HSC - Science Press

HSC CHEMISTRY Marilyn Schell Margaret Hogan © Science Press 2007 First published 2007 Reprinted 2007 (twice), 2008, 2009 Science Press Private Bag 7023 Marrickville NSW 1475 Australia Tel: (02) 9516 1122 Fax: (02) 9550 1915 sales@sciencepress.com.au www.sciencepress.com.au All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of Science Press. ABN 98 000 073 861 Contents Introduction v Verbs to Watch vi Dot Points Production of Materials vii The Acidic Environment ix Chemical Monitoring and Management xi Industrial Chemistry xiii Shipwrecks, Corrosion and Conservation xv Questions Production of Materials 1 The Acidic Environment 45 Chemical Monitoring and Management 101 Industrial Chemistry 157 Shipwrecks, Corrosion and Conservation 207 Answers Production of Materials 251 The Acidic Environment 273 Chemical Monitoring and Management 299 Industrial Chemistry 325 Shipwrecks, Corrosion and Conservation 345 Appendix Data Sheet 361 Periodic Table 362 Science Press Dot Point HSC Chemistry iii Contents Notes ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 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Science Press Contents iv Dot Point HSC Chemistry Introduction What the book includes ,QWKLVERRN\RXZLOO¿QGW\SLFDOH[DPLQDWLRQTXHVWLRQVDQGDQVZHUVIRUHDFKGRWSRLQWLQWKH%RDUGRI6WXGLHV syllabus for the following topics in the Year 12 Chemistry course: 3URGXFWLRQRI0DWHULDOV 7KH$FLGLF(QYLURQPHQW &KHPLFDO0RQLWRULQJDQG0DQDJHPHQW ,QGXVWULDO&KHPLVWU\ 6KLSZUHFNV&RUURVLRQDQG&RQVHUYDWLRQ Also included are typical experimental results for students to analyse if the third column of the syllabus indicates WKDWVWXGHQWVVKRXOGFDUU\RXWµ¿UVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQV¶ Format of the book The book has been formatted in the following way: 1. Main topic statement (column 1 of syllabus) 1.1etc Syllabus requirement from columns 2 and 3. 1RWHWKDWWKHQXPEHULQJRIWKHVHUHTXLUHPHQWVLVWKHDXWKRU¶VFKRLFHDQGKDVEHHQXVHGWRPDNHUHIHUHQFLQJ TXHVWLRQVDQGDQVZHUVFOHDUHU7KHLQGLYLGXDOUHTXLUHPHQWVDUHQRWQXPEHUHGLQWKHV\OODEXVWKH\DUHVLPSO\ EXOOHWHG±KHQFHRXUXVHRIµGRWSRLQWV¶ZKHQZHUHIHUWRWKHP 1.1.1 )LUVWW\SLFDOTXHVWLRQZKLFKFRXOGEHDVNHGLQDQH[DPLQDWLRQIRUWKLVV\OODEXV UHTXLUHPHQW 1.1.2 6HFRQGW\SLFDOTXHVWLRQZKLFKFRXOGEHDVNHGLQDQH[DPLQDWLRQIRUWKLVV\OODEXV UHTXLUHPHQWHWF 7KHQXPEHURIOLQHVSURYLGHGIRUHDFKDQVZHUJLYHVDQLQGLFDWLRQRIKRZPDQ\PDUNVWKHTXHVWLRQPLJKWEH worth in an examination. As a rough rule, every two lines of answer might be worth one mark. Note that in PDQ\DQVZHUVWKUHHOLQHVKDYHEHHQSURYLGHGDVWKHDPRXQWRIZULWLQJUHTXLUHGH[FHHGVWZROLQHVEXWWKH chemistry involved is worth only one mark. How to use the book &RPSOHWLQJDOOTXHVWLRQVZLOOSURYLGH\RXZLWKDVXPPDU\RIDOOWKHZRUN\RXQHHGWRNQRZIURPWKHV\OODEXV You may have done work in addition to this with your teacher as extension work. Obviously this is not covered, but you may need to know this additional work for your school exams. :KHQZRUNLQJWKURXJKWKHTXHVWLRQVZULWHWKHDQVZHUV\RXKDYHWRORRNXSLQDGLIIHUHQWFRORXUWRWKRVH\RX NQRZZLWKRXWKDYLQJWRUHVHDUFKWKHZRUN7KLVZLOOSURYLGH\RXZLWKDTXLFNUHIHUHQFHWRZRUN\RXVKRXOG spend more time revising later, and allow you to spend your study time more productively. Science Press Dot Point HSC Chemistry v Introduction Verbs to Watch account/account for State reasons for, report on, give an account of, narrate a series of events or transactions. distinguish Recognise or note/indicate as being distinct or different from, note difference between things. analyse Identify components and the relationships among them, draw out and relate implications. evaluate Make a judgement based on criteria. examine ,QTXLUHLQWR apply Use, utilise, employ in a particular situation. explain Relate cause and effect, make the relationship between things evident, provide why and/or how. appreciate Make a judgement about the value of something. extract Choose relevant and/or appropriate details. assess 0DNHDMXGJHPHQWRIYDOXHTXDOLW\RXWFRPHV results or size. extrapolate Infer from what is known. calculate 