ag l contfane
w
ne logica pro
ideo
emerging church movement rituals believing without belonging
Secularisation:
the theory
Is religion less important than it used to be, or is it just
changing?
ccWilson and Bruce, who theorise secularisation using a
substantive definition of religion, focus on institutionalised god-based religions. They conclude that religion is
declining, as fewer people seem to be involved than in the
past.
ccSociologists like Davie and Heelas and Woodhead see
a change from institutionalised religion (where people
attend a church and follow the same sets of beliefs) to
one that is more individualised (where people act according
to their own spiritual interpretations of religious beliefs).
The definition of religion they use is more flexible and
more inclusive of a range of beliefs and practices. The
emphasis, however, is still on a substantive definition of
religion.
bbEXAM TIP
When writing about secularisation theory, aim to use the
above two positions to structure your work. It will give your
explanations greater clarity.
The theory of secularisation
Bryan Wilson (1926–2004) followed a positivist method. He
believed that you could identify trends and make generalisations about religious thinking, practice and institutions by
collecting quantitative data (statistics). This would ensure that
everyone came to the same reliable conclusion that religion
was in decline:
ccthinking — fewer people believed in God or heaven and
hell. Religious thinking was becoming deviant;
ccpractices — church membership and attendance
figures indicated a decline. Fewer people were baptised,
confirmed, married in a church, or entered training for
priesthood. Without people being inducted into the church,
the church would fade away;
institutions
— churches commanded less respect within
cc
society and could no longer influence governments in the
way they used to.
Evaluation
ccWilson’s work was largely responsible for starting the
secularisation debate.
ccBruce (2002) supported Wilson’s theory. He agreed that
religion had lost its social significance, as people were
indifferent to it.
ccWilson and Bruce’s statistical approach is replicable
year on year. Their quantitative evidence allows reliable
comparisons and generalisations to be made.
ccHowever, it can be argued that Wilson and Bruce’s work is
too simplistic and lacks validity and ‘verstehen’. Statistics
do not tell us how people think and feel about religion.
Martin (1978), Davie and Heelas and Woodhead, amongst
others, argued that such theories were simplistic, that they
failed to understand how people felt about religion and that
they lacked validity.
ccFurthermore, Wilson and Bruce’s work is ethnocentric. It is
too focused on Christianity and assumes that what happens
in the UK happens elsewhere. Davie sees the UK as the
exception rather than the norm. Martin (2002) showed that
Pentecostalism was growing dramatically across the world.
Stark and Bainbridge (1987) suggested that religious decline
was short term because life will always be difficult for some,
and religion helps people through such difficulties.
The secularisation debate
The key theoretical arguments for and against the secularisation thesis are:
Schisms/pluralism
Wilson and Bruce noted that when there had been one church,
the truth of the bible, and ‘God’s word’, were not questioned.
However, splits in the church led many people to question the
truth of the bible. If the different churches (and then sects)
could not agree on the central messages from God, then
ordinary people felt they could not know who was right. As a
result, many stopped practising.
Evaluation The fact that the number of churches and sects
continues to grow suggests that people still want religious
answers and support with life’s ultimate questions.
Structural differentiation
Bruce argues that churches have lost many of their old
functions, such as care for the poor and homeless, the
teaching of children and adults, and care for the sick. As a
result, people have little reason to go to church and it has lost
its significance.
Evaluation Parsons (1963) thought this loss of functions
would help religions focus on their main purpose of bringing
God to the people, thus ensuring a defence against
secularisation.
Rationality
Wilson and Bruce have argued that science and technology
provide factual evidence for events, such as environmental
16
Kingsmead School
rites
profane
sect
cult
beliefs
revolution
fundamentalists
spiritual direction
church leaders
church
Growth in Catholicism and Islam in the UK in recent years
suggests that religion can increase in popularity and that
secularisation is not an inevitable long-term downward trend.
In addition, there are regional variations and religiosity is still
high for some groups.
