Chemistry 1500 - Allen D. Hunter

Chemistry 1500 Dr. Hunter’s Class Topic 1 - Page 1

Chemistry 1500: Chemistry in Modern Living

Topic 1: The Air We Breathe

States of Matter, Reactions, and Risk

Chemistry in Context, 2 nd

Edition (1997): Chapter 1, Pages 1-34

Chemistry in Context, 3 rd


Chemistry in Context, 4 th


Chemistry in Context, 5 th


The Figure, Table, & Problem numbers in these notes are taken from the 4 th

edition of the text.

Outline Notes by Dr. Allen D. Hunter, YSU Department of

Chemistry,

©

2000 - 2007.

¾

Graphics from Text: Figure 1.0, Earth seen from space

©

2000 - 2007, Dr. Allen D. Hunter, Department of Chemistry, Youngstown State University


Outline

1A WHAT IS AIR? .............................................................................................................................................3

1B THE MAJOR COMPONENTS OF AIR.....................................................................................................6

1C THE 1% LEFT OVER IN “DRY” AIR ....................................................................................................10

1D MEASURING SMALL QUANTITIES .....................................................................................................12

1E SCIENTIFIC NOTATION .........................................................................................................................13

1F THE MINOR COMPONENTS OF AIR (MAJOR POLLUTANTS) .....................................................19

1G RISK ASSESSMENT..................................................................................................................................22

1H BREATH ......................................................................................................................................................25

1I STATES OF MATTER...............................................................................................................................26

1J AIR PRESSURE AND THE ATMOSPHERE .........................................................................................28

1K ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS, AND MIXTURES....................................................................................32

1L ATOMS, MOLECULES, AND FORMULAE ..........................................................................................33

1M WHAT IS A MOLE? ..................................................................................................................................34

1N REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS.............................................................................................................36

1O FIRE AND FUEL ........................................................................................................................................38

1P AIR QUALITY............................................................................................................................................39

1Q DEADLY AIR POLLUTION, DEADLY FOG ........................................................................................45

1R PHOTOCHEMICAL SMOG .....................................................................................................................46

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1A What is Air?

¾

Views about Air in history

¾

Ask Students: What are some evidence that air has substance?

¾

Group Activity

¾

¾

¾

©


Chemistry 1500 Dr. Hunter’s Class

¾

Ask Students to Estimate Breathe Volume

¾

Group Activity

¾

Estimate the daily volume of air you breathe

¾

An example of estimation

¾

Carry out the experiment

¾

Typical “group exam” type question

Topic 1 - Page 4

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¾

What is “accuracy” and “precision”

¾

Accuracy tells you how close your answer is to the

“true value”

¾

Precision tell you how much “variability” is in your answer

¾

Upper and lower bounds

¾

Outliers

¾

Causes include real variability , measurement error and calculation error , and random error

¾

Role of Experiment

¾

Individual educated guess

¾

Group educated guess

¾

Rough Experiment

¾

Better Experiment

¾

Precise Experiment

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1B The Major Components of Air

¾

Graphics from Text: Table 1.2, 1 st

Column of Composition of

Inhaled & Exhaled Air, & Figure 1.3, the Composition of Air

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Nitrogen

¾

The “ inert ” component of air

¾

N

2

very seldom involved in chemical reactions

¾

Few organisms can use/react N

2

¾

Very difficult for earliest chemists to find

¾ ≈

78% of air

¾

Used industrially to “ blanket ” air sensitive processes such as steal making

¾

Liquefies at -196

°

C, 77 K

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¾

Oxygen

¾

The “reactive” component of air

¾

O

2

involved in MANY chemical reactions, highly reactive

¾

Oxygen “ oxidize s” other chemicals (steals their electrons )

¾

All organisms react O

2

¾

Some require it, aerobic organisms

¾

Some killed by it, anaerobic organisms

¾

Always toxic unless the organism has the “tools” to detoxify it

¾ ≈

21% of air

¾

Used industrially to “ oxidize ” materials in welding , chemical synthesis , etc.

