SYNTHESIS OF RESEARCH
ON SELF-CONCEPT
T
heories about self-understand
ing have ranged from romantic,
holistic ideas expressed through
the fine arts, to highly analytic state
ments emerging from psychological
research on specific aspects of per
sonality. Theorists disagree about
whether the environment or the indi
vidual is more influential in their
formulation. At present comprehen
sive statements about the self must
remain somewhat speculative, but an
examination of theory and research
does offer some important informa
tion about how people perceive
themselves C James, 1890; Mead,
1934; Rogers, 1962; Jourard, 1971;
Hamacheck, 1965; Gergen, 1971;
Rosenberg. 1979).
Self-perception seems to function
at three levels: specific situation,
categorical, and general. First, in our
daily lives each of us is involved in,
many specific situations in which we
exercise and develop ideas about our
knowledge, skills, beliefs, attitudes,
and the like. Second, as a function of
experience and desire, each of us has
perceptions about ourselves based on
various roles we play (learner, family
member; and attributes which we be
lieve we possess. Third, each of us
seems to have a genera! sense of self,
perhaps based on decisions about our
situation experiences and categorical
perceptions.
Self-perception appears to involve
three dimensions: self-concept, selfesteem, and values (Beane and
Lipka, 1980). Self-concept refers to
the description we hold of ourselves
based on the roles we play and perJatnes A. Beane is Associate Professor,
Richard P. Lipka is Associate Professor,
and Joan W. Ludewig is Graduate As
sistant: a/I at St. Bonaventure Univer
sity, St. Bonaventure, New York.
84
JAMES A. BEANE,
RICHARD P. LIPKA,
AND JOAN W. LUDEWIG
sonal attributes we believe we pos
sess. Self-esteem refers to the level of
satisfaction we attach to that descrip
tion or parts of it. Self-esteem deci
sions, in turn, are made on the basis
of what is important to us or, more
specifically, our value';. This distinc
tion is important for educators con
cerned about learner self-perceptions
for two reasons. First, our values may
not be the same as those of students,
so we cannot infer that they have
positive self-esteem regarding partic
ular aspects of their own lives just
because we would. Second, when try
ing to enhance self-perceptions we
must be sure which aspect of the self
we are dealing with. For example,
because of peer pressure, high achiev
ing students may be unhappy with
that aspect of themselves and public
reinforcement may be a misguided
technique.
As self-perception becomes more
general, the individual appears to
seek stability and consistency (Purkey, 1970). For example, if a person
believes that he/she is generally so
cially inept, convincing that person
otherwise would probably be very
difficult. One or two specific social
situations where positive feedback is
received would make little difference
as would generally supportive state
ments like, "You shouldn't feel that
way; you're a good person." In order
to make a difference in the self-per
ceptions of young persons, we appar
ently need to construct a consistent
and continuing series of specific situa
tions in which certain feedback is
received and in which we help young
persons to clarify their concepts of
self and the values upon which their
personal self-esteem judgments are
made (Raths, 1972).
Finally, it appears that self-percep
tions are to some extent age-related.
Self-perceptions are largely influenced
by our environment and particularly
by persons whom we perceive as
"significant others." In childhood,
parents serve as the most significant
others and thus have the most influ
ence on self-perceptions. Further,
children tend to view themselves in
criterion-referenced ways; that is,
they judge their competence in situa
tions on the basis of how well they
do on tasks. Adolescents, on the
other hand, tend to view peers as the
most significant others; their selfjudgments seem to be norm-refer
enced. Questions of self take on
major importance in adolescence as
that age group confronts the classic
identity crisis (Erikson, 1968). Fur
thermore, as people get older their
roles become more numerous, their
awareness of the environment be
comes more acute, and their selfperceptions become more complex.
Apparently, then, the longer we delay
efforts to enhance self-perceptions or
perhaps continue to hinder them, the
more difficult our supportive role be
comes (Morse, 1964; Yamamoto,
Thomas, and Karncs, 1969).