Evaluation Bruce says immigration to the UK by ethnic
minorities means that church attendances and membership
may rise in the short term as a means of cultural transition
(gaining a foothold in the new country) or as cultural defence
(in areas where there is cultural conflict between one or more
groups), but the long term trend is still downwards. Eventually
such groups become secularised.
bbEXAM TIP
Remember that both 18 and 33-mark questions offer a
good many marks for AO2, so make sure that you have an
evaluative point to offer for each AO1 point. Try to think which
point carries most weight and say why, using a ‘because’ to
support your answer. If you reference specific examples of
religions that support the points you make, you will build your
AO2 marks still further.
bbQUESTION ANALYSIS
Privatisation/individuation
Choose three of the reasons above. Only describe them.
Evalution
ccDavie feels that people are as religious (perhaps more
religious) than in the past because they worship in their
own time and in their own way, ‘believing without
belonging’. The British may not go to church often but
they like to know it is there in case they do decide to go
(vicariousness).
ccParents can just as effectively pass on religion to their
children as they do their other norms and values.
ccWoodhead and Heelas (Kendal Project) identified a shift in
religious thinking towards ‘spirituality’, supporting the idea
of personal religiosity.
ccTV or online church offers virtual religious communities
and collective worship, even if people do not leave their
homes.
ccThe success of new religious approaches, like the Alpha
Course and the Emerging Church movement, shows that
people do want to meet to talk about religion and God.
icon
baptism
civil religion
collective conscience
morals
consensus
Rising attendance and membership
Evaluation Davie and others argue that ‘privatisation’ means
that more people worship at home, which still leaves time for
work and play. As the middle class shows more religiosity than
the working class, wealth cannot be a factor.
People now worship privately. Without organised religion
there is no effective way of passing on religion to the next
generation, so it will die out.
faith
Wilson and Bruce have argued that hard work has led to
increasing wealth, which means people have ‘better’ things to
do on a Sunday than go to church.
burqa
Wealth
social solidarity
nts
Evaluation Davie and others argue that times change.
People may lack time but, just as many now shop and bank
online, people can now worship via TV or online (e.g. St Pixels
online church).
y
me
Wilson and Bruce have argued that as a result of the
Protestant work ethic, the commitment to hard work is now so
widespread that people no longer have time for religion.
civ
il re
lig
ve
Protestant work ethic
new religious movements spiritual
y
mo
Evaluation Religious beliefs are built on ‘faith’, so, arguably,
evidence is not needed. Furthermore, science has still not
fully explained who/what created the universe, even if it can
explain events within it, so science does not necessarily
undermine religion.
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disasters and the creation of the universe, and undermine
people’s beliefs in bible ‘stories’ by suggesting that God does
not exist.
posneti
cs
ne tmod
tw
ne
or ern
w
k
sc religi so
hism ou ci
s
et
AQA A2 Sociology Unit 3: Beliefs in Society
charismatic leadership
new age religion
ch
h ritaptissmity
d
fait
ch es
cre
ali
atah
pit fs
c
li e
be
ideosecularisation
totemism
lo postmodern
spirituality
iety
prayer soc nce p ro gicareligious
sect
d te l cospirit
ork ca
tw gnifi us en s ta ntro
ne al si nslogy secondom n ti l
ci
e
ary ina s m
so ns theo sts
so ti
cial o
Eu
n
ro
coationostali
ev pean ex isation
libertec
ts
a
en
n
r
ng ceptioion
pe r amovem
e na
ts
hwiereligniougs eliesthic vnew a licalislsm
ne
a nt ence ic ge
ev testaconsci ny paariou religio
tr sne n
p rollective mo
t leglobaia
rc ss
ge
lis hy
he eis
sm so ad ati
co
urc
sa lt
cu dsiaecth
sion
mis tion
ita ts
med lis
ge io n
an
ev e re lig rol
ag l contfane
w
ne logica pro
ideo
emerging church movement rituals believing without belonging
1. Identify and briefly explain three reasons that could be
offered to explain why religion can be seen to be declining
in society. (9 marks)
2. Using material from the Item and elsewhere, assess the
reasons offered by sociologists for a perceived revival of
religion. (18 marks)
ccUse references to Martin and Davie’s points to create your
argument.
ccWeigh the strength of these arguments, with reference
in each case to the alternative arguments of Bruce and
Wilson.
ccConclude by saying who you think is right and why.
3. ‘In modern society, religious beliefs and religious
behaviour are changing rather than declining.’ To what
extent do sociological arguments and evidence support
this view of contemporary religious belief and practice?