¾

Liquefies at - 183

°

C, 90 K

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¾

Ask Students: When would these percentages of the various gasses in air vary?

¾

Group Activity

¾

¾

¾

Ask Students: What happens when the O

2

content increases ?

¾

Group Activity

¾

Effects on a Car

¾

Effects on a Person

¾

Effects on a Apple

¾

Ask Students: What happens when the O

2

content decreases ?

¾

Group Activity

¾

Effects on a Car

¾

Effects on a Person

¾

Effects on a Apple

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1C The 1% Left Over in “Dry” Air

¾

Argon

¾

Another “ inert ” component of air

¾

Ar is almost never involved in chemical reactions

¾

Used industrially as an inert blanket, especially in welding & steal making

¾

No organisms can react Ar

¾ ≈

0.9% of air

¾

Carbon Dioxide

¾

Another “reactive” component of air

¾

CO

2

involved in many chemical reactions

¾

Almost all organisms can react CO

2

¾ ≈

0.035% of air we breathe in

¾ ≈

4% of air we breathe out

¾

Toxic in high concentrations, used in fire extinguishers

¾ solid CO

2

, “ dry ice ”, sublimes at -78

°

C

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¾

Water

¾

Another “reactive” component of air

¾

H

2

O involved in MANY chemical reactions

¾

All organisms can react H

2

O

¾

In fact: they exist in a sea of H

2

O and it is involved in all biochemical processes either directly or indirectly

¾ ≈

0-4 % of air we breathe in (depends on humidity )

¾ ≈

4% of air we breathe out

¾

Melts at 0

°

C (273 K), 32

°

F

¾

Boils at 100

°

C (373K), 212

°

F

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1D Measuring Small Quantities

¾

Percentage , %

¾

1 % = 1/100

¾

Mellon

¾

Parts Per Million , PPM

¾

1 PPM = 1/1,000,000

¾

Grape

¾

Parts Per Billion , PPB

¾

1 PPB = 1/1,000,000,000

¾

Sugar grain

¾

Parts Per Trillion , PPT

¾

1 PPT = 1/1,000,000,000,000

¾

Speck of dust

Topic 1 - Page 12

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1E Scientific Notation

¾

Used to express very large numbers or very small numbers in a compact form

¾

This saves space in writing and time in talking

¾

602,300,000,000,000,000,000,000 = 6.023 x 10

23

( mole )

¾

0.000,000,000,1 = 1 x 10

-10

( atomic distances in meters)

¾

How to Express Scientific Notation

¾

First number x 10 second number

¾

The first number is used to “fine tune” the value

¾

The second number is used to give the “size” of the value

¾

“ Order of magnitude ”

¾

Tells you how far to shift the decimal point and in what direction

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¾

Examples

¾

3 x 10

4

= 30,000

¾

5 x 10

7

= 50,000,000

¾

3 x 10

-4

= 0.000,3

¾

5 x 10

-7

= 0.000,000,5

¾

3.02 x 10

4

= 30,200

¾

5.26 x 10

7

= 52,600,000

¾

3.02 x 10

-4

= 0.000,302

¾

5.26 x 10

-7

= 0.000,000,526

Topic 1 - Page 14

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Ask Students: Express each of the following numbers as conventional numbers or scientific notation , as required.

¾

Group Activity

¾

2.68 x 10

3

¾

2,680,000

¾

2.68 x 10

-3

¾

0.000,000,268

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This is a convenient way to express Significant Figures

¾

A measure of the Precision of a measurement (i.e., the number of reliable figures )

¾

The number of significant figures of the answer can’t be higher than the number of significant figures of any of the data put into the problem

¾

The first number in the scientific notation tells us the number of significant figures

¾

3 x 10

4

= 30,000 has 1 significant figure

¾

3 x 10

-4

= 0.000,3 has 1 significant figure

¾

3.02 x 10

4

= 30,200 has 3 significant figure

¾

3.0256 x 10

-4

= 0.000,302,56 has 5 significant figure

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¾

Ask Students: Give the number of significant figures .

¾

Group Activity

¾

2.68 x 10

3

¾

2,680,000

¾

2.68 x 10

-3

¾

0.000,000,268

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¾

Ask Students to calculate the mileage ( mpg ) of a car that travels 173 miles on 12 gallons of gas

¾

Group Activity

¾

Ask students to discuss what the number of significant figures should be

¾

173/12 = 14.416666…???

¾

173/11 = 15.727273…

¾

173/13 = 13.307692…

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1F The Minor Components of Air (Major Pollutants)

¾

Four Main Gasses fall into this category

¾

Carbon Monoxide , CO

¾

4-10 ppm

¾

Poison via its interaction with hemoglobin

¾

Ozone , O

3

¾ up to 0.2 ppm (200 ppb)

¾ very irritating to mucous membranes

¾

Sulfur Oxides , SO x

¾

SO x

= SO

2

and SO

3

¾

Mixture up to 0.3 ppm (30 ppb)

¾ from combustion of fossil fuels rich in sulfur

¾

Nitrogen Oxides , NO x

¾

NO x

= NO and NO

2

and others, Mixture

¾ up to 0.05 ppm (50 ppb)

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Topic 1 - Page 19


¾ from high temperature combustion reactions

Topic 1 - Page 20

¾

Ask Students: Which cities have pollution about the federally mandated pollution limits

¾

Group Activity

¾

Graphics from Text: Table 1.3, Gaseous Pollution Levels for

Major US Cities

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¾

Ask Students: What factors contribute to some cities having particularly high levels of pollution or particularly low levels of pollution ?

¾

Group Activity

¾

¾

¾

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1G Risk Assessment

¾

The Key Variables/Questions that must be considered when evaluating the risk of an activity, item, etc.

¾

Exposure

¾

Was the individual exposed to an Average Dose or an

Extreme Dose

¾

Was it a Chronic Exposure or was it an Acute Exposure

¾

The relative importance of these variables is due to the individual mechanism of chemical and biological interactions

¾

Dose - Response Curves : Toxicity at micro doses vs. harmless below some critical dose

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¾

Toxicity and its Evaluation

¾

Efficacy and Ethics both come into play

¾

Each method has strengths and weaknesses

¾

Studies on Individual People

¾

Human Population Studies

¾

Natural Controlled Experiments

¾

Animal Studies

¾

Microorganisms

¾

Tissues

¾

Computer Models

Topic 1 - Page 23

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¾

Risk

≈

Exposure (Amount & Type) x Toxicity

¾

Multiple combinations of variables

¾

(Average Dose x Chronic Exposure) x Toxicity

¾

(Average Dose x Acute Exposure) x Toxicity

¾

(Extreme Dose x Chronic Exposure) x Toxicity

¾

(Extreme Dose x Acute Exposure) x Toxicity

¾

Value Judgements

¾

The numbers for Risk can be calculated with reasonable precision

¾

Differences between experts due to differences in input data and differences in the model used

¾

The meaning of the numbers (i.e., is the risk acceptable or is the risk to bad) can only be based on individual values and community values

¾

Group Discussion

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1H Breath

¾

Inhaled Air and Exhaled Air

¾

Graphics from Text: Table 1.2, Composition of Inhaled &

Exhaled Air

¾

What happens in metabolism ? ( Fire !)

¾

O

2

consumed

¾

CO

2

and H

2

O exhaled

Gas Inhaled % Exhaled %

N

2

78% 75%

O

2

21% 16%

CO

2

0.03% 4%

H

2

O 0-4% 4%

¾

Ask Students: Why does each gas go up or down?

¾

Group Activity

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1I States of Matter

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States of Matter are Defined by Physical Properties

¾

Physical Properties

¾

Dimensional Stability

¾

Flow Up vs. Flow Down

¾

Density

¾

States of Matter

¾

Solid

¾

Liquid

¾

Gas

¾

Reactions of Matter are Defined Primarily by Chemical

Properties

¾

No fundamental change in reactivity when the state changes

¾

The rates of reactions may change

¾

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¾

Elements, Compounds, & Mixtures

¾

Group Project - Find 5 examples of each around your house.