The Self and Ihe School
It is generally accepted that schools
ought to and do develop learning in a
variety of areas, including personal
and social development. In fact, in
trinsic to the notion of the "hidden"
curriculum is the idea that the self
and social outcomes of schooling are
at least as, if not more powerful than,
academic outcomes (Overly, 1970).
Typically, lists of school goals include
EDUCATIONAL LF.Anr-.RSiup
statements of intent to help students
develop a positive sense of self-worth,
in
self-confidence
independence.
learning, and internal locus of control
(that is, self rather than external
direction).
In the hundreds of studies that
have been done, a persistent relation
ship has been found between various
aspects of self-perception and a wide
variety of school-related variables
(Wylie. 1979). Among the variables
which have been found to be related
to self-concept are school achieve
ment, perceived social status among
peers, participation in class discus
sions, completion of school, percep
tions of peers and teachers of the
individual, pro-social behavior, and
self-direction in learning.
Students carry images of the self in
several areas as well as the potential
for developing many more. These
might include the self as person, as
learner, as academic achiever, as
peer, and others. Each experience in
school can affect self-concept, per
sonally held values, and/or the sub
sequent self-esteem of the learner.
For this reason, an understanding of
self-concept and esteem in general,
how they function in youth, and how
the schools might enhance or hinder
them must be a major concern of
those responsible for curriculum
planning and implementation.
Using the broad definition of cur
riculum as all of the experiences of
the learner (both in and out of class)
under the auspices of the school, we
may now turn to an examination of
the interaction between the self and
the institutional features of the
school.
From Custodial Climate to Human
istic Climate. D iscussions of school
climate generally distinguish between
two types, custodial and humanistic.
Dcibert and Hoy (1977) found that
students in humanistic schools
demonstrated higher degrees of selfactualization than those in schools
with a custodial orientation. This cor
relational research has obvious im
plications for schools when one
examines the qualities associated
with each type of climate. The cus
todial climate is characterized by con
cern for maintenance of order, prefer
ence for autocratic procedures,
student stereotyping, punitive sanc
tions, and impersonalness. The
humanistic climate is characterized
OrroBFR 1 980
by democratic procedures, student may vary from the group (Purkey,
participation in decision making, 1978). In other words, homogeneous
personalness, respect, fairness, self- grouping based on an attribute such
discipline, interaction, and flexibility. as ability may lead not only to aca
In other words, it appears that the demic disadvantage (Esposito. 1973).
but to labeling of students. In this
custodial climate may be a debilitat
ing factor in the concept of self while way the school may introduce to the
learner confusing self-descriptors and
the humanistic climate might be con
sidered facilitating (Licata and negative self-esteem suggestions. The
Wildes, 1980; Estep, Willower, and emphasis on ability is unfortunate
Licata, 1980).
considering the wide array of options
From Accepting Failure to Ex- available for grouping. Self-concept
peeling and Ensuring Success. In would probably be facilitated by use
some schools, it is expected that many of a variety of grouping patterns de
pending upon the task to be accom
learners will fail. Further, it is ex
plished.
pected that some will do so consis
From Age-isolation to Multi-age
tently. Thus failure has a kind of
cumulative effect for the learner Interactions. Schools isolate one age
(Purkey, 1970) and also becomes group from another and youth from
embedded in teacher expectations adults as well as from other youth.
(Rosenthal. 1970; Kash and Borich, Efforts need to be made to help
1978). Within this framework, one young people understand the age
may find interaction effects (Bloom. levels from which they have emerged,
1980; Purkey. 1970) between self- as well as those toward which they
concept as learner and school are headed. In the case of the former,
multi-age tutorial and discussion ses
achievement (for example, correla
sions with younger persons appear to
tions for academic achievement ap
be particularly useful in facilitating
pear to range up to .76).