'HWHUPLQHIURPJLYHQIDFWV¿JXUHVRULQIRUPDWLRQ identify Recognise and name. clarify Make clear or plain. interpret Draw meaning from. classify Arrange into classes, groups or categories. investigate 3ODQLQTXLUHLQWRDQGGUDZFRQFOXVLRQVDERXW compare Show how things are similar and different. justify Support an argument or conclusion. construct Make, build, put together items or arguments. outline Sketch in general terms; indicate the main features. contrast Show how things are different or opposite. predict Suggest what may happen based on available data. critically (analyse/evaluate) Add a degree or level of accuracy, depth, knowledge DQGXQGHUVWDQGLQJORJLFTXHVWLRQLQJUHÀHFWLRQDQG TXDOLW\WRDQDQDO\VLVRUHYDOXDWLRQ propose Put forward (a point of view, idea, argument, suggestion etc) for consideration or action. deduce Draw conclusions. recall Present remembered ideas, facts or experiences. GH¿QH 6WDWHWKHPHDQLQJRIDQGLGHQWLI\HVVHQWLDOTXDOLWLHV recommend Provide reasons in favour. demonstrate Show by example. recount Retell a series of events. describe Provide characteristics and features. summarise Express concisely the relevant details. discuss Identify issues and provide points for and against. synthesise Put together various elements to make a whole. Science Press Verbs to Watch vi Dot Point HSC Chemistry Production of Materials Dot Point Page Dot Point Page 1. Energy and raw materials from fossil fuels 2 LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ ) Molar heats of combustion of alkanols 1.1 Ethylene (ethene) from petroleum 2 3.9 Calculating molar heat of combustion 23 5HDFWLYLW\RIHWK\OHQH¶VGRXEOHERQG 3.10 Ethanol as a car fuel 24 LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ ) Alkanes and alkenes with bromine water 3.11 Ethanol as an alternative fuel 25 1.4 Ethylene as a monomer 5 ) LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ Fermentation of glucose 1.5 Polymers, e.g. polyethylene 6 3.13 Conditions for fermentation 26 1.6 Industrial production of polyethylene 6 3.14 Chemistry of fermentation 26 1.7 Modelling polymerisation 8 (TXDWLRQIRUIHUPHQWDWLRQ 1.8 Vinyl chloride and styrene as monomers 8 4. Energy from redox reactions 27 1.9 Properties and uses of polystyrene and PVC 9 )LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ*DOYDQLFFHOOV Materials from biomass 11 LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ3RWHQWLDO ) difference of metals in an electrolyte 2. 2.1 Products of the petrochemical industry 11 4.3 Displacement of metals from solution 28 2.2 Development and use of a biopolymer 11 4.4 Activity of metals and displacement 28 2.3 Condensation polymers 13 4.5 Oxidation states 29 2.4 Formation of condensation polymers 13 4.6 Redox reactions in galvanic cells 30 2.5 Cellulose – a condensation polymer in biomass 14 4.7 Construction of galvanic cells 31 4.8 Components of galvanic cells 32 2.6 Cellulose – a source of commercial polymers 15 4.9 Calculations using the redox table 33 $SSOLHGTXHVWLRQ 3. Ethanol – use and manufacture 17 3.1 Dehydration of ethanol 17 3.2 Hydrolysis of ethylene 18 3.3 Modelling the dehydration and hydrolysis of ethylene 18 3.4 Industrial production of ethanol from sugar cane 19 3.5 Ethanol as a solvent 3.6 3.7 4.10 Chemistry and uses of batteries compared 35 $SSOLHGTXHVWLRQ 5. Nuclear chemistry 39 5.1 Stable and radioactive isotopes 39 5.2 Recent discoveries of elements 40 5.3 Production of transuranic elements 41 5.4 Production of commercial radioisotopes 41 5.5 Detection of radiation 42 20 5.6 Radioisotopes in industry and medicine 42 Ethanol as a fuel – a renewable resource 20 5.7 Radioisotopes – uses and properties 42 5DGLRLVRWRSHV±EHQH¿WVDQGSUREOHPV Naming alkanols 21 Answers to Production of Materials 251 Science Press Dot Point HSC Chemistry vii Production of Materials Notes ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 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Science Press Production of Materials viii Dot Point HSC Chemistry The Acidic Environment Dot Point