(33 marks)
ccThe introduction will require definitions of what count as
religious beliefs and behaviours.
ccPresent arguments for and against secularisation, with
plenty of examples and evaluation linked to the question.
ccWrite a full conclusion, offering your own views (with
supporting reasons) for whether you believe religion is
changing or declining.
17
Kingsmead School
faith
burqa
social solidarity
icon
baptism
rites
profane
Bare Bones REVISION GUIDE
civil religion
collective conscience
spiritual direction
church leaders
morals
consensus
sect
cult
beliefs
revolution
church
nts
y
me
fundamentalists
ve
civ
il re
lig
new religious movements spiritual
y
mo
o
ci e
re al sorshipn
li lid
b gio arity
s
posneti
cs
ne tmod
tw
ne
or ern
w
k
sc religi so
hism ou ci
s
et
charismatic leadership
new age religion
ch
h ritaptissmity
d
fait
ch es
cre
ali
atah
pit fs
c
li e
be
ideosecularisation
totemism
lo postmodern
spirituality
iety
prayer soc nce p ro gicareligious
sect
d te l cospirit
ork ca
tw gnifi us en s ta ntro
ne al si nslogy secondom n ti l
ci
e
ary ina s m
so ns theo sts
so ti
cial o
Eu
n
ro
coationostali
ev pean ex isation
libertec
ts
a
en
n
r
ng ceptioion
pe r amovem
e na
ts
hwiereligniougs eliesthic vnew a licalislsm
ne
a nt ence ic ge
ev testaconsci ny paariou religio
tr sne n
p rollective mo
t leglobaia
rc ss
ge
lis hy
he eis
sm so ad ati
co
urc
sa lt
cu dsiaecth
sion
mis tion
ita ts
med lis
ge io n
an
ev e re lig rol
ag l contfane
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emerging church movement rituals believing without belonging
Secularisation:
the evidence
bbEXAM TIP
Is religion declining or evolving?
Most English churches are in decline, which supports Wilson
and Bruce. Davie accepts such membership figures, but
argues that many people now ‘believe without belonging’,
while Martin says we should expect to find Pentecostal
churches experiencing further increases in membership.
50% of people claim not to be religious (British Social
Attitudes Survey, 2011), which again would favour Wilson and
Bruce’s argument; but it also allows (although less heavily) for
the idea of ‘believing without belonging’. The Survey supports
Bruce by suggesting that religion will not be passed on to
the next generation as new members are not being found
to replace those dying. In addition, of those brought up in a
religious family, only 14% attend church on a weekly basis.
These statistics go further than Voas (2005), a supporter of
Bruce, who argued that:
cca child with two religious parents had only a 50% chance of
becoming religious;
cca child with one religious parent had only a 25% chance of
becoming religious;
cca child with no religious parents was unlikely to become
religious.
You will not be expected to remember lots of statistics for the
exam, but if you could remember a few (and use them appropriately), you would get credit for this.
ccWilson and Bruce see religion as being in long-term decline.
ccMartin and Davie see religion as evolving (changing or
mutating), just as the other areas of society, such as the
family, education and technology, have done.
bbEXAM TIP
Wilson’s (1966) definition of secularisation can help you to
structure your essays. He said it was ‘…a process whereby
religious thinking, practice and institutions lose social
significance’. You could divide your secularisation essays by
focusing on these three elements (unless the question asks
you to focus on one or two of them).
What does the evidence
suggest?
Religious thinking
Evidence on the number of people who held religious beliefs in
2011 tells us that:
cc34% believed in a personal God or gods (down from 57%
in 2007);
cc10% believed in another higher spiritual power;
cc19% believed in neither of the above;
cc29% were unsure or agnostic; cc40% believed that scientific knowledge offered a better
explanation of the world than religion; 39% disagreed.
Evaluation These statistics suggest that religious beliefs are
not generally widespread and are in decline.
Religious practice: attendance
The most recent reliable statistics on changes in membership
of English churches, between 1980 and 2005, are set out in
the table below:
Church
1980
2005
Difference
1,370,400
870,600
– 499,800
286,900
254,800
– 32,100
2,064,000
893,100
–1,170,900
Methodist
606,400
289,400
– 317,000
Pentecostal
221,100
287,600
+ 66,500
Anglican
(Church of England)
Baptist
Roman Catholic
Religious practice: prayer
Recent statistics on the practice of praying tell us:
cc16% of people claim to pray daily;
cc4% pray once a week;
cc29% never pray at all (suggesting that 71% at least pray
every now and again).
