The Manager’s
Good Study Guide
Sheila Tyler
CONTENTS
Introduction to The Manager’s Good Study Guide
1
Section 1
Chapter 1
Chapter 2
Chapter 3
Chapter 4
Learning
Working with your natural resources
Managing your learning
Learning skills
Working with others
3
6
20
32
73
Section 2
Chapter 5
Chapter 6
Chapter 7
Chapter 8
Management tools and techniques
Working with numbers
Effective ways of displaying information
Investigative methods
Working with data
103
105
116
140
156
Section 3
Chapter 9
Your career
Managing your career
179
181
Section 4
Chapter 10
Chapter 11
Chapter 12
Chapter 13
Chapter 14
Chapter 15
Compendium of key management ideas
Strategy and the organisation
Marketing
Finance
Leadership, management and motivation
Managing people
Monitoring and evaluation
195
198
222
244
276
295
317
Appendices
Appendix 1 Approaches to Learning and Studying Inventory:
Self-score Version
Appendix 2 Using an apostrophe: answers to test
Appendix 3 The Open University Business School
337
References
356
Acknowledgements
361
Index
363
339
353
354
Introduction to The Manager’s Good
Study Guide
This book is designed to:
n help you improve your learning skills
n provide you with management concepts, tools and techniques.
Why do you need both? The text is based on the notion of adult vocational
learning – the idea that managers apply their knowledge in the workplace
and learn from the results. The book is designed to help you understand this
process and provide you with a wealth of management tools and techniques
that you can use at work.
Who is this book for?
The book is aimed at managers who are following formal courses of study,
and those who want to improve their skills informally without the aid of
courses and tutors. Fortunately, almost all study skills are ones you need
everyday in your professional life. For example, the writing skills you may
need for a course assignment are just as relevant when you write reports at
work. The inclusion of management concepts, tools and techniques in the
book is self-explanatory: they constitute the basic ‘kit’ every manager should
have. The book will be valuable as a handy reference text whether or not
you are currently studying a management course.
How to use this book
The Manager’s Good Study Guide is not designed to be read chapter by
chapter, cover to cover. We know you are too busy for that! Instead, it is
organised so that you can look up specific topics.
The only parts of the book which you would benefit from reading as
complete texts are Chapter 1 on adult learning and Chapter 9 on career
development. The reason for this is that there are no ‘quick fixes’ to learning
or career development and these chapters contain a progression of ideas.
You need to understand what learning is and how to learn as an adult, using
strategies and tactics that ensure you get the most from your time and effort.
As a manager or someone who is aspiring to be one, you already know how
valuable resources can be wasted when people have insufficient knowledge
and, worse, are unaware of it. Are you sure you know how to learn the
adult way? And are you prepared ?
The remainder of the book can be used for reference. It is a book to which
you can turn regularly for guidance both when you are studying and when
you are dealing with everyday situations at work. You can explore and
identify the kinds of techniques that every manager should know.
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY BUSINESS SCHOOL
1
CHAPTER 1 WORKING WITH YOUR NATURAL RESOURCES
Learning as a social activity
Our own knowledge and thinking are in some sense, unique to each of us
because we ‘construct’ them individually. But they are likely to have much
in common with those of the people around us. This is because knowledge,
meaning, understanding our experiences and ways of thinking have not
been developed in isolation. They are everywhere embedded in social
processes and practices. They are shaped during childhood, in education
and in daily life. Learning is essentially a social activity – we learn from one
another – which is shaped by culture since all our social activities are carried
out in culturally-prescribed ways. To be sure, we ‘construct’ our knowledge,
but not in a vacuum.
You might like to revisit the six statements about learning set out earlier.
Have you changed your conception in any way? Can you think of ways in
which learning might be life-changing or transformational?
How to learn better
We have covered some basic aspects of knowledge and thinking. But do we
need something else to help us as adult learners?
Adult learning
Adult learners are not the same as younger learners. Here are some of the
ways in which adults are different:
n They have independence and can direct their own learning.
n They have a wealth of experience which is a valuable learning resource.
n They have learning needs which are closely related to changing social or
professional roles (for example, becoming a mother or a manager can act
as triggers for learning).
n They are task- or problem-centred and interested in applying new
knowledge immediately.
(Source: Knowles, 1978)
As an adult, then, you take responsibility for your learning, for what you
learn and for how you learn it. You choose the topic of your learning and
decide how much time and effort to invest. The pressure to learn is likely to
come from yourself as a result of your current situation, not your educators.
You have a reason to learn and an active interest in the utility of the
outcomes. Adult learners need to work with these characteristics to their
best advantage. The trouble is that old conceptions of classroom learning
from school or college are often brought to the new, adult learning situation.
In other words, adults often know how to be taught, but they do not know
how to learn.
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THE MANAGER’S GOOD STUDY GUIDE
Experiential learning: a model for adult learning
Adult learning can be conceptualised as a cyclical process.
Concrete experience
Doing something
and experiencing
feedback/results
Observation/reflection
Reviewing and
reflecting on the
experience
Testing
Practical testing in the
real world
Conceptualisation
Understanding through
producing models,
concepts, themes, etc.
Figure 1.1 The experiential learning cycle
(Source: Kolb and Fry, 1975)
In this cyclical learning process, knowledge is created through the
transformation of experience. The central idea is that we have basic,
concrete experiences which first need to be comprehended to be of use to
inform our actions. Comprehending a situation you have just experienced
means you can create for yourself an explicit model from which you can
make predictions about what will happen next time this situation occurs.
But creating this model – an abstract conceptualisation – requires you to
reflect on the impact and meaning of the concrete experience. It requires
you to make sense of your experience. Once you have developed your
conceptual model (it may take time and effort) you can transform it into
action. Acting on the basis of your conceptualisation, of course, will test its
soundness and will produce more concrete experience on which to reflect.
So the cycle goes on.
As shown in Figure 1.1, the stages of the learning cycle are:
14
1
Concrete experience – being personally involved; giving conscious
attention to and being interested in your experiences.
2
Observation/reflection – gathering information, thinking, sensemaking.
3
Conceptualisation – using ideas, logic, systems thinking, analysis,
building mental models.
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CHAPTER 1 WORKING WITH YOUR NATURAL RESOURCES
4
Testing (acting or experimenting) – using opportunities, setting and
committing to goals, taking risks, making decisions, being
entrepreneurial.
Reflection does not mean passive thinking. It involves critical reflection and
critical thinking to refine, elaborate and integrate conceptual knowledge.
This requires a reflective, analytic, objective stance that distances you from
the concrete here-and-now experience.
For managers who are engaged in formal learning while working, course
materials will draw your attention to particular experiences. They will help
you to reflect on these experiences and to conceptualise them by providing
formal theories and models devised by others, usually on the basis of
research. They may also set out strategies and plans for actions. These
theories and models may not fit your own conceptualisations but conflicts
can be beneficial to learning. You will find that The Manager’s Good Study
Guide is full of material which can help you at each phase of the learning
cycle.
See Critical
thinking, p.63.
Kolb and Fry’s (1975) model provides a useful strategy that can be used in
any situation to monitor learning. It can even be used by teams or groups as
a way of monitoring and managing collective knowledge. But, remember, all
the steps in the learning cycle are necessary. An action that is repeated
without reflection is just a repetition. Capture your experience and learn
from it.
The cultural dimension
The experiential learning cycle is not without its critics. It tends to focus on
the individual, but as we know, the individual is not the sole source or
shaper of experience and actions. Our experience, thinking, construction of
meaning and actions are mediated by contexts and culture. Culture, of
course, operates at many levels below ethnic culture. The organisation you
work for, or groups to which you belong are likely to have a subculture in
the sense of having common practices, shared meanings and values. (Think
of your own organisation, a club, a group of nurses or a group of
technicians.) Our knowledge of how our experiences, constructions and
actions are mediated by our ethnic culture (and subculture) is likely to be
tacit. To make it available for scrutiny we must bring it into conscious
thought. In doing so we are more likely to see that our conceptions are
constructed through our interactions with others. Knowledge is not absolute
or non-negotiable. When we realise this we will also be able to bring to bear
our imagination, ethics, feelings and values on our actions. As well as knowwhat, know-how and know-why, there is also care-why.
Using the learning cycle systematically
In reality, the learning process is not a neat series of separate steps. Busy
managers are unlikely to have the time to collect all the evidence or think
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THE MANAGER’S GOOD STUDY GUIDE
Concepts of knowledge
Dualism
Knowledge
seen as
absolute
Relativism
Multiple
perspectives,
own opinion
Knowledge
seen as
provisional
Evidence used
to reason with
Commitment to
a reasoned
interpretation
Making sense
of ideas and
the real world
Developing
as a person
Conceptual development
Acquiring
information
Building up
knowledge
routinely
Applying
knowledge
and skills
Reproducing
Transforming
Concepts of learning
Figure 1.2 Concepts of learning and their development
(Source: Entwistle, 2000, based on Perry, 1970)
future, or on the basis of their own experience. In essence, this is the
development from surface to deep learning, facilitated by appropriate
teaching which aids understanding and encourages conceptual change. The
result is a more expert learner and a more developed way of thinking: a
more independent learner. If you are studying a formal course, you may
wish to revisit the ‘Approaches to Learning and Studying Inventory’ in
Appendix 1 and Figure 1.2 some time in the future to monitor your progress.