The general id.ea that "one success the sense of self (Lippitt and Lippitt,
may lead to another" is supported 1968. 1970). With regard to later
experimentally by the work of Bailiffe life, clear and constructive views may
(1978) who suggests the use of be facilitated when students are en
teacher-guided tutoring sessions, in couraged to interact with adults of all
ages. One particularly interesting
which a successful outcome is en
sured, followed by discussion of how variation concerns interaction with
it feels to succeed. Another useful elderly people for the purpose of
technique is that of team learning, encouraging positive views of that
particularly in relation to cooperative group as well as life at that age (Tice,
reward structures (Slavin and De 1979). In this case, schools that in
volve elderly people in daily activities
Vries, 1979).
At a more general level, teachers within the schools and which provide
as significant others must consistently- opportunities for young people to do
community service projects for and
signal learners that they can success
fully pursue the academic, social. with this age group are probably en
hancing one dimension of self-percep
and personal goals of school experi
ence. It should be noted that self- tion, the self as potential adult.
concept and esteem appear to be
From Avoiding Parents to Work
necessary but not sufficient for ing With Parents. To enhance selfsuccess (Purkey. 1970), particularly perceptions, the school must make
if the task at hand is completely attempts to influence parent/child in
beyond the grasp of the learner. teraction since parents continue even
Thus, planned activities should not through adolescence as significant
be beyond the grasp of the learner if others. Three strategies seem promis
feared or actual failure is to be ing. Through parenting workshops,
avoided. In any event, self-concept parents may learn the interaction pat
and esteem as learner may account to terns necessary to develop self-con
a large degree for school success and cept and self-esteem (Brookover,
may be enhanced by teacher action. 1965; Bilby. 1973). A second stra
tegy is the use of conferences in
From A ttrihute Grouping to Vari
able Grouping. Teachers often label which, under the guidance of the
groups, and then attach to individuals teacher, the parent, teacher, and stu
the general characteristics of the dent discuss the learner's life in
group, even though the individual school and define ways in which all
85
three might work cooperatively
toward improvement. A third strategy
involves attempts to promote the
"teaching home" (Tacco and Bridges,
1971). Academic achievement and
thus self-concept as learner appear to
be enhanced when parents teach their
youngsters (Bloom, 1977; Hess and
Shipman, 1965, 1968). For example,
cooperative planning sessions or par
enting workshops can initiate in
stances of "homework" which call
for parents and learners to work to
gether to solve problems, find infor
mation, or discuss issues. These and
similar strategies have great potential
for overcoming home-school separa
tion.
Imposed
Institutionally
From
Rules to Cooperatively Made Rules.
One of the key issues in developing
a positive sense of self-worth is the
degree to which the individual per
ceives control over his/her life. As an
institution, schools typically have a
set of rules that govern student life.
Further, these regulations are tradi
tional and mostly non-negotiable.
This feature of custodial climate un
doubtedly contributes to a sense of
external rather than internal locus of
control (Lefcourt, 1976) as well as
the related possibility of learned help
lessness (Ames, 1978). In other
words, the school's impositions can
debilitate self-perception and must be
HIGHLIGHTS FROM RESEARCH
ON SELF-CONCEPT
Self-concept i s the way
Providing for inter
people describe themselves
action with younger and
based on the roles they
older people by arranging
play and the personal at
for cross-age tutoring and
tributes they think they
involving elderly people in
possess. Self-esteem i s the
school activities.
level of satisfaction they
Assisting parents to
RESEARCH
attach to those descrip
enhance their children's
INFORMATION
tions, based on their
self-perceptions by con
SERVICE
values.
ducting workshops for
them, holding parent/student/teacher
Educators need to be aware that:
conferences, and encouraging parents
Students may not see themselves to take an active role in their chil
the way, others see them because dren's learning.
their values may be different.
Permitting students some control
General perceptions of self are over their own lives by having them
quite stable, so continuing, consistent, participate in formulating school rules
positive feedback will have more ef
and in teacher-student planning.
fect than a few random compliments.
Including curriculum that gives
It may be easier for adults to direct attention to personal and social
influence self-perceptions of younger development.
children than older ones because
Teaching students to evaluate
children are more apt to consider their own progress.
adults "significant others," while
adolescents are more concerned with
Reference
opinions of their peers.