For Davie this tells us that people are still religious. However,
Bruce would argue that these statistics tell us that praying is
not central to people’s lives.
Evaluation Evaluating the secularisation debate comes down
to deciding which approach is better for researching society:
ccWilson and Bruce adopt a positivist method that values the
collection of quantitative data on a macro level. It helps us to:
• remain emotionally detached from the subject;
• compare and contrast findings over the years;
• draw reliable conclusions. Anyone looking at the
statistics would have to agree with their conclusions.
ccMartin and Davie adopt a more interpretivist approach,
believing:
• statistics only tell part of the story;
• we need more detailed responses from people, focusing
on what religion means to them as individuals;
• this will give ‘verstehen’ or understanding of the nature
of religion in society;
18
Kingsmead School
faith
burqa
icon
baptism
rites
profane
civil religion
collective conscience
spiritual direction
church leaders
morals
consensus
sect
cult
beliefs
revolution
fundamentalists
church
Evaluation Davie would suggest that it does not matter if
the government is secular and does not respond to religious
norms: what matters is what individuals believe and how it
shapes their lives individually. Nevertheless, she would also
see plenty of religious influence on policy, suggesting that
religion is still significant:
social solidarity
nts
Arguably, the power of the church to influence society is
determined by the consistency and legitimacy of its argument.
ccThe Occupy campaign of 2011 appeared to split the church.
Initially it was opposed to the tent village established
outside St Paul’s Cathedral in order to campaign against
the perceived unfairness and immorality of the banks
and big business. The church then changed its mind and
accepted the protest village if it kept to particular rules. This
indecision would suggest to advocates of secularisation,
such as Bruce, that the church was not in tune with public
opinion and therefore unable to influence it.
ccA test of the significance of the church in public life might
be found in the proposed reforms of the House of Lords to
be voted upon in 2012. Currently 26 bishops of the Church
of England sit in the House of Lords, but no other faiths
have these rights. The new proposals provide places for a
decreasing number of bishops. To Wilson and Bruce this
would signal a decline in the significance of the Church of
England (and an increase in secularisation), as the church’s
ability to influence laws and policies of the government will
thus be reduced.
ccOne of the roles of the Queen is to defend the Church of
England, as she is the anointed Defender of the Faith. In
2012 she argued for a development of this role: ‘not to
defend Anglicanism to the exclusion of other religions.
Instead, the church has a duty to protect the free practice
of all faiths in this country.’ Confronted by ‘secularising
forces’, all religions need to be supported and defended.
ccIn March 2012, Prime Minister David Cameron announced
plans to allow gay marriage in registry offices. This caused
outrage amongst the leadership of the Catholic Church,
but the rest of society appears to be largely indifferent.
y
me
Wilson argued that religions were unable to impact on wider
society and Bruce argued that people had become indifferent
to the demands of religion. Recent evidence supports this:
ccresearch shows that 16% agree and 70% disagree that
Christians and the church should have more influence over
politics in the country;
cc61% agree and 18% disagree that organised religion is in
terminal decline in the UK;
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still religious — they just express it differently from in the
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posneti
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AQA A2 Sociology Unit 3: Beliefs in Society
charismatic leadership
new age religion
ch
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d
fait
ch es
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ali
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pit fs
c
li e
be
ideosecularisation
totemism
lo postmodern
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prayer soc nce p ro gicareligious
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so ns theo sts
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coationostali
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ng ceptioion
pe r amovem
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hwiereligniougs eliesthic vnew a licalislsm
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ev testaconsci ny paariou religio
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p rollective mo
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emerging church movement rituals believing without belonging
ccin 2011 Cameron made the claim that Britain was still a
Christian country and that ‘we should not be afraid to
say so’. Britain was still ordered by Christian values and
this allowed other faiths to practice in a tolerant society;
cca third of state schools are run by religions, mainly the
Church of England. A number of faiths are taking up the
opportunity to start free schools. It could be argued that this
will have a significant impact on religious socialisation and
supports Davie’s criticism of Voas. While Voas feels that
younger generations will not be socialised into religiosity
because their parents are no longer practising religion,
Davie feels that that there are other ways for people to
encounter religion.
bbEXAM TIP
As government policy is ever changing, keep a regular eye
on the news so that you can use up-to-date examples in your
exam essays.
bbQUESTION ANALYSIS
1. Identify and briefly explain three examples that could
be used to show that religion is declining in society.