Page Dot Point Page 1. Indicators 46 3.10 Calculation of pH 68 LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ ) Natural indicators 3.11 Strong and weak acids – ionisation 70 6WURQJDQGZHDNDFLGV±HTXLOLEULXP 1.2 Indicators – colour changes 47 3.13 Strong and weak acids – calculating pH 71 1.3 Prepared indicators 47 3.14 Acids as food additives 72 1.4 Acidic, basic or neutral 49 4. Acid/base theories 73 1.5 Acidity/basicity of household substances 50 4.1 Using secondary sources 73 1.6 Uses of indicators 51 4.2 Acidic oxides and the atmosphere 53 Development of ideas about acids and bases – Lavoisier, Davy and Arrhenius 73 2. 2[LGHVRIQRQPHWDOVDVDFLGV %U|QVWHG/RZU\DFLGEDVHWKHRU\ 2.2 Periodic Table and acidity of oxides 53 4.4 Conjugate acids and bases 76 /H&KkWHOLHU¶VSULQFLSOH 4.5 Conjugate acid/base pairs 76 )DFWRUVDIIHFWLQJHTXLOLEULXP 2.5 Solubility of carbon dioxide 55 LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ ) pH of salt solutions 2.6 Calculating gas volumes 56 4.7 Explaining pH of salts 78 LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ ) Decarbonation of a soft drink 4.8 Amphiprotic substances 79 4.9 79 Natural and industrial sources of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides 59 Neutralisation as a proton transfer reaction Chemical reactions that release SO2 and NOX 2.8 7LWUDWLRQWHFKQLTXHV 60 )LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ7LWUDWLRQV 2.10 Formation and effects of acid rain 60 2.11 Evidence for changes in atmospheric oxides of sulfur and nitrogen 61 ) LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ7LWUDWLRQ of a domestic substance using FRPSXWHUEDVHGWHFKQRORJ\ 4.13 Neutralisation in accidents 89 2.12 Industrial origins of oxides of sulfur and nitrogen 62 4.14 Buffers 90 3. Acids and pH 2.9 5. (VWHUL¿FDWLRQ 93 63 5.1 Alkanols and alkanoic acids 93 LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ ) Using pH meters or probes 5.2 Melting and boiling points of alkanols and alkanoic acids 95 3.2 Acids as proton donors 63 (VWHUL¿FDWLRQ 3.3 Common acids 64 5.4 Naming esters 96 3.4 Naturally occurring acids and bases 64 8VHRIDFLGLQHVWHUL¿FDWLRQ 3.5 The pH scale 65 5HÀX[LQJLQHVWHUL¿FDWLRQ 3.6 Concentrated and dilute acids 66 3.7 Strong and weak acids 67 LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ ) 3UHSDUDWLRQRIDQHVWHUE\UHÀX[ ,RQLFHTXDWLRQVIRUDFLGLRQLVDWLRQ 5.8 Esters – occurrence, production and uses 99 3.9 Modelling acids – molecular nature and ionisation 68 5.9 Esters – uses in foods and cosmetics 99 Answers to The Acidic Environment 273 Science Press Dot Point HSC Chemistry ix The Acidic Environment Notes 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Science Press The Acidic Environment x Dot Point HSC Chemistry Chemical Monitoring and Management Dot Point Page Dot Point Page 1. The work of chemists 102 4. Atmospheric chemistry and ozone 129 1.1 The work of chemists 102 4.1 129 1.2 Chemists – roles and chemical principles used 103 Composition and layered structure of the atmosphere 4.2 Atmospheric pollutants 129 1.3 Collaboration between chemists 104 4.3 Ozone in the atmosphere 130 1.4 Monitoring a chemical reaction 104 4.4 Formation of coordinate covalent bonds 131 2. Monitoring in industry – the Haber process 107 4.5 Coordinate covalent bonds and Lewis structures 132 2.1 Industrial uses of ammonia 107 4.6 Allotropes of oxygen 132 2.2 Synthesis of ammonia 107 4.7 Oxygen allotropes – properties 134 2.3 Synthesis of ammonia – DQHTXLOLEULXPUHDFWLRQ 107 4.8 Isomers of haloalkanes 134 4.9 Modelling haloalkanes 136 2.4 Synthesis of ammonia – an exothermic reaction 108 4.10 CFCs and halons in the atmosphere 137 Reaction rate and temperature 109 4.11 Changes in atmospheric ozone concentrations 139 2.5 KH+DEHUSURFHVVDQG/H&KkWHOLHU¶V 7 principle 4.12 Destruction of atmospheric ozone 141 4.13 Problems associated with use of CFCs 142 2.7 The Haber process and pressure 110 4.14 Replacements for CFCs 143 2.8 The Haber process – a balancing act 110 $SSOLHGTXHVWLRQ