A.; Lipka, Richard
James
Beane,
Schools can contribute to student
P.: and Ludewig, Joan W. "Interpret
self-esteem by:
ing the. Research on Self-Concept."
Creating a climate characterized Educational Leaders/tip 3 8 (October
by democratic procedures, student 1980): 84-89.
participation in decision making, perFor sources of information about
sonalness, respect, fairness, self-dis
topics of current interest to ASCD
cipline, interaction, and flexibility.
members, write to:
Minimizing failure and empha
sizing success experiences through Research Information Service
such practices as team learning.
Association for Supervision and
Using a variety of grouping pat
Curriculum Development
terns rather than always grouping stu
225 N. Washington St.
dents by ability.
Alexandria, VA 22314
revised to enhance a sense of selfcontrol.
This might be accomplished by the
use of town meeting-type activities or
committees on a classroom and/or
schoolwide basis. Teachers can use
teacher-student planning. Such ef
forts must, however, be open and
honest (Combs, 1962), not simply a
means to make students think they
have a decision-making role in the
school. In both learning and behav
ior, schools ought to provide con
tinually expanding opportunities for
self-responsibility (Delia-Dora and
Blanchard, 1979).
From Subject Approaches to LifeCentered Approaches. Educators
have Iqng recognized the lack of con
nection between the completely sub
ject-centered curriculum and the
personal needs of youth (Hopkins,
1941; Aiken, 1941; Alberty and Alberty, 1953; Krug, 1957; Hanna and
others, 1963). Proponents of the sub
ject-centered organization would cer
tainly support the idea that if one
wants students to learn subject mat
ter, the school must teach it. For
some reason, however, it is presumed
that personal and social development
do not need direct attention.
One way, then, of enhancing selfconcept and esteem in the school is
to provide a curriculum specifically
designed for that purpose. Through
such units as "Developing My Per
sonal Values," "Getting Along With
Others," "Living in Our School," or
other interest/need-centcrcd topics,
learners have the opportunity to ex
plore directly the personal issues and
environmental forces involved in
thinking about and making decisions
related to self-perceptions. Learning
would then move away from text
books and tests toward problems and
projects. The passive learner whose
school activities consist of studying
someone else's concerns, by their
method, is hardlv developing a per
sonal sense of self as learner. On the
other hand, studying personally im
portant problems and creating or con
structing related projects offers a tre
mendous opportunity to develop a
sense of self as an ongoing and cap
able learner.
From A dull-Exclusive Evaluation
to More Self-Evaluation I t has been
said that "in our society we grade
meat, eggs, and kids." In most cases
the kids have about as much say in
EDUCATIONAL I,rAi>rRsnn>
that procedure as do the others. A
clear and accurate self-concept de
pends upon the learned skill of selfevaluating (Barrett, 1968). Each
day, week, and so on. learners ought
to be encouraged to evaluate them
selves. Through the use of logs, jour
nals, and diaries young people may
keep a personal record of how they
do in various activities in and out of
school and look back at their devel
oping skills and growing insights in
all domains of learning and develop
ment. Further, each report on school
progress ought to have a written
statement by the student as to what
he/she has learned, what problems
have been encountered, how they
have been overcome, and what is
planned next. These procedures aim
directly at self-perceptions of learn
ers and their use is imperative for en
hancing the sense of self through the
school (Coons and McEachern,
1967; Marston and Smith, 1968).
Beyond the Status Quo
The correlational studies reviewed to
this point are interesting, perhaps
enlightening, possibly helpful, but
also probably suspect. By "suspect"
we do not moan to question the
competence of individual researchers;
the work is suspect because of grow
ing pains in the field. Until very re
cently two issues loomed large in the
field of self-perception research; the
imprecision of definitions in the field
and the related concern of inappro
priate instrumentation.