See yourself develop!
CHAPTER
2
MANAGING YOUR
LEARNING
Returning to study can be both exhilarating and daunting. You may be
enthusiastic about studying a topic of particular relevance to you, and which
can further your career. At the same time, you may have concerns about
how you will handle learning while perhaps holding down a busy full-time
job, participating in your family life, organising a household and having a
social life. You may also have doubts about your ability to study effectively,
especially if it has been some time since you last undertook a course of
formal learning. If you are not following a formal course, you may be trying
to improve your management competence by other means. Either way, you
will need to face your concerns, and prepare. After all, when you invest
your time and effort into a task you want to make sure that the return on
20
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CHAPTER 2 MANAGING YOUR LEARNING
your investment is as high as possible. Good preparation and organisation
will help you to achieve your goal.
Dealing with concerns
Most of us enjoy learning, at least some of the time! You may feel quite
confident about returning to study. However, if you are now embarking on
a learning experience a long time after your last one, which was perhaps as
a student in a school or college setting, then returning to study might arouse
concerns. A common problem is that your previous experience of study may
not have been a particularly good one. For example you may have:
n ‘failed’ at some previous stage in your education
n encountered a teacher who destroyed your confidence
n had a more successful sibling who seemed to get all the praise
n failed to meet your parents’ high academic expectations.
Any one of these experiences may have damaged your confidence or
reduced your inclination towards fresh studies. Such experiences may also
lead to difficulties with studies later on, such as:
n Perfectionism There may be a sense that ‘My answer has to be perfect’.
You may feel the need to cover all the ground before attempting an
assignment and may write draft after draft in an attempt to achieve the
perfect answer.
n Inadequacy There may be a sense of personal inadequacy. You may
feel ‘I am incompetent’. As a result, you may avoid the risk of being put
to the test.
n Avoidance of discomfort This inclination is another way in which you
may seek to minimise risk.
Overcoming fears
There are remedies that can help you overcome bad past learning
experiences. Among them are:
n Develop new ways of thinking about yourself Examine any negative
self-conceptions and create positive ones. Develop a positive self-image.
n Design clear goals Map out your main study tasks or learning goals and
set realistic and achievable targets.
n Prioritise Identify the urgent study tasks and do those first, for example,
meeting an assignment deadline. Then turn your attention to the
important tasks (that were not among the urgent ones). Lastly, if there is
still time, tackle any remaining tasks.
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THE MANAGER’S GOOD STUDY GUIDE
n Divide tasks into manageable parts For instance, tackle a part of a
learning task rather than all of it at once.
n Organise yourself Make a schedule before you start and check off the
tasks as you complete them.
n Commit yourself Tell other people about your study plans. Write
prompts and reminders for yourself and display them prominently.
n Reward yourself When you have achieved an objective, reward
yourself. Do something that you enjoy.
Some of these remedies will require effort on your part, but it will be worth
it. Sometimes the problems can seem intractable. If they do, then seek
professional advice. With the aid of an adviser you may find new ways to
study. If you are following a formal learning course, discuss your difficulties
with your teacher or tutor in the first instance.
A common fear among adults about to return to study is not only that their
minds are not as sharp as they were, but that they may have problems
remembering material. This is a particularly common concern if a course of
study involves assessment in the form of examinations. Here are some
psychological research findings to reassure you:
n The best work of adults is done at the age of about 40 when productivity
is highest.
n The quality of their work can remain high for decades beyond that.
n Creativity can be highest in late-in-life work.
n Short-term memory – the sort we use for remembering telephone
numbers while we key them in – begins to decline around the age of 60.
n Long-term memory declines after the age of 60.
Thus, there is not much basis for concern about cognitive ability in
adulthood. We retain our ability for high-level productive work and problem
solving, and even the declines in short- and long-term memory are not
inevitable. One change that does seem to occur in adulthood, however, is
that we are less likely to focus on surface detail and more likely to
remember meaning. This is hardly a problem!
Assessment
Imagine a world in which you could not see the results of the actions you
took. You would never know whether to repeat the action, abandon it or
modify it. Quite simply, in such a world no one would learn anything!
Feedback is vital to learning. We monitor the consequences of what we do
and learn from them. It’s obvious when you think about it. Consider an
archer who never saw where his arrows struck. He would never know how
to improve his aim. Often, though, feedback comes in the form of
22
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THE MANAGER’S GOOD STUDY GUIDE
Writing reports
A management report has specific purposes, for example to provide
information or to make recommendations about a course of action.
Organisations may have certain preferences for the style of presentation but
overall there are common practices. These practices have the merit of
familiarity. Writers of reports have a template to work to; readers of reports
can rely on a familiar format when they read a report.
You may be required to present a course assignment in the form of a report.
If you are familiar with your own organisation’s preferred style, then use it.
If you have not written a report before, or if you want to think afresh about
the layout of a report, then there are some general rules that you can adopt.
These will ensure that you set out what you want to say in a way that will
help your reader to follow your argument and to know straight away what
conclusions you have reached. In addition, the rules will provide you with a
step-by-step checklist.
The structure of a report
The layout of a report is usually plain to see. Each section will have a
general heading. There will also be subheadings. The overall structure will
depend on the purpose of a report. Here are some typical overall structures:
n A chronological order to show how things or processes happened or
should happen.
n A statement of the problem, analysis of the options and
recommendations.
n A proposal stating the strengths and weaknesses and finally the
recommended action.
Reports will usually have the following features:
n A cover page with a clear and informative title, together with the names
of the addressee(s), the author’s name and the date of production.
n An executive summary. This is normally a précis of the report including
the main conclusions and recommendations. It is designed to persuade a
busy executive to read the rest of the report.
n A contents list.
n A brief introduction which states the purpose of the report.
n The main text with the topics covered in separate paragraphs, with
appropriate headings and subheadings.
n Conclusions set out the answers to the issues or problems raised, even if
one or more conclusions are that further investigation is required. The
conclusions follow strictly and only from the preceding argument.
n The recommendations that arise strictly and only from the preceding
argument; they must be clear, specific, sensible and realistic, and must
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CHAPTER 3 LEARNING SKILLS
include likely costs where appropriate. Recommendations often
constitute the practical interpretation of the conclusions.
n A reference section giving the sources of the information cited in the report.
n Any necessary appendices to provide important background information,
including diagrams and tables, that it would be inappropriate to include
in the main text.
n A numbering system throughout the report for ease of reference.
A template for reports
The following is a template for a report. Notice these features:
n presentation of the executive summary at the top of the document
n use of headings
n use of numbered sections.
Cover page Include the title of the report; addressee(s); author; date.
Executive Summary Provide a summary of your report here. By presenting
your findings straight away, you release your readers from uncertainty.
Contents Insert page numbers if appropriate.
1
Introduction
5
Recommendations
2
First main section
6
References
3
Second main section
7
Appendices
4
Conclusions
1
Introduction
1.1
2
3
Introduce your report. Explain what prompted it, and state its
scope, that is, what you deal with. Conclude your introduction
with a sentence that leads into the main body of the report.
First main section heading
2.1
First section of the main part of the report. There can be
subsections to this first section.
2.2
Give each subsection a separate heading.
Second main section heading
There can be as many main sections as you require.
4
Conclusions
4.1
Allocate a subsection to each of the main parts of your conclusion.
4.2
Ensure that there is a correspondence between your conclusions
and the summary. As a rule, the central point of a subsection
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THE MANAGER’S GOOD STUDY GUIDE
forming part of a main section is expressed as one component of
your summary. For instance, the central point of 3.1 should be
expressed in 1.1 of your summary.
4.3
5
6
Comment on the tentativeness or strength of your conclusions.
Recommendations
5.1
List your recommendations as ‘Recommendation 1’,
‘Recommendation 2’ and so on. Ensure that there is a
correspondence between your recommendations and the
argument in the main sections and the conclusion to your report.
5.2
Comment on the appropriateness and feasibility of your
recommendations.
References
List the sources of the information you used in your report. They should
be complete and follow a recognised style.
See Citing and
referencing, p. 49.
7
Appendices
7.1
List your appendices by their titles and give each a number
which corresponds with the order in which they appear. It is
usual to start each Appendix on a new page.
It is good practice to include a file reference so that the report can be easily
retrieved from an archive – your own, or that of your organisation. It is also
usual to sign the end of the report (before the appendices and references).
Writing research reports
A research report is a special kind of report that you may be asked to write.
Once you have gathered all your research data and analysed them you will
need to set out your findings, and explain why, and how, you conducted
your investigation.