(9 marks)
You could focus on declines in belief in God, church
membership and in the influence of the churches on
government. Link each one to a named sociologist.
2. Using material from the Item and elsewhere, assess
the reasons offered by sociologists for the continued
importance of religion in society. (18 marks)
ccUse references to Martin and Davie’s theories to give your
essay a theoretical structure. Offer supporting evidence.
ccThen use the alternative theories of Bruce and Wilson,
plus any evidence, to criticise Martin and Davie.
ccOffer a conclusion explaining whether you agree or disagree
with the case offered for the continued importance of
religion in society.
3. Assess the view that religion has lost its significance in
society. (33 marks)
ccAlthough this is essentially a ‘secularisation’ essay, make
sure that all the points you make are linked to the concept
of ‘significance’.
ccThe three elements of Wilson’s definition of secularisation
(beliefs, practices and institutions) would help give your
essay structure. For each, consider the arguments of Wilson
and Bruce that religion has lost significance, and evaluate
with reference to Martin and Davie who suggest that religion
is still significant.
ccIn your conclusion, discuss which arguments carry most
weight and why. This might include reference to the
‘positivist versus interpretivist’ debate and how sociologists
can really know what is happening in society.
19
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faith
burqa
social solidarity
icon
baptism
rites
profane
Bare Bones REVISION GUIDE
civil religion
collective conscience
spiritual direction
church leaders
morals
consensus
sect
cult
beliefs
revolution
church
nts
y
me
fundamentalists
ve
civ
il re
lig
new religious movements spiritual
y
mo
o
ci e
re al sorshipn
li lid
b gio arity
s
posneti
cs
ne tmod
tw
ne
or ern
w
k
sc religi so
hism ou ci
s
et
charismatic leadership
new age religion
ch
h ritaptissmity
d
fait
ch es
cre
ali
atah
pit fs
c
li e
be
ideosecularisation
totemism
lo postmodern
spirituality
iety
prayer soc nce p ro gicareligious
sect
d te l cospirit
ork ca
tw gnifi us en s ta ntro
ne al si nslogy secondom n ti l
ci
e
ary ina s m
so ns theo sts
so ti
cial o
Eu
n
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coationostali
ev pean ex isation
libertec
ts
a
en
n
r
ng ceptioion
pe r amovem
e na
ts
hwiereligniougs eliesthic vnew a licalislsm
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a nt ence ic ge
ev testaconsci ny paariou religio
tr sne n
p rollective mo
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lis hy
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co
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ev e re lig rol
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ideo
emerging church movement rituals believing without belonging
The contemporary
religious world
This area of the specification encourages you to draw together
your thinking on topics from across Beliefs in Society. Postmodernist theory offers a good way to do this. It argues that:
ccprevious sociological theories are unable to explain changes
evident in contemporary society;
ccit is impossible to generalise experiences. There can be no
one general theory;
cceach individual’s experience of society is different and can
change every day;
ccthe stability of ‘modern’ society has given way to instability,
uncertainty, chaos, risk and contradictions;
ccsociety is subject to both globalisation and a return to
localisation. This can lead to cultural schizophrenia and
hybrids as people combine or fuse cultural influences in
their behaviour patterns. Combinations of both influences
are evident in glocalisation;
ccmass production gives way to niche production, where
goods and services are marketed to meet individual rather
than generalised needs.
Postmodernism
So how does postmodernism explain various aspects of
contemporary religion?
Individualised religion
People no longer accept the truth of one religion. Bruce, for
example, points out that schisms (or splits) in Christianity have
undermined its authority in ‘selling’ the one ‘truth’. The work of
Heelas et al. (2004) on the spiritual revolution suggests that
people are individualising their religious (and spiritual) beliefs
by combining, perhaps, Western and Eastern approaches: in
short, ‘anything goes’.
Evaluation Bruce sees the breakdown and re-interpretation
of religion as an on-going situation in religious history that has
nothing to do with postmodernism. Postmodernists counter
this by saying that the current changes are now much more
dynamic and individualised.
New religious combinations
Developments such as the widespread celebration of
Christmas and the use of Eastern meditation techniques
represent cultural schizophrenia and hybrids. This process
is sometimes referred to as eclecticism and is seen to be
creating a ‘deregulated spiritual market’ (Hunt, 2005). Davie
(2007) believes sociological definitions of religion will need
to change to cope with these new combinations of religious
beliefs and practices.
Evaluation A more flexible use of the substantive definition
of religion helps sociologists spot new forms of religiosity.
However, it could be argued that hybrid religion is not new. For
example, most Christian festivals are adaptations of old pagan
festivals. Christianity, at its formation, was a hybrid of the
traditional and the new, designed to make it more acceptable
to indigenous cultures. Continuous adaptation is not new
either. Christianity has long evolved to suit new circumstances
and this explains the Orthodox and Protestant schisms.
The decline is not linear
Postmodernists criticise secularisation theorists like Bruce for
seeing, in general, a linear decline of religion. They are keener
to accept more complex theories (like those of Davie and
Martin) that see an ebbing and flowing of religion with a series
of high points in religiosity as well as more secularised times.
They also like Martin’s emphasis on regional variations as while
religion may be declining in one locality, it may be rising in
another. Postmodernists suggest there are too many variations
to sum up in one simplified general theory.
Evaluation
ccPostmodernists criticise general theories because of their
failure to account for all people, all cultural variations and
general individual differences. Yet, by offering proposals
that say ‘we are right and you are wrong’, postmodern
theories appear to be offering a new set of predictions and
generalised outcomes. Postmodernism appears to want to
criticise other theories for what it is itself doing.
ccWhere some sociologists, from Comte to Wilson, have
reflected on science and rationality taking the place of
religion in explaining the world, postmodernists have argued
that postmodern changes in society, especially people’s
unwillingness to accept general theories, have undermined
science. In fact, Swatos Jr. and Christiano (1999) have
argued that postmodernism represents ‘the secularisation
of secularism’, meaning all arguments (religious, scientific,
political) are ‘relative truths’ and generally ‘undermined’.
Niche orientation
The postmodern emphasis on individual experience can
be illustrated by new religious developments like Alpha
and the new charismatic or emerging Christian churches.
Alpha represents traditional Christianity trying to offer a
new approach to attract new ‘customers’, using informality,
meals and group discussion. It is heavily marketed, in order
to compete with the alternative demands on people’s time
and money, and consumable items like DVDs, CDs, manuals,
booklets, leaflets, postcards and posters can be bought from
20
Kingsmead School
faith
burqa
social solidarity
icon
baptism
rites
profane
civil religion
collective conscience
spiritual direction
church leaders
morals
consensus
sect
cult
beliefs
revolution
church
nts
y
me
fundamentalists
ve
civ
il re
lig
new religious movements spiritual
y
mo
o
ci e
re al sorshipn
li lid
b gio arity
s
posneti
cs
ne tmod
tw
ne
or ern
w
k
sc religi so
hism ou ci
s
et
AQA A2 Sociology Unit 3: Beliefs in Society
charismatic leadership
new age religion
ch
h ritaptissmity
d
fait
ch es
cre
ali
atah
pit fs
c
li e
be
ideosecularisation
totemism
lo postmodern
spirituality
iety
prayer soc nce p ro gicareligious
sect
d te l cospirit
ork ca
tw gnifi us en s ta ntro
ne al si nslogy secondom n ti l
ci
e
ary ina s m
so ns theo sts
so ti
cial o
Eu
n
ro
coationostali
ev pean ex isation
libertec
ts
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en
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r
ng ceptioion
pe r amovem
e na
ts
hwiereligniougs eliesthic vnew a licalislsm
ne
a nt ence ic ge
ev testaconsci ny paariou religio
tr sne n
p rollective mo
t leglobaia
rc ss
ge
lis hy
he eis
sm so ad ati
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sa lt
cu dsiaecth
sion
mis tion
ita ts
med lis
ge io n
an
ev e re lig rol
ag l contfane
w
ne logica pro
ideo
emerging church movement rituals believing without belonging
its online shop. This is strongly in line with the postmodern
belief that shopping has become a major leisure activity.
The new charismatic Christian churches are more
(g)localised and often aim at niche markets, such as young
single people, homosexuals, families or black Africans, though
they may be all-inclusive. This niche orientation appears to be
attracting members, at least in the short term.
This has allowed the spread of religious ideas and the hybridity
of people’s religiosity. Religions use the Internet to ‘sell’ (often
literally) their beliefs and practices, having their own websites,
often with a ‘shop’ where you can buy books, DVDs, clothing,
badges, etc. St Pixels, a Christian group, operates exclusively
online. Initially localised religions are able to expand their
operations globally through the Internet.
Evaluation Bruce sees this change as the further evolution
of religion to cope with secularising pressures, change that
undermines the authority of religion.
Evaluation
ccWhile the Network Society may allow people to search for
new religious experiences, Bruce argues that few actually
‘buy’ or ‘consume’ the religion for long: secularisation
continues.
ccBruce also argues that the emphasis on privatised,
individualised religion means that there is no organisational
structure to support the socialisation of the next generation.
Eventually, religion will die out altogether.
bbEXAM TIP
You will get credit for being able to talk about specific current
examples of changing religiosity. Try researching the following
on the web: Alpha course; Emerging Church; Sanctus 1
Manchester; New Life Church; Islington Unitarians; Kingsway
International Christian Centre.
Globalisation
Globalisation (with relevant local variations) is evident in
globally expanding Pentecostalism (Martin, 2002). Pentecostalism shares the key central ideas of Christianity, but ‘sells’
itself differently in different places. Davie argues that Pope
John Paul II ‘was a global figure in every sense of the term’
(2007). His face was known across the world and he was able
to use the world’s media to present his case. At his death,
the world’s political and religious leaders (whatever their
persuasion) had positive things to say about him.
Globalisation is linked to inter-continental geographical
mobility that introduces people to new faiths or ‘old’ faiths
in new ways. For example, Brazilian and Polish Catholics
have revitalised the British Catholic Church, bringing
lapsed Catholics back to the church to join in too. Religious
identities may replace national identities: people may identify
themselves as Christian or Muslim rather than as British.
Evaluation Fundamentalism may be seen as a cultural
reaction against globalisation and its push towards a
generalised culture. Fundamentalists appear to be aiming for
a return to a (perfect) society (and time) prior to globalisation and this drives their religiously inspired actions, such as
the protests outside abortion clinics by Christian fundamentalists and the 9/11 bombings by Islamic fundamentalists.
Bruce believes that the rest of the world will eventually adopt
the secular path of the industrialised nations and he sees
fundamentalism as the death gurgle of religion before a more
globalised secularisation.
The Network Society
24/7 digital media and the Internet are helping drive globalisation.
They present a variety of ‘truths’ and make them seem real.
bbEXAM TIP
Students often perceive postmodern theory to be more difficult
than it actually is. The theory does not have to lead to a really
complicated answer. If you use the six points discussed
above, this will help you to structure a clear answer that builds
in lots of examples and evaluation, which will earn you high
marks.
bbQUESTION ANALYSIS
1. Identify and briefly explain three examples that could
be offered to explain why religion of the 21st century is
different from religion of the past. (9 marks)
You could offer three from: individualised religion; new religious
combinations; globalisation/glocalisation and fundamentalism;
and the Network Society.
2. Using material from the Item and elsewhere, assess
the reasons offered by sociologists for the link between
contemporary religion and social change. (18 marks)
ccExplain the themes suggested for Question 1 in more detail.
ccCompare and contrast them with ideas on religion and
social stability or change.
ccWho is right: functionalists, Marxists or postmodernists?
Why?
3. Assess postmodernist explanations of the role and
functions of religion in contemporary society. (33 marks)
ccBriefly explain the role and functions of religion according
to functionalists like Durkheim and Malinowski, as well as
Marxists, neo-Marxists and feminists.
ccOutline postmodern theories and compare/contrast
them with the traditional functionalist and Marxist ideas.
ccEvaluate postmodern theories and explain whether
they offer a useful insight into the role and functions of
contemporary religion.
21
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