For almost 20 years, reviews have
noted that the imprecision and vari
ation in definitions and constraints
have hindered the interpretation and
generalizabilily of self-perception re
search (Wylie, 1961; Shavelson and
others, 1976; McGuire and others,
1979; Beane and Lipka. 1980). Most
noteworthy was the lack of distinc
tion between self-description and
self-evaluation, a condition which
has led to the interchangeable use of
the te.rms self-concept and selfesteem. As noted earlier, while these
terms are conceptually related within
the framework of self-perceptions,
they are distinctly different dimen
sions. The problem which arises if
they are not differentiated is illus
trated with an example from Coopersmith's Sell-Esteem Inventory ( 1967).
When a child says, "I would rather
play with children younger than me,"
OCTOBPR 1980
the response is interpreted as indic
self is tied to academic performance
ative of negative self-esteem since and the quality of the relationships
conventional thinking suggests that he she has with fellow students and
such a child feels rejected by age- teachers.
mates. While this may be the case
Our recent research (Lipka. Beane.
with the child who is consistently and Ludewig. 1980) employed the
rejected by age-mates, what of the spontaneous self-concept method but
oldest child in a several-sibling, added the dimensions of self-esteem
closely-knit family who feels positive and value indicators by asking stu
playing with younger siblings, or the dents whether they wanted to keep
child who has equal success with or change each item in their self-con
children of the same age and with cept description and why they would
older children, so does not regard age want to keep or change items refer
as important? Research that infers ring to school (at no time were
self-esteem from self-concept data prompting questions like "tell me
must be considered questionable.
about yourself in school" or "how
A second issue is that the field has about friends" asked). In interviews
historically relied on instrumentation with 1.102 kindergarten through
which is of a reactive nature (Cooper- twelfth-grade students the subjects
smith. 1967; Fills, 1964; Piers and generated a total of 8.955 self-con
Harris. 1964). Such instruments re
cept mentions of which 1.524 or 17
quire individuals to indicate how they percent were related to school. As
feel about themselves with regard to was the case with McGuire's work,
various attributes or situations im
age trends were noted with .58 school
posed by the instrument. However, mentions per kindergarten student as
this methodology leaves two ques
compared to 2.31 per twelfth grader.
tions unanswered. First, apart from
The analysis of school mentions
the research setting, do the respond
in terms of self-concept content, selfents even think of themselves in concept qualifiers, self-esteem, and
terms of the attributes or situations value indicators has revealed some in
presented? Second, which dimensions teresting and useful results. First, it
do they think in terms of?
is safe to say that about a fifth of a
To date one of the clearest at
child's sense of self is derived from
tempts to resolve these issues can be the school experience and that "self
found in McGuire's (1976. 1978. within the institution" and "self as
1979) work on spontaneous self- engaged learner" are the most salient
concept of children. By asking chil
categories within that experience. As
dren a question like "tell me about students move upward through the
yourself." the child is allowed to gen
institution, thev describe themselves
erate his her own list of self-concept within the institution in increasingly
descriptors based on personal sali
harsh terms. Finally, elementary and
ence. In McGuire's (1979) research secondary students have different
which involved use of the spon
value bases for their self-esteem.
taneous technique in interviews with Elementary students value positive
560 children from grades one. three, instructional activities, with an eye to
learning as fun. under the guidance
seven, and eleven school topics oc
of teachers with positive personality
cupied 1 1 percent of their self-con
cept content. This placed the school characteristics. Secondary students
fifth, behind, family (17 percent), value a concern for life plans within
recreation (14 percent), daily life a structure that encourages positive
and demography (13 percent), and interactions with peers.
The work reviewed herein demon
friends and social relations (11 +
percent). There were clear age trends strates that school looms large in the
in the data, with mentions of school self-perceptions of children and
constituting about 5 percent of first youth. It follows that schools have the
graders' self-concepts compared to opportunity and responsibility to en15 percent of those of eleventh grad 'hance the development of individuals
ers. In fact, by the eleventh grade beyond the acquisition of facts.
school is the largest single category
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