Research reports will usually have the following features:
46
1
Title page (including the author and date)
2
Executive summary
3
Contents list
4
Background, including aims and objectives (terms of reference)
5
Literature review
6
Data collection methods
7
Data analysis and results
8
Conclusions and recommendations
9
Critical reflection and learning
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CHAPTER 5 WORKING WITH NUMBERS
This section of The Manager’s Good Study Guide deals with tools and
techniques for gathering, using and presenting information in a management
context. Every manager will encounter situations in which:
n facts or ideas need to be communicated
n information needs to be obtained from investigation
n data need to be organised, analysed and interpreted.
Information is required to make decisions on which actions are based. This
ensures that decisions made and actions carried out are informed. Informed
actions are more likely to be effective than those based on an opinion that
may be biased. Sometimes information is readily available but needs to be
put into a form that is easily communicated in order to support a case or
argument. At other times, data will need to be gathered systematically for a
particular purpose. Then, the data collected will need to be analysed and
interpreted to turn the ‘raw’ numbers or words into information – a
transformation process.
Section 2 is organised by themes: working with numbers, effective ways of
displaying information, investigative methods, and working with data. Like
other sections of the Manager’s Good Study Guide, it is designed for your
reference and each of the tools and techniques presented can be looked up
independently of the others. Margin notes guide you to related tools and
techniques to aid your understanding.
CHAPTER
5
WORKING WITH
NUMBERS
The world is full of numbers, perhaps especially so for managers. Almost
daily we are presented with graphs, charts, tables, budgets and financial
statements, information about inputs and outputs, customers and clients. Not
only this, there are times when managers themselves will need to generate
numerical information which must be processed and interpreted. There are
many tools available to help us work with numbers, from simple calculators
to the sophisticated spreadsheet software packages on our computers. But to
use them effectively, we need to understand the basics of how to represent
numbers and carry out arithmetical operations. Many of us learned these
numerical skills early on in school and believed we would never forget
them. For some of us, arithmetic may have been something of a mystery
which we put aside, perhaps hoping that the need to understand it would
fade over time along with the pain of those early experiences! This chapter
of The Manager’s Good Study Guide is for those who need to remind
themselves about numbers and arithmetical operations, or need to
understand them for the first time. You may be surprised that you can now
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THE MANAGER’S GOOD STUDY GUIDE
more easily grasp concepts that were previously elusive. Later chapters in
this section assume you have a basic understanding of numbers and
arithmetic.
Number representation
We are familiar with how to write numbers and the fact that there are place
values for units, tens, hundreds, thousands and so on. Each place is a
multiple of ten larger than the preceding one. Consider the number 2,563.
The four digits would read as ‘two thousand, five hundred and sixty-three’.
In the UK, a comma is used to separate the digits into groups of three. In a
larger number such as 2,524,173 the comma is used twice; this allows us to
easily identify the number of millions and thousands. This visual indicator
makes the list of digits easier to analyse; without it we would have to cope
with interpreting 2524173.
We can show the number 2,563 in a simple table.
Thousands
Hundreds
Tens
Units
2
5
6
3
2,563
There is one further symbol, the decimal point. This is used to show the
transition point between units and tenths, and is usually denoted by a full
stop. The standard decimal notation for a number such as 251.32 can be
represented as in the table below.
251.32
Hundreds
Tens
2
5
Units Decimal point Tenths Hundredths
1
.
3
2
Note that a zero (0) in a number is simply holding a place: 100 means
1 hundred, 0 tens and 0 units.
100
Hundreds
Tens
Units
1
0
0
There are some other terms you may find useful which refer to types of
number. Common ones are listed below.
Natural numbers
Natural numbers are ‘counting numbers’, the ones we know and use
everyday: 1, 2, 3, 4, .... The list goes on forever. If we include zero, we call
these numbers ‘whole numbers’ (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ...) because they have no digits
to the right of the decimal point which is invariably omitted when we write
them.
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CHAPTER 5 WORKING WITH NUMBERS
Integers
Natural numbers are examples of integers or ‘whole’ numbers. We can place
whole numbers in a list that ascends from zero: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, .... The list goes
on forever. Numbers above zero are known as positive numbers.
Negative numbers
These are numbers with a value of less than zero: -1, -2, -3 and so on.
They are known as negative numbers, indicated by a minus sign in front.
Negative numbers can be integers (whole numbers). When they are whole
numbers they can be placed in the list of integers, descending from zero: ...,
-4, -3, -2, -1, 0. You will have encountered negative numbers if your bank
account has ever been overdrawn!
Operations: adding, subtracting, multiplying and dividing
There are four operations that you will use most frequently. These are listed
below along with their individual symbols and an example of use.
Operation
Addition
Symbol
Example
+
6 + 21 = 27
Subtraction
–
27 – 6 = 21
Multiplication
6
15 6 4 = 60
Division
7
24 7 3 = 8
If you are not sure how to perform these operations, seek more help as
soon as you are able to. The internet is a particularly good source of aid.
This is because the demand is great: you are not alone in needing help with
some of the concepts at whatever level!
Manipulating positive and negative numbers
Adding and subtracting
When we add two positive numbers together, the answer is a positive
number: 2 + 2 = 4. When we add two negative numbers together, the
answer is a negative number: (-2) + (-3) = -5. (The brackets are used to
show that we mean ‘minus 2’ and ‘minus 3’, rather than ‘subtract 2’ and
‘subtract 3’.)
When we add a negative and a positive number, we get a positive or a
negative number depending on which number is ‘bigger’. For example, if
we add 3 to (-1) the answer is 2, a positive number: (-1) + 3 = 2. If we add
-3 and 1, the answer is -2, a negative number: (-3) + 1 = -2.
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CHAPTER 9 MANAGING YOUR CAREER
Work takes up a large part of our lives, so it’s important that we are doing
what we enjoy and that it brings out the best in us. Whatever stage you are
at in your career, there will be times when it is necessary to plan, review
and sometimes to make changes. Have you ever asked yourself any of the
following questions and found it difficult to work out the answers?
n Where am I now?
n Where do I want to go?
n How will I get there?
If so, this section of The Manager’s Good Study Guide will help you to
manage your career and progress along your chosen path. It leads you
through the logical and sequential steps that you will need to take to
identify your career goals, what you need to do to achieve them, and how
to plan a timescale for implementation. In doing so it will help you to:
n identify the skills you have – and any deficiencies
n decide what career path you want to follow
See Planning,
p. 102.
n plan a systematic approach to job hunting
n learn how to be successful at interviews.
CHAPTER
9
MANAGING YOUR
CAREER
Your personal marketing plan
One way of considering career development is to think of it in terms of a
personal marketing plan. This doesn’t mean you are about to sell your soul!
Rather it means adopting a realistic view of yourself as the supplier of a
service for which you need to find customers. These customers may be
internal – within your own organisation, or external – in other organisations.
Creating your own individual marketing plan will take time, of course, and
as you work through it you may discover aspects of yourself about which
you feel uncomfortable! This is because an important part of planning will
be the learning you do as a result of the process. The plan you arrive at will
not – and should not – be set in stone. You may need to modify it from time
to time, or even change it substantially to accommodate life events, changes
in your priorities, and unexpected opportunities.
See Assessing the
competitive
position, p. 206,
and Developing a
Marketing plan,
p. 243.
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Evaluating your abilities
The first step in creating your personal marketing plan is to conduct a career
audit. This will allow you to evaluate your own abilities, identify any gaps in
your education and experience that need to be addressed, and help you to
make decisions about your future aspirations.
Gathering information
Start by thinking about all the sources of information that you have about
yourself. You may be able to use:
n your last report
n a recent performance appraisal
n any academic or professional qualifications you have
n 360-degree feedback (also called multi-rater, multi-source feedback)
reports
n project or assignment feedback.
See 360-degree
feedback, p. 305.
If you are looking for richer sources of information than these, or if these
sources are not available to you, there are some others:
n analytical interviews
n personality tests.
Analytical interviews provide a valuable source of information. The idea is
that you interview friends, family and colleagues to find out how they
perceive you. You have to be courageous and able to take constructive
criticism, but most people who complete this exercise find it valuable.
Personality tests are also useful, although you will need to make sure that
you make a sensible choice of instruments, and have sufficient information
about interpreting the results of those you use. Many internet websites offer
free self-assessment tests. However, if you are unsure, many careers-advisory
services and career consultants also offer appropriate tests. The results of
such tests should not be taken as immutable facts, but as useful prompts for
you to think about yourself.
Non-work experiences
Now you can supplement the information from all of these sources with data
from your non-work experiences. Think about your social life, for example.
Do you belong to any clubs or societies? Do you play sports? Do you have
any hobbies? What skills, knowledge or attributes do you use for them?
Identify your strengths and weaknesses
Using all these sources of information, work and non-work, make a list of all
your strengths and weaknesses. Turn this list into a short questionnaire to
give to a sample of friends, family and colleagues and ask them to rate
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which of the listed strengths and weaknesses apply to you. In drawing up
your list you may want to group your skills under similar headings to those
shown in Table 9.1.
Table 9.1
Topics for your questionnaire
Information technology
Do you have basic office IT skills?
Technical
Do you have any specialised technical skills?
People
Are you good with people?
Are you a good team player?
Can you motivate people?
Are you a good listener?
Are you good at persuading people to do things?
Creativity
Can you draw or design?
Are you an ideas person?
Do you think about new ways of doing things?
Leadership and teaching
Can you lead a group?
Are you good at teaching others new skills?
Reliability
Are you a good timekeeper?
Do you deliver?
Do you respond to others who need help?
Are you a problem solver?
The main purpose of the questionnaire is to discover if your own view of
yourself is realistic. You may underplay your strengths, for example, or
underplay weaknesses that you might want to remedy. The results of your
questionnaire will provide constructive feedback – and you will probably be
surprised at how positively others perceive you.
What do you enjoy?
Another part of this first step – identifying what you have to offer – is
finding out what you enjoy and what draws out the best in you. So now you
need to reflect on all your successes to date, work and non-work. Complete
the statements in Table 9.2 by writing down the most important or
significant experience.
Table 9.2
Positive experiences checklist
I did well and am proud of
I valued most
I became absorbed in
I handled well
I felt passionate about, or was very interested in
I learned quickly
I felt I had achieved something
I contributed
I felt I belonged – it felt ‘natural’
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10 S
CHAPTER
TRATEGY AND THE
ORGANISATION
The organisational context
Our lives, whether we are managers or not, are lived in organisations. These
range from micro- to macro-organisations, that is, from systems as small as
the smallest family unit to those as large as the government or state. We can
think of these organisations as embedded or nested sets of systems, with
influence flowing in both directions, but not in equal amounts. Clearly, a
government will have more influence on an individual than the individual
will have on a government, except in exceptional cases. Influence takes
place through the interaction of systems and individuals. We can easily
adapt this idea to the situation of an individual manager, the employing
organisation and the wider community. This is shown in Figure 10.1.
1. The manager and the manager’s
interactions with line manager,
colleagues and direct reports
2. The organisation’s departments
and sections, e.g. finance; human
resources; marketing; operations;
which interact at the systems level
to meet organisational objectives
1
2
3
5
4
3. The context and systems
immediately outside the
organisation, e.g. the
competition; customers;
suppliers; the local political,
economic and social
environment; the media
4. The overarching systems,
e.g. the dominant beliefs and
ideologies; the economic
climate; national governments;
the global market; the IT
revolution
5. The bidirectional, but unequal
influence
Figure 10.1 A systems perspective
(Source: based on Bronfenbrenner, 1979)
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Just as individuals are influenced by systems which are shaped by culture,
politics and economics, so managers and organisations are influenced by the
wider environment. This external or far environment needs to be
understood if organisations are to be successful. It is not under the control
of the manager or organisation. Managers need to analyse it, understand
what its implications are, and make appropriate plans. The near
environment of suppliers, buyers, customers, competitors and other
stakeholders can be influenced by managerial action. Only the internal
environment of the organisation itself can be controlled directly – although,
as many managers will agree, even this has its challenges!
The fundamental principle of strategic management is a Western cultural
one – that we are controllers of our own destiny and can make things
happen. In the quest for improving an organisation, current practices are
constantly scrutinised along with what is happening in the far environment
where both threats and opportunities may exist. This necessarily involves
scrutiny of the near environment too.
Near
Environment
Far
Importantly, the near and far environment can also be viewed from the
perspective of time, as shown in Figure 10.2. This is particularly vital in
planning: identifying trends over time and ascertaining whether these trends
constitute threats or opportunities which might indicate the need for
organisational change.
Past
Present
Time
Future
Figure 10.2 The time dimension
This chapter covers key management ideas that focus on: analysing the far
and near environment; organisations and different types of organisation; and
assessing the need for change. Its aim is to provide you with a sense of
managerial purpose for managing operations, functions and people.
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An organisation’s mission
An organisation’s mission statement sets out what the organisation wants to
be. It should be the starting point for setting objectives and making strategic
decisions. It contains the organisation’s value proposition – its reason for
being – and therefore influences the entire organisation’s thinking.
Typical format of a mission statement
Good mission statements are concise and to the point, and capture the
essence of the organisation by stating: its purposes (why the organisation
exists, for example, to meet a specified need); its business statement (for
example, to build homes); and its values (for example, a commitment to
affordability and quality). There is no strict format, however. Mission
statements typically contain one or more of the following four components:
1
the organisation’s philosophy
2
specification of the product/market domain
3
the organisation’s key values
4
critical factors for success in the marketplace.
Developing an organisational vision
The terms ‘mission’ and ‘vision’ are often used interchangeably, although
‘mission’ is usually focused on the tangible goals of the organisation, while
‘vision’ may include quite abstract elements. An organisational vision is a
framework that includes the guiding philosophy, core values, beliefs and
purposes from which the mission statement is developed.
The purpose of developing an organisational vision is to encourage
management teams at the corporate level, the business unit or the brand
level, to think in detail about what they are trying to create.
An effective vision, whether for the organisation as a whole or for a specific
unit within it, holds various dimensions in balance. There will be a reference
to an idealistic future but it will be based in the present. It will have an
outward focus but be cognisant of inner strengths and weaknesses, and it
will be broad enough to inspire yet specific enough to differentiate the
particular product or service of the organisation from any other.
The six F test
The following questions will help you to identify how well a vision is likely
to be embraced. Because there are six questions, each playing on a keyword
beginning with the letter ‘F’, the questions are known as the six F test.
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CHAPTER
13 L
EADERSHIP,
MANAGEMENT
AND MOTIVATION
Leading for results
See Culture, p. 215.
Management involves far more than planning, implementation and the
exercise of co-ordination and control. If an organisation is to operate
successfully in the wider environment, effective leadership and management
of people, informed by an understanding of what motivates people to work,
will be vital to an organisation’s ability to meet externally-imposed
competitive demands and pressures. Leadership – the ability to
communicate a vision, influence others and gain their trust – will be crucial
to achieving your objectives as a manager, and in turn, those of the
organisation. You will need to exert influence in many directions in order to
secure the resources and support that you and your team need to do your
job, while also ensuring that you lead and manage your team well. Your
ability to influence others will depend on your sources of power and
authority, your leadership skills and how effectively you use them. It will
also involve understanding the sometimes puzzling behaviour of others, for
example, individuals who remain committed to their work despite being
under great stress, and others who seem demotivated despite being very
well paid. You will need to be familiar with the idea of culture, including
organisational culture, because aspects of leadership, management and
motivation – the subject of this chapter – are shaped by culture.
What makes a good leader?
What is leadership? Common to most definitions of leadership is the ability
to influence others. Leadership can be described as the way a person guides,
shows the way or holds a group together. Approaches to understanding
leadership have sought to explain it in different ways. These approaches can
be ordered chronologically from the earliest to the most recent:
n The trait approach – in which attempts were made to identify sets of
individual traits that characterised effective leaders.
n Situation theories – which sought to identify the leadership traits and
behaviours that might be most effective in particular situations.
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n Social process accounts – which have sought to understand leadership
as a social process rather than an attribute of an individual or an
interaction between an individual and a situation.
Neither the trait approach nor situation theories have been found to possess
much explanatory power. Within the third approach, the social process
perspective, two kinds of leadership have been distinguished: transactional
leadership in which a manager manages a series of exchanges or
transactions, and transformational leadership which involves the
‘management of meaning’.
Transactional leadership
The transactional leader influences others by appealing to their self-interest,
primarily through the exchange of valued rewards for services or other
desired behaviours. The relationship between leader and follower is seen as
a series of rational exchanges or transactions that enable each to reach their
own goals. Transactional leaders supply all the ideas and use rewards as
their primary source of power. Followers comply with the leader when the
exchange – the reward – advances their own interests. The relationship
continues as long as the reward is desirable to the follower, and both the
leader and the follower see the exchange as a way of achieving their own
ends.
Transformational leadership
The transactional leader motivates followers to perform as expected. The
transformational leader – sometimes described as the charismatic, or
visionary, leader – inspires followers to do more than originally expected.
Transformational leaders motivate followers to work towards goals that
transcend immediate self-interests – to strive for higher-order outcomes.
These leaders transform the needs, values, preferences and aspirations of
followers, so that followers become less motivated by self-interest and more
motivated to serve the interests of the wider group. The danger of
transformational leadership is that followers may become emotionally and
intellectually deskilled through abandoning their own sense of ability,
direction and meaning. Equally, leaders can become seduced by their
followers’ investment in them, and cease to be mindful of uncertainties or to
be adaptive. Leaders of dangerous cults are often transformational leaders.
Table 13.1 summarises the key differences between transactional and
transformational leadership.
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Table 13.1
Characteristics of transactional and transformational leaders
Transactional leader
Transformational leader
Contingent reward – contracts
exchange of rewards for efforts,
promises rewards for good
performance, recognises
accomplishments.
Charisma – provides vision and sense
of mission, instils pride, gains respect
and trust.
Management by exception (active) –
watches and searches for deviations
from rules and standards, takes
corrective action.
Inspiration – communicates high
expectations, uses symbols to focus
efforts, expresses important purposes
in simple ways.
Management by exception (passive)
–intervenes only if standards are not
met.
Intellectual stimulation – promotes
intelligence, rationality and careful
problem solving.
Laissez-faire – abdicates
responsibility, avoids making
decisions.
Individualised consideration – gives
personal attention, treats each
employee individually, coaches and
advises.
(Source: based on Bass, 1990)
Competencies of transformational leaders
As described in Table 13.2, four major competencies have been found to be
common to transformational leaders: the management of attention, meaning,
trust and of self.
Leadership as negotiation
People in positions of leadership normally have formal authority – a topdown approach. But leadership is engaged in by different people at
different times, without such formal authority. Without formal authority, it is
not enough for a person to offer direction: the direction needs to be
accepted by others, and negotiation is a way of reconciling the different
needs of people and influencing them to work to common goals. Such
leadership – sometimes described as a bottom-up approach – can influence:
n Strategic issues These are the ends or results that a group seeks.
Strategic issues concern the direction in which a group should go in a
changing environment, correctly identifying opportunities and avoiding
threats.
n Task issues These are the means of achieving the desired results of a
group or an organisation. Task issues include how best the necessary
tasks can be performed and whether there is tension between the ends
and the means.
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Job design involves making decisions regarding:
n what tasks to give to each person in the organisation
n in what sequence they should be performed
n where to locate each job
n who else should be involved in it
n how people should interact with their workplace and their immediate
work environment
n how much autonomy to give staff
n what skills to develop in staff.
CHAPTER
14 M
ANAGING
PEOPLE
Managing individuals
Human resource (HR) management is of direct relevance to anyone who has
to achieve results through the efforts of other people. It concerns all
management decisions and actions that affect the relationship between an
organisation and its members. Managers with a wide range of
responsibilities will be involved in such decisions. For example, an IT
manager may make decisions about information systems design which have
important consequences for the way work is organised. Or a marketing
manager may make decisions about customer service strategies with
consequences for the way employee performance is judged and their efforts
rewarded. Line managers make HR decisions every day in the course of
managing those who report to them.
The flow of people
HR policy concerns the flow of people into, through and out of an
organisation. This includes:
n planning for staffing needs
n selecting and recruiting the right people
n their induction into the organisation
n internal staffing and promotion decisions
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n the management of employees – including contract staff or, in the not-
for-profit sector, volunteers
n exit from the organisation, whether voluntary or involuntary.
Managers need to make such choices as:
n the extent to which they rely on temporary or permanent staff
n the flexibility they require from employees in terms of patterns of
working hours
n the extent to which they invest in employee development and training,
or recruit for the skills they need
n the extent to which they will meet changes in demand by varying the
numbers employed or hours worked.
Factors affecting choices
These choices can be affected by a wide range of factors, including but not
restricted to:
n legal restrictions – for example restrictions on dismissal, requirements for
compensation for redundancy, restrictions on working hours
n the level of expertise needed to do the work
n the availability of skilled labour outside the organisation
n the time taken to train staff internally
n variability and predictability of work flow.
The strategic fit of human resource policies
To be effective, HR policies need to fit the strategic goals and environment
of the organisation. Table 14.1 gives an example of some possible
relationships between HR practice and strategy.
Some possible orientations and consequences
Table 14.1 describes three generic strategic orientations and some likely
consequences for desired employee behaviours and hence for HR
management.
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Table 14.1
The strategic fit of HR practices
Strategic orientation
Desired employee behaviours
Consequences for HR
management
Seek advantage through
innovation.
A high degree of creative
behaviour.
Longer-term focus.
A relatively high level of cooperative, interdependent
behaviour.
A moderate concern for quantity
of output.
Concern both for process and
results.
A greater degree of risk taking.
A high tolerance of ambiguity
and unpredictability.
Jobs that require close
interaction and co-ordination
among groups of individuals.
Performance appraisals that are
more likely to reflect longer-term
and group-based achievements.
Jobs that allow employees to
develop skills that can be used
in other positions in the firm.
Compensation systems that
emphasise internal equity rather
than external or market-based
equity.
Seek advantage through
supplying at low cost.
Relatively repetitive and
predictable behaviour.
A rather short-term view.
Moderate concern for quality.
High concern for quantity of
output.
Primary concern for results.
Low risk-taking activity.
Relatively high degree of
comfort with stability.
Relatively fixed and explicit job
descriptions that allow little
room for ambiguity.
Narrowly designed jobs and
narrowly defined career paths
that encourage specialisation,
expertise and efficiency.
Short-term, results-orientated
performance appraisals.
Close monitoring of industry pay
levels for use in making
compensation decisions.
Minimal levels of employee
training and development.
Seek advantage through high
quality of goods or services.
Relatively repetitive and
predictable behaviours.
A more long-term or
intermediate focus.
A moderate amount of cooperative, interdependent
behaviour.
A high concern for quality.
A modest concern for quantity
of output.
High concern for process.
Low risk-taking activity.
Commitment to the goals of the
organisation.
Relatively fixed and explicit job
descriptions.
High levels of employee
participation in decisions
relevant to immediate work
conditions and the job itself.
A mix of individual and group
criteria for performance
appraisal that is mostly shortterm and results-orientated.
A relatively egalitarian treatment
of employees and some
guarantees of employment
security.
Extensive and continuous
training and development of
employees.
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Recruitment and selection
The process of recruitment and selection is the first means by which an
organisation seeks to engage employees with the right set of skills,
motivation and potential to meet its needs. It is also the first stage in forming
a relationship with employees.
Validity and fairness
Selection processes with high validity for predicting job performance may be
seen as unfair by applicants. Conversely, processes that seem fair can be
poor predictors of job performance. For example, past performance is a very
good indicator of future performance but applicants regard interviews as a
fairer method of assessment even though interviews have been shown to be
a poor indicator of performance. Table 14.2 gives a summary of typical
predictive validity and typical applicant perceptions of fairness for a range of
selection processes.
Table 14.2
range
Selection processes – predictive validity and fairness of a
Selection process
Typical
predictive
validity
Typical applicant
perception of fairness
Interview
Low
High
Personality test
Moderate
Low
Detailed collection of
personal biographical
information
High
Low
Cognitive ability test
High
Moderate
Assessment centres
High
High
(Source: Folger and Cropanzano, 1998)
Assessment centres, where applicants are observed performing a range of
job-related tasks, have high predictive validity. The use of them is also seen
as fair by applicants. But while assessment centres are undoubtedly a highly
effective method of selection, they are costly. When using other selection
processes managers will have to make trade-offs between validity of
selection methods and perceived fairness.
What makes a process seem fair?
Applicants are more likely to believe selection processes are fair when
particular practices are followed. Box 14.1 provides a checklist for selection
processes.
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BOX 14.1
CHECKLIST FOR SELECTION PROCESSES
n The selection process has an obvious relationship to the job.
n Applicants are not asked invasive or improper questions.
n Applicants have an opportunity to demonstrate job-related
competencies.
n The selection is carried out in a consistent manner between
candidates.
n The selectors have good interpersonal skills - they are courteous,
open, good listeners and willing to provide information.
n There are opportunities for two-way communication.
n Applicants are given information about the organisation as part of
the selection process.
n Applicants are given clear and detailed feedback on reasons for
the selection decision.
n The nature of the selection process is clearly explained.
n Selectors are honest about the organisation and about reasons for
selection decisions.
(Source: Gilliland, 1993)
The selection interview
The aim of the selection interview is to ascertain whether the candidate is
interested in the job and competent to do it. It also has other functions:
n to explain the work of the organisation, the job and any features such as
induction and probation
n to set expectations on both sides, including a realistic discussion of any
potential difficulties (if appropriate)
n to enable the candidate to assess whether they want the job being
offered.
Preparing for the interview
There are a number of issues to consider when preparing for an interview,
as shown in Box 14.2.
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INDEX
INDEX
360-degree feedback 305–6
abilities, self-evaluation 182–4
accounting concepts and principles
246–7
see also finance
accruals, accounting 246
accuracy, in sampling 144-5
active listening 79–80
active voice 52–3
adult learning 5
concerns 20–1
experiential learning 14–15
goals 6, 27–8
monitoring progress 27–9
overcoming fears 21–2
returning to study 20–1
special features 13
strategic planning 23–6
support at work 29–30
tactical planning 26–7
time management 25–6
see also approaches to
learning; collaborative
learning; knowledge; learning
aggregation, accounting 246
aggression 81
agreement, consensus 66-7
AIUAPR model 240–1
Allan, J. 91, 356
Amabile, T.M. 316, 356
analytical interviews 182
analytical tools
PEST and PESTLE models 203
Porter’s five forces model
203–4
Porter’s model of generic
strategies 208–9
Porter’s value chain model
204–5
STEEP model 201–2
SWOT model 206–7
three-level product analysis
229–30
Anderson, G. 303, 357
Ansoff, H.I. 188, 210, 356
Ansoff matrix 188, 210–11
Anthony, R.N. 254, 356
apostrophes 54–6, 353–4
appraisal see assessment
approaches to learning 339–52
combined 18, 348, 352
deep 16–17, 18, 343, 345, 346,
348–9, 352
effort management 344–8,
351–2
organised 17, 19, 344, 347,
351–2
self-score inventory 339–43
surface 17–18, 344, 346, 347,
349–51, 352
arguments
dialogue and inquiry 65–7
foundation 64–5
logical reasoning 60–3
Argyris, C. 6, 324, 356
arithmetic mean see mean
arithmetic operations 107–110
assertiveness 81–2
assessment
360-degree feedback 305–6
centres 298
employee performance 301–6
learning 22–3
methods 304
asset utilisation ratio (AUR) 262, 264,
265
assets 248–9, 250–1
depreciation 256–7
see also capital
assignments
discussion 75
purpose of 37–8
tackling 40–2
understanding questions 38–40,
41
writing 48
see also report writing; writing
asynchronous communication 87,
91, 92
attitude scale 161
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attitudes to learning 343–4
audience, writing for 42–3
author citations 50–1
averages 161–5
axes, line graphs 117
balance sheets 249–51
not-for-profit organisations
248
balanced scorecard 331–3
bar charts 123–4
base value
index 173–4
Retail Price Index 175
Bass, B.M. 278, 356
behavioural segmentation 226
beliefs, in problem-solving 69
benchmarking 329–31
Benetton 215
Bennett, M. 77–8, 356
Bennett, S. 194
Bennis, W. 279, 356
bias
and problem-solving 71–2
research design 143, 145–6
bibliography, compiling 50–1
Blake, R.R. 281, 356
books 35–6
borrowing, long-term 250, 251
Boston matrix 233–4
boundary in a system 131–4
brackets, in numerical operations
110
brainstorming 40, 95–7
brands
components 231
successful 232
Bransford, J. 69–70, 356
break-even analysis
using graphs 260–1
using numbers 259–60
Bronfenbrenner, U. 198, 356
budgets 253–55
building sound arguments 64–5
business excellence model 333–5
buying decisions 224–6
Buzan, T. 135–6
buzz groups 98
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calculating probabilities 176–7
calculations, break-even 259–61
Camp, R.C. 330–1, 356
capacity, margins of safety 261
capital
employed 263–4
working capital 250, 255–6
see also assets
career development
evaluating your abilities 182–4
getting a new job 189–94
identifying goals 185
identifying opportunities
186–7
options 188–9
personal marketing plan 181
putting it all together 187–9
see also jobs
careers advice 187
books and websites 194
cases see arguments
cash account 252–3
cash flow 252–3
categorical scales 159–60
change management 127–8, 218
see also organisational change
channels, distribution 239–40
charts
bar charts 123–4
organisational 213–14
pie charts 121–2
see also graphs
citing and referencing 49–52
clustering ideas 97
Clutterbuck, D. 308, 356
coaching
employee development 306–7
see also mentoring
coding, qualitative data 157–8
cognitive processes 9, 11
in adulthood 22
see also thinking
collaborative learning 86–7
peer resistance 90
committees 309
communication 5, 75-86
assertiveness 81–2
asynchronous 87, 91
INDEX
choice of model 80–1
computer-mediated 86–8
constructivist model 77–9
empathy 77–8
information theory model
75–7
listening 79–80
marketing promotion 240–1
negotiating 82–4
see also feedback
communication loop 241–2
communication mix 242
competencies
core 216
transformational leaders 278,
279
competition
analysis 203–4
Porter’s five forces model 203
position assessment 206–7
scope 209
competitive advantage 203, 209–10
computer-mediated group work
86-96
co-ordinator 92, 93
conferences 86–8, 89
critical success factors 89–90
development 89
organising 91–3
participation 86–7
practical tips 93–5
rules 87–8
conceptual knowledge 9
conferences, computer-mediated
86–8, 89
confidence intervals 173
consensus 66
constructivist model of
communication 77–8
contingent approach, leadership 280
contract of employment 291
control see exercising control;
management control
Coomber, S. 186, 194
co-operation 86–7
Coopers and Lybrand 330, 356
co-ordinator
computer-mediated group
work 92, 93
see also facilitator
core competencies 216
correlation 165–7
correlation coefficient 166
cost centres 259
cost leadership 209
costs
balance sheet 251
break-even 259–61
depreciation 256–7
direct costs 258
indirect costs 258–9
marginal 262
types of 257–8
Crainer, S. 194
creativity
climate for 315–16
see also innovation
creditors 250, 255–6
critical dialogue 65–7
critical path analysis 139–40
critical success factors, computermediated group work 89–90
critical thinking 5, 15, 63, 67–8
Cropanzano, R. 298, 302, 357
cultural knowledge 10
culture
in organisational change 217,
220
in organisations 215–16
of quality 328
role in communication 82
current assets 249, 250–1
curriculum vitae (CV) 189–90, 191
customers
behaviour 224–7
decisions 240–1
marketing mix 229
relationships 222
service expectations 328–9
data
analysis 156–8
distribution 167–73
primary 147–8
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qualitative 142, 147, 157–8
quantitative 141–2, 147,
158–77
scales 159–61
standard deviation 169–73
triangulation 146–7
types and frequency 158–9
understanding averages 161–5
see also information; statistics
data collection
focus groups 155–6
internal documents 149–50
interviews 153–4
observing 154–5
primary and secondary data
147–8
public sources of information
148–9
surveys 151–2
data presentation see displaying
information
Davidson, H. 231, 356
Dearlove, D. 194
debtors 255–6
decimals 106, 111, 113–14
deductive reasoning 60–1
deep approach to learning 16–17,
18, 343, 345, 346, 348–9, 352
deeper learning 19
delayering 216
demand
determinants of 235
price elasticity 236–9
depreciation 256–7
developmental model, group
formation 311–12
diagrams
fishbone diagrams 134–5
force-field diagrams 127–8
influence diagrams 130–1
input-output diagrams 128–30
multiple-cause diagrams 137–9
see also displaying
information; mapping
dialogue see discussions
diary, learning 29
differentiation, competitive
advantage 209–10
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direct costs 258
direct mail 144
discussions
computer-mediated 86–8
critical 65–6
displaying information 116
bar charts 123–4
line graphs 117–21
matrices 124–7
mind mapping 135–6
network analysis 139–40
pie charts 121–3
systems thinking 131–4
time series line graphs 119–21
see also diagrams
distribution
channels 239–40
frequency 123–4, 170
normal distribution 169–73
set of data 167–8
diversification, Ansoff matrix 211
documents, internal 149–50
double loop learning 323–5
downsizing 216
drafting reports 41
driving forces in change
management 127–8, 218
earnings 251–2
Easterby-Smith, M. 147, 357
effort management 17, 19, 344–52
Einon, G. 93, 357
Elder, L. 68, 357
e-learning 86
emotional knowledge 10
empathy 77–8
employee development
coaching and coaching styles
306–7
mentoring 30–2, 308
employees
empowerment 292–4
measuring performance 303–5
performance appraisal 301–3
performance management 301
psychological contract 291
recruitment and selection
298–300
INDEX
underperformance 304–5
see also human resource
management
empowerment 292–4
Entwistle, N. 16, 20, 339, 357
equilibrium level of output 262
estimating probabilities 176
ethical issues in observing 155
European Foundation for Quality
Management (EFQM) model
333–5
European Quality Award 333
evaluation
of information 140–1
matrices 126–7
of self 182–6
evasion 81
Evenden, R. 303, 357
exchange relationships 222–3
exercising control 317–18
control loop 319–20
new forms of control 327
organisational context 319–20
process of 319
vicious circle of control 322–3
see also management control
expectancy theory 290–1
experiential learning 14–15
explicit knowledge 7, 8
face-to-face study groups 73–5
facilitator
brainstorming sessions 96–7
focus groups 155–6
see also co-ordinator
factual knowledge 9
fairness, framework for 302
far environment 199, 201–3
Fayol, H. 282–3, 357
management processes 282–3
feedback
in communication 76
giving 84–5
job interviews 192
in learning 22–3
negative 85
operations management 326–7