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Graphics from Text: Figure 1.7 and Table 1.5, Classification of matter

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1J Air Pressure and the Atmosphere

¾

Graphics from Text: Figure 1.4 & Figure 1.5, The regions of the

Atmosphere

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¾

Regions of the Atmosphere

¾

Mesosphere

¾

Above about 30 miles / 50 Km

¾

Stratosphere

¾

Above Passenger Jets

¾

Contains “ Ozone Layer ”

¾

Troposphere

¾

Where we live, below about 10 miles / 17 Km

¾

Contains the “ Biosphere ” and the “ Geosphere ”

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¾

Atmospheric Pressure

¾

14.7 psi ( pounds per square inch )

¾

1 atmosphere

¾

Pressure Gradient

¾

Caused by a Balance of Forces

¾

Molecular Motion causes molecules to want to fly free

¾

Gravity causes the molecules to be attracted to the surface

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Graphics from Text: Figure 1.6, Atmospheric Pressure

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1K Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures

¾

Element

¾

Purity and Indivisibility

¾

Compound

¾


¾

Mixture

¾


¾

Ask Students: Identify five each of Elements, Compounds, and

Mixtures found in your home

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Group Activity

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1L Atoms, Molecules, and Formulae

¾

The Interaction of Theory and Experiment

¾

How do we know:

¾

The structure and size of Atoms

¾

Diffraction

¾

Elegant “ wet experiments ”

¾

E.g., surface films

¾

The formulae

¾

Definite ratio of elements

¾

Elemental Analysis

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Molecular Weight ( Molecular Mass )

¾

The structure and size of molecules

¾

Diffraction of X-rays

¾

Sporting Methods based on electromagnetic radiation

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1M What is a Mole?

¾

A small furry creature that looks like a mouse without a tail

¾

A number (like a dozen)

¾

602,300,000,000,000,000,000,000

¾

6.023 x 10

23

¾

Avogadro’s Number

¾

Relates the number of atoms to macroscopic scales (i.e., atomic mass units , AMU , to grams)

¾

Examples of the size of a mole

¾

Air you breathe

¾

One litter of air contains 2.69 x 10

22

molecules

¾

One breath of air contains

≈

10

22

molecules

¾

Considering the total volume of air in the atmosphere

¾

Each breath contains about 6 x 10

8

molecules previously breathed by any historical figure

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¾

Marshmallows

¾

One Avogadro of marshmallows would cover the US 650 miles thick

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Money

¾

One Avogadro of dollars given to the world would let each person spend one million dollars per hour till they die without using all of the money up

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1N Reactions and Equations

¾

An Equation is a Chemical Sentence

¾

It tells you the relative proportions of the different reactants and products

Reactants

→

Products

¾

One of the main skills in Chemistry is to be able to balance a chemical reaction

¾

The key ideas in this are that YOU ARE NOT

ALLOWED TO CHANGE THE FORMULAE OF

MOLECULES and that YOU CHECK YOUR WORK

___ CO + ___ H

2

O

→

___ H

2

CO

2

___ Na + ___ Cl

2

→

___ NaCl

___ H

2

+ ___ O

2

→

___ H

2

O

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¾

Ask Students: Balance each of the following reactions.

¾

Group Activity

___ O

3

→

___ O

2

___ C + ___ O

2

→

___ CO

2

___ CaO + ___ HCl

→

___ CaCl

2

+ ___H

2

O

___ CH

4

+ ___ Br

2

→

___ CH

2

Br

2

+ ___ HBr

___ C

2

H

6

+ ___ O

2

→

___ CO

2

+ ___H

2

O

___ H

2

SO

4

+ ___ NaOH

→

___ Na

2

SO

4

+ ___ H

2

O

___ C

6

H

6

+ ___ I

2

+ ___ O

2

→

___ C

6

H

3

I

3

+ ___ H

2

O

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1O Fire and Fuel

¾

Hydrocarbons

¾

Molecules composed only of Carbon and Hydrogen

¾

Natural Gas

¾

Methane , CH

4

, major component

¾

Hydrogen Sulfide , H

2

S , added because of its smell

¾

Toxic at higher concentrations

¾

C2, C3, and C4 alkanes now removed for plastics manufacture

CH

4

+ 2O

2

→

CO

2

+ 2 H

2

0 + Heat

C

8

H

18

( Octane ) + 12.5 O

2

→

8 CO

2

+ 9 H

2

0 + Heat

¾

What happens if one uses an excess of O

2

¾

What happens if one uses a shortage of O

2

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1P Air Quality

¾

Graphics from Text: Figure 1.12, Figure 1.13, Table 1.4, Table

1.8, and Table 1.9, Recent changes in the average air pollution in the US

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©



¾

Ask Students: Answer the following questions.

¾

Group Activity

¾

Why hasn’t NO x

gone down?

¾

Why has SO x

dropped so much?

¾

Why did Lead , Pb , drop?

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¾

Why is CO lower?

Topic 1 - Page 42

¾

Why have VOC s ( Volatile Organic Compounds ) dropped?

¾

Why have PM-10 ( Particulate Matter - 10

µ

, TSP ( Total

Suspended Particulates )) dropped?

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¾

International Comparisons

¾

Graphics from Text: Table 1.10, International air pollution

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¾

Indoor Air Pollution & Radon

¾

Graphics from Text: Table 1.11, Indoor air pollution

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1Q Deadly Air Pollution, Deadly Fog

¾

1952 London England , 4,000 Deaths

¾

1948 Donora PA , 20 Deaths

¾

Why was pollution so acutely toxic in these times and places?

¾

Aerosols (liquid whose drops are so small they float) breathed into lungs

¾

Metals in ash particulates catalyze the conversion of SO

2

to

SO

3

SO

2

+ 1/2 SO

3

→

SO

3

SO

3

+ H

2

0

→

H

2

SO

4

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1R Photochemical Smog

¾

Heat in car engines, etc., leads to NO x

formation

¾

NO x

reacts with VOC to produce O

3

¾

Ozone is one of the most irritating components of smog

¾

Can be fought by lowering NO x

and/or VOC

N

2

+ O

2

→

2 NO

NO + 1/2 O

2

→

NO

2

Problems : xxx

NO x

+ Hydrocarbons + sunlight

→

O

3

©



Index of Vocabulary and Major Topics

6

6.023 x 10

23

......................................... 13, 35

A catalyze ..................................................... 45

CH

4

............................................................ 38

CHANGE THE FORMULAE OF

Accuracy ..................................................... 5

Acute Exposure ......................................... 22 aerobic organisms ....................................... 8

Aerosols .................................................... 45

Air ............................................................... 3

Air Pressure and the Atmosphere ............. 28

Air Quality ................................................ 39 air sensitive ................................................. 7 alkanes ....................................................... 38

AMU ......................................................... 34 anaerobic organisms .................................... 8

Animal Studies .......................................... 23

Ar ........................................................ 10, 25

Argon ........................................................ 10 ash ............................................................. 45

Ask Students .. 3, 4, 9, 15, 17, 20, 21, 25, 32,

37, 41 atmosphere ................................................ 30

Atmospheric Pressure ......................... 30, 31 atomic distances ........................................ 13 atomic mass units ...................................... 34

Atoms ........................................................ 33

Atoms, Molecules, and Formulae ............. 33

Average Dose ............................................ 22

Avogadro ................................................... 35

Avogadro’s Number .................................. 34

B balance a chemical reaction ...................... 36

Balance of Forces ...................................... 30

Better Experiment ....................................... 5 biochemical processes ............................... 11

Biosphere .................................................. 30 blanket ......................................................... 7

Boils .......................................................... 11

Breath........................................................ 25

C

C

8

H

18

......................................................... 38 calculation error .......................................... 5

Carbon ....................................................... 38

Carbon Dioxide ......................................... 10

Carbon Monoxide ..................................... 19

MOLECULES ..................................... 36

CHECK YOUR WORK ......................... 36

Chemical Properties .................................. 26

Chemical Sentence .................................... 36 chemical synthesis ...................................... 8

Chronic Exposure ...................................... 22

CO ....................................................... 19, 42

CO

2

...................................................... 10, 25 combinations of variables ......................... 24 combustion ................................................ 19 community values ..................................... 24

Compound ................................................. 32

Computer Models ...................................... 23 conventional numbers ............................... 15 critical dose ............................................... 22

D daily volume of air ...................................... 4

Deadly Air Pollution, Deadly Fog ............ 45

Deaths ....................................................... 45

Density ...................................................... 26 detoxify ....................................................... 8

Diffraction ................................................. 33

Diffraction of X-rays ................................. 33

Dimensional Stability ................................ 26

Donora PA ................................................ 45

Dose - Response Curves ........................... 22 dry ice ........................................................ 10

E educated guess ............................................ 5

Effects on a Apple ....................................... 9

Effects on a Car ........................................... 9

Effects on a Person ...................................... 9

Efficacy ..................................................... 23 electromagnetic radiation .......................... 33 electrons ...................................................... 8

Element ..................................................... 32

Elemental Analysis ................................... 33

Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures ....... 32

Equation .................................................... 36

Estimate ....................................................... 4

Ethics ......................................................... 23

©


Chemistry 1500 Dr. Hunter’s Class evaluating the risk ..................................... 22 evidence ...................................................... 3 excess of O

2

............................................... 38

Exhaled Air ............................................... 25

Experiment ............................................ 5, 33

Exposure ................................................... 22

Extreme Dose ............................................ 22

F federally mandated pollution limits .......... 20

Figure 1.0

.................................................... 1

Figure 1.12

................................................ 39

Figure 1.13

................................................ 39

Figure 1.3

.................................................... 6

Figure 1.4

.................................................. 28

Figure 1.5

.................................................. 28

Figure 1.6

.................................................. 31

Figure 1.7

.................................................. 27

Fire ............................................................ 25

Fire and Fuel ............................................. 38 fire extinguishers ....................................... 10 formulae .................................................... 33 fossil fuels ................................................. 19

G

Gas ............................................................ 26

Gaseous Pollution ..................................... 20

Geosphere ................................................. 30

Grape ......................................................... 12

Graphics from Text .. 1, 6, 20, 25, 27, 28, 31,

39, 43, 44

Gravity ...................................................... 30

Group Activity 3, 4, 9, 15, 17, 18, 20, 21, 25,

32, 37, 41

H

H

2

O ..................................................... 11, 25

H

2

S ............................................................ 38

Heat ..................................................... 38, 46 hemoglobin ............................................... 19 high levels of pollution ............................. 21 high temperature combustion .................... 20 historical figure ......................................... 34

Human Population Studies ........................ 23 humidity .................................................... 11

Hydrocarbons ...................................... 38, 46

Hydrogen ................................................... 38

Hydrogen Sulfide ...................................... 38

Topic 1 - Page 48

I individual values ....................................... 24

Indivisibility .............................................. 32

Indoor air pollution ................................... 44 inert ....................................................... 7, 10

Inhaled & Exhaled Air .............................. 25

Inhaled Air ................................................ 25

International air pollution ......................... 43 irritating components of smog .................. 46

L

Lead ........................................................... 41

Liquefies ..................................................... 7

Liquid ........................................................ 26

London England ........................................ 45 low levels of pollution .............................. 21

M macroscopic scales .................................... 34

Marshmallows ........................................... 35 measurement error ...................................... 5

Measuring Small Quantities...................... 12 mechanism of chemical and biological interactions ............................................ 22

Mellon ....................................................... 12

Melts ......................................................... 11

Mesosphere ............................................... 29 metabolism ................................................ 25

Metals ........................................................ 45

Methane ..................................................... 38

Microorganisms ........................................ 23 mileage ...................................................... 18

Mixture ...................................................... 32 mole ........................................................... 13

Molecular Motion ..................................... 30 molecules .................................................. 33

Money ....................................................... 35 mouse ........................................................ 34 mpg ........................................................... 18 mucous membranes ................................... 19

N

N

2

.......................................................... 7, 25

Natural Controlled Experiments ............... 23

Natural Gas ............................................... 38

Nitrogen ...................................................... 7

Nitrogen Oxides ........................................ 19

NO ............................................................. 19

NO

2

........................................................... 19

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NO x

............................................... 19, 41, 46

O

O

2

.......................................................... 8, 25

O

2

content decreases ................................... 9

O

2

content increases .................................... 9

O

3

........................................................ 19, 46

Octane ....................................................... 38

Order of magnitude ................................... 13 organisms .................................................... 8

Outliers........................................................ 5

Outline......................................................... 2 oxidize ......................................................... 8

Oxygen ........................................................ 8

Ozone ........................................................ 19

Ozone Layer .............................................. 29

P

Particulate Matter - 10

µ

........................... 42 particulates ................................................ 45

Parts Per Billion ........................................ 12

Parts Per Million ....................................... 12

Parts Per Trillion ....................................... 12

Pb .............................................................. 41

Percentage ................................................. 12 percentages .................................................. 9

Photochemical Smog ................................ 46

Physical Properties .................................... 26

PM-10 ....................................................... 42 pounds per square inch .............................. 30

PPB ........................................................... 12

PPM ........................................................... 12

PPT ............................................................ 12

Precise Experiment ..................................... 5

Precision ................................................ 5, 16

Pressure Gradient ...................................... 30

Problems ................................................... 46

Products ..................................................... 36 psi .............................................................. 30

Purity ......................................................... 32

R

Radon ........................................................ 44 random error ................................................ 5 ratio of elements ........................................ 33

Reactants ................................................... 36

Reactions ................................................... 26

Reactions and Equations ........................... 36 reactive ........................................................ 8

Topic 1 - Page 49

Regions of the Atmosphere ....................... 29 reliable figures .......................................... 16

Risk ........................................................... 24

Risk Assessment ....................................... 22

Risk

≈

Exposure x Toxicity ...................... 24

Rough Experiment ...................................... 5

S scientific notation ...................................... 15

Scientific Notation .................................... 13 shortage of O

2

........................................... 38 significant figures ................................ 16, 17

Significant Figures .................................... 16 size of a mole ............................................ 34

SO

2

...................................................... 19, 45

SO

3

...................................................... 19, 45

Solid .......................................................... 26

SO x

...................................................... 19, 41

Speck of dust ............................................. 12

Sporting Methods ...................................... 33

States of Matter ......................................... 26 steal making .......................................... 7, 10

Stratosphere ............................................... 29

Studies on Individual People .................... 23 sublimes .................................................... 10

Sugar grain ................................................ 12

Sulfur Oxides ............................................ 19 sunlight ...................................................... 46

T

Table 1.1

..................................................... 6

Table 1.10

................................................. 43

Table 1.11

................................................. 44

Table 1.2

................................................... 25

Table 1.3

................................................... 20

Table 1.4

................................................... 39

Table 1.8

................................................... 39

Table 1.9

................................................... 39

The 1% Left Over in “Dry” Air ................ 10

The Major Components of Air.................... 6

The Minor Components of Air (Major

Pollutants) ............................................. 19

Theory ....................................................... 33

Tissues ....................................................... 23

Total Suspended Particulates .................... 42 toxic ............................................................. 8

Toxicity and its Evaluation ....................... 23

Troposphere .............................................. 29

©



TSP ............................................................ 42

V

Value Judgements ..................................... 24 very large numbers .................................... 13 very small numbers ................................... 13

VOC .................................................... 42, 46

Volatile Organic Compounds ................... 42

W

Topic 1 - Page 50

Water ......................................................... 11 welding .................................................. 8, 10 wet experiments ........................................ 33

What is a Mole .......................................... 34

What is Air.................................................. 3

©


Chemistry 1500 - Allen D. Hunter

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