performance appraisal 305–6
positive 84–5
receiving 85–6
Fiedler, F.E. 282, 357
finance
accounting concepts 246–7
assets and liabilities 248–9
balance sheet 249–50
break-even 259–61
budgeting 253–5
cash account 252–3
costs 257–9
depreciation 256–7
earnings 251-2
equilibrium level of output
262
financial perspective 244–5
marginal analysis 261–2
margins 265
margin of safety 261
organisation types 247–8
profit statement 251–2
ratio analysis 262–3
working capital 254–6
financial ratios 262–3
financial statements
not-for-profit organisations
247–8
requirements 246
financial terms, glossary of 266–75
fishbone diagrams 134–5
fixed assets 248–9, 250–1
fixed costs 257
break-even 259–61
focus groups 155–6
Folger, R. 298, 302, 357
force-field analysis 217–18
force-field diagrams 127–8
Ford, Henry 327
forecasting, long-term
PEST and PESTLE models 203
STEEP model 201–2
formal groups 310, 311
formal interviews 153
formal logical reasoning 60–2
four Cs 229
four Es 318
four Ps 228, 229–44
fractions 112–15
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frequency distribution
bar charts 123–4
normal curve 169-70
Fry, R. 14, 15, 358
future environment, organisations
199, 201–3
gaps in the market 211-13
generic strategies, Porter’s model
208–10
Gilliland, S.W. 299, 357
Gilovich, T. 71–2, 357
glossary of financial terms 266–75
goals
adult learning 6, 27–8
career 185–6
goods 255–6
see also products
grammar 56
graphs
line graphs 117–21
normal distribution 169-71
showing break-even 260–1
time series line graphs 119–21
see also charts
Green, M. 90
group development 311–13
group working 5
active listening 79–80
brainstorming 40, 95–7
buzz groups 98
clustering ideas 97
factors affecting 312–13
giving presentations 99–102
group characteristics 309
negotiating 82–4, 278
planning 102
round robins 98–9
setting up 73–5
snowballing 98
types of 310–11
see also computer-mediated
group work; focus groups; teams
Grout, J. 194
Hackman, J.R. 314, 357
Harvard system of referencing 50–2
Hatch, M.J. 214, 357
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healthcare segments 227
Hertzberg F. 287, 288–90, 357
two-factor theory 288–90
Herzlinger, R.E. 254, 356
human resource management
employee performance 301–6
managing groups and teams
308–16
policy 295–7
recruitment and selection 298–9
Hussey, J. 157–8, 357
Hussey, R. 157–8, 357
hygiene factors in job satisfaction
288–9
IDEAL method for problem-solving
69–70
ideas
brainstorming 40, 95–7
clustering 97
generating 95–6
round robins 98–9
income see sales
income and expenditure account
251–2
depreciation 256–7
indices
construction 173–4
numbers 173–5
Retail Price Index 175
indirect costs 258–9
inductive reasoning 61–2
inference
inferential statistics 177
rules of 66
influence diagrams 130–1
informal groups 310
informal interviews 153
information
acknowledging sources 48–9
evaluation 140–1
internal documents 149–50
internet 148–9
job opportunities 186–7
public 148–9
reports and assignments
37–41
searches 148–9
INDEX
see also data; displaying
information; statistics
information theory model of
communication 75–7
innovation
and teams 313–14
see also creativity
inputs
input-output diagrams 128–30
operations management 325–7
inquiry 66
intangible assets 249
integers 107
intercept, line graphs 117–18
internal documents 149–50
internet
career development and 187,
191, 192
finding information on 148–9
interpersonal values 186
interquartile range 169
interval scales 160
interviews 153–4
analytical 182
bias 146
job 191–2, 299–300
preparation 300
selection 299–300
inventory
learning and studying 339–41
scoring 341–3
Isabella, L.A. 31, 358
iteration 43
Jenson, M. 312, 359
job design
approaches to 294–5
scientific management 284–5
socio-technical systems
approach 285
job performance predictors 298
job satisfaction
Hertzberg’s theory 288–90
see also motivation
jobs
application 191
descriptions 212–14
getting a new job 189–94
interviews 191–2
satisfaction checklist 193–4
searching for 190–1
see also career development
Johnson, M.E. 212, 359
Johnson-Lenz, P. 93, 357
Johnson-Lenz, T. 93, 357
Kakabadse, A. 310, 357
Kaplan, R.S. 332, 357
Kinlaw, D. 293–4, 358
knowledge
abstraction 12
acquisition 11–12
cognitive processes 9, 11, 22
cultural 10
emotional 10
see also learning
knowledge types
conceptual 9
explicit 7, 8
factual 9
metacognitive 7–8, 9
procedural 7, 8, 9
tacit 7, 8
theories 8
Knowles, M.S. 13, 358
Kolb, D.A. 14, 15, 358
Kram, K.E. 30, 31, 358
Krathwohl, D.R. 9, 10, 358
Lawless, N. 91, 356
leadership
approaches 276–7
contingent approach 280
negotiation 278–80
see also management
learning
assessment 22–3
cognitive processes 9, 11, 22
cultural dimension 15
developing deeper 19
diary 29
effort management and 17, 19
experiential 14–15
feedback 22–3
five aspects of 343–5
lifelong 193
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monitoring study of 343–4
personal theories 11–12
profile, self-score inventory
339–43
strategies 6
tactics 6
your current profile 345–9
see also adult learning;
approaches to learning;
collaborative learning;
knowledge
learning skills
assignments 37-43
critical thinking 63
logical reasoning 5, 60–3
reading strategies 32–5
writing 37
Lewin, K. 218, 358
liabilities 249, 250–1
libraries 148–9
life-cycle of a product 232–3
lifelong learning 193
line graphs 117–20
time series 119–21
listening 79–80
logical reasoning 5, 60–3
in action 62–3
and problem-solving 69, 71–2
Longson, S. 194
long-term borrowing 250, 251
long-term forecasting
PEST and PESTLE models 203
STEEP model 201–2
loss leading 236
Maciarello, J.A. 319, 358
McCune, V.S. 16, 357
management
employee empowerment
293–4
employee expectations 291
Fayol’s processes 282–3
Mintzberg’s management roles
283–4
problem-solving 69–72
scientific 284–5, 327
style 280–2
theory 282–287
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see also human resource
management; leadership;
operations management;
strategic management
management by objectives (MBO)
285–6
management control
budgeting 253–5
new forms of 327
process 320–2
working capital 255–6
see also exercising control
management grid 280–1
managers influence diagrams 130–1
managing change, force-field
diagrams 127–8
managing groups and teams 308–9
climate for creativity 315–16
factors affecting 312–13
group development 311–12
teams and innovation 313–14
types of group 310–11
see also group working
mapping
mind mapping 135–6
systems mapping 133–4
marginal analysis 261–2
marginal cost 262
marginal pricing 236
marginal revenue 262
margins 265
of safety 261
mark-ups 265
market-based approach to strategy
207, 208
market-based pricing 236
market penetration, Ansoff matrix
210
market research
research design 140–7
triangulation 146–7
market share, relative 233–4
marketing 222–4
customer behaviour 224–5
distribution channels
239–40
mix 227–9
pricing 235–9
INDEX
products 229–33
promotion 240–3
marketing plan 243–4
personal 181
markets
Ansoff matrix 188, 210–11
gaps 211, 213
growth rate 232–33
segmentation 226–7
value-driven culture 223
Marton, F. 11, 358
Maslow, A.H. 287-8, 358
hierarchy of needs 287–8
Mason, G. 85, 86, 358
mass production, scientific
management 284–5
matrices 124–7
Ansoff 188, 210–11
Boston 233–4
mean 161–2, 165
normal distribution curve
169-73
measuring performance 303–6
median 162–3, 164–5
mentoring 308
at work 30–2
see also coaching
messages
computer-mediated group
work 86-87
information theory model of
communication 75–7
metacognitive knowledge 7–8, 9
metaphors 53–4
methodological triangulation 146-147
metric scale, ordered 161
milestones, virtual circle 92–3
mind mapping 135–6
Mingers, J. 63, 358
Mintzberg, H. 283–4, 358
management roles 283–4
mission statement 186, 200
mixed approach to learning 18, 348,
352
mode 163, 164–5
models
AIUAPR model 240–1
communication 75–7
EFQM 333–5
PEST and PESTLE models 203
Porter’s five forces model
203–4
Porter’s model of generic
strategies 208–9
Porter’s value chain model 204–5
STEEP model 201–2
SWOT model 206–7
see also analytical tools
moderator see facilitator
monitoring, learning process 27–9,
343–4
motivation 287
expectancy theory 290–1
Hertzberg’s theory 288–90
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
287–8
multi-rater feedback 305–6
multi-source feedback 305–6
multiple-cause diagrams 137–9
Murray, J. 242, 358
natural numbers 106
near environment, Porter’s five
forces model 203–4
Neath, S. 194
negative feedback 85
negative numbers 107–9
negotiation
group working 82–4
leadership 288–90
Nelson Bolles, R. 194
net profit 252
net worth 249
netiquette 88
network analysis 139–40
networking
career development 190
network organisation 214–15
nominal scales 159–60
normal distribution 169–73
Norton, D.P. 332, 357
not-for-profit organisations 247–8
note-taking 36–7
numbers
arithmetic operations 107–110
break-even calculations 259–60
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decimals 106, 111, 113–14
fractions 112–13
operations 107, 110
percentages 114–16
ratios 116
representation 106–7
rounding 110–11
significant figures 111
squares, cubes and roots 112
manipulating positive and
negative 107–110
working with 105–16
objectives, management by 285–7
objectivity
critical thinking 63
logical reasoning 61
observation, data collection 154–5
O’Driscoll, A. 242, 358
Oldham, G.R. 314, 357
Open University Business School
(OUBS) 354–5
operating profit 252
ROCE 263–4
operations management
balanced scorecard 331–3
feedback 326–7
inputs 325–6
outputs 326
transformation process 326
opportunities, career 186–7
ordered metric scale 161
ordinal scaling 160
organisational change
approaches to 216
feasibility assessment 217–19
six-step model 219–21
stakeholders 222
organisational strategy
analysing the competition
203–4
Ansoff matrix 210–11
approaches to 207–8
assessing competitive position
206–7
employee behaviour 296–7
future environment 199,
201–3
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HR policies 296–7
new product development
211–12
systems perspective 198–9
value chain 204–6
organisations
culture 215–16
culture change 217, 220
financial perspective 244–5
future environment 199, 201–3
mission statement 200
networks 214–15
not-for-profit 247–8
service development 211–13
stakeholders 221–2
strategic choices 208–10
strategic planning 207–8
structure 213–15
vision statement 200–1
organised approach to learning 17,
19, 344, 347, 351–2
origin, line graphs 117
outputs
equilibrium level 262
input-output diagrams 129–30
multiple-cause diagrams 137–9
operations management 326
in systems 132
outsourcing 214–15
overhead costs 258–9
Pascal, B. 48, 358
Parasuraman, A. 328–9, 358
participant observation 154–5
passive voice 52–3
Paul, R. 67, 68, 358
peer relationships
resistance to 90
at work 31–2
penetration pricing 236
percentages 114–16
pie charts 121–3
perceptions 53–4
perfect price inelasticity 237–8
performance
appraisal 301–3
balanced scorecard
measurement 331–3
INDEX
benchmarking 329–31
in the control process 321–3
gap 330
improvement using double
loop learning 323–5
multiple-cause diagrams 137–9
organisational 318
performance management
measuring performance 303–5
quantitative and qualitative
aspects 301
Perrin, S. 194
Perry, W.G. 20, 358
personal marketing plan 181
personality tests 182
PEST model 203
PESTLE model 203
Piccinin, S.J. 85, 86, 358
pie charts 121–3
Piercy, N. 224, 359
plagiarism 48–9
planning
group working 102
study sessions 26–7
study strategy 23–6
see also organisational strategy
Plummer, K. 146, 359
Porter, M.E. 204–5, 209, 359
five forces model 203–4
model of generic strategies
208–9
value chain model 204–5
positive experiences checklist 183
positive feedback 84–5
positive numbers 107–9
presentations 99–102
process of 100–2
steps in preparing 99–100
price
determinants of demand 235
pricing strategies 235–6
price elasticity of demand (PED)
236–9
primary data 147–8
primary groups 310–11
private sector organisations 247
probability 175–7
problem-solving 69–72
checklist 70–1
improvements to 71–2
method for 69–70
procedural knowledge 7, 8, 9
products
Boston matrix 233–4
branding 231–2
development 211–13
life-cycle 232–3
marketing mix 227–9
PED value 236–9
three-level product analysis
229–30
see also goods
professional organisations, careers
advice 187
profit statement 251–2
depreciation 256–7
progress, monitoring of learning 27–9
project deadlines, fishbone diagram
134–5
project management, milestones 93
promotion
communication loop 241–2
communications mix 242
customer decisions 240–1
marketing communications
240–1
push or pull strategies 243
see also marketing
proportional data, pie charts 121–3
protocol, computer-mediated
communication 88
psychological contract 291
public information sources 148–9
public sector organisations 247
pull strategy 243
purchase decisions 224–5
push strategy 243
Pyke, G. 194
qualitative data 142, 157–8
quality
assessing service quality
328–9
balanced scorecard 331–3
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benchmarking 329–31
business excellence model
333–5
culture of quality 328
meaning of 327–8
quality gaps model 329
quantitative data see data
quartiles and the interquartile range
168–9
questionnaires see interviews;
surveys
quota sampling 143–4
random sampling 143
range see distribution
ranked data 160
ratio analysis 262–3
scales 160
ratios (numbers) 116
reading
effectively 33–4
skim reading 34–5
strategies 32–3
studying a text 35–6
reasoning, logical 5, 60–3
recorder, brainstorming sessions 96–7
records, data collection 150–1
recruitment and selection 298–9
redundancy, in communication 76
reference list 49–52
relationship marketing 222–4
relative market share 233–4
report writing 44–6
getting started 40–2
research reports 46–7
template 45–6
see also assignments; writing
research design 140–7
research reports 46–7
responsibility, group working 90
restraining forces, change
management 127–8, 218
restructuring, organisational change
216
Retail Prices Index in the UK 175
return on capital employed (ROCE)
262, 263–4, 265
return on sales (ROS) 262, 264–5
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revenue 259–61
marginal 262
see also sales
round robins 98–9
rounding numbers 110–11
rules of inference 66
safety margin 261
sales
asset utilisation ratio 264
break-even 259–61
return on 262, 264–5
Säljö, R. 11, 359
Salmon, G. 89, 359
sampling 142–4
sample size 144–5
see also surveys
Sargeant, A. 227, 359
scales
data analysis 158–61
line graphs 119–20
nominal 159–60
Scheung, E.E. 212, 359
scientific management 284–5, 327
Schon, D.A. 324, 356
secondary data 147–8
secondary groups 311
segmentation, market 226–7
selection processes
interviews 299–300
perceptions of fairness 298–9
self-evaluation 182–4
self-managing teams 314–15
self-score inventory 339–43
service development 212
SERVQUAL inventory 328–9
Shannon, C. 75, 359
significant figures 111
similes 53–4
single loop learning 323
six F test 200–1
six-step model of change 219–21
skim reading 34–5
skimming, pricing strategy 236
SMART framework 286–7
snowballing 98
socio-technical systems approach 285
software packages
INDEX
mind mapping 136
network analysis 139-40
speculative approaches, new jobs
191
spelling errors 56–8
Spillane, H. 194
spreadsheets 124–5
calculating standard deviation
172
correlation data 166
stakeholders 221–2
standard deviation 169–72
normal distribution 169–71
use 171–2
standard error 173
statistics
data collection 150–1
inferential 177
sample size 144–5
see also data; information
STEEP model 201–2
Stein, B.S. 69–70, 356
stock 255–6
strategic management 199
strategic planning 207–8
strategy
market-based approach 207,
208
promotional 243
for studying 23–7
see also organisational strategy
strengths
evaluating your abilities 182–3
SWOT model 206–7
stress, computer-mediated group
working 91
study groups 73–5
studying
session planning 26–7
strategy, planning 23–6
texts 35–6
time management 25–6
see also approaches to
learning; learning
subsystems 132, 133
surface approach to learning 17–18,
344, 346, 347, 349–51, 352
surveys 151–2
non-response 144
see also interviews; sampling
SWOT model 206–7
synergy, teamwork 313–14
systems map 133–4
systems thinking 131–4
tacit knowledge 7, 8, 15
targets see objectives
Targett, D. 172–3, 359
Taylor, F.W. 284–5, 359
Taylorism 284–5
teams 5
characteristics of 309
and innovation 313–15
self-managing 314–15
see also group working
textbooks 35–6
theoretical knowledge 7, 8, 9, 11
thinking
critical 5, 15, 67–8
developing 12–13, 67–8
systems 131–4
see also cognitive processes
three-level product analysis 229–30
time management, adult learners
25–6
time series line graphs 119–21
timescale, network analysis 139–40
transaction marketing 222–3
transactional leadership 277, 278
transformation, input-output
diagrams 129–30
transformation model, operations
management 325
transformational leadership 277–8
triangulation 146–7
triggers, organisational change 220
Tuckman, B. 312, 359
turnover see sales
tutors, writing for 43
two-by-two matrix 125
two-factor theory, Hertzberg’s
288–90
Tyler, S. 90, 339, 359
underperformance
employees 304–5
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multiple-cause diagrams
137–9
unit elasticity 237–8
validity, market research 145–6
value chain 204–6
value-driven market culture 223
values, personal 185–6
variable costs 257–8
break-even 259–61
variables
correlation 165–7
indices 173–5
vicious circle of control 322–3
virtual circles 92–3
virtual organisations 214
vision statement 200–1
voice, report writing 52–3
weaknesses
self-evaluation 182–3
SWOT model 206–7
Weaver, W. 75, 359
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weighted scores, evaluation matrices
126
work
mentoring 30–1
peer relationships 31–2
support in learning 29–30
working capital 250, 255–6
workplace, active listening 79
writing
active and passive 52–3
apostrophes 54–6
checklist 58–9
conciseness 47–8
effective 37
plagiarism 48–9
polishing 52
reports 5, 40–2, 44–6
research reports 46–7
similes and metaphors 53–4
spelling 56–8
target audience 42–3
see also assignments
writing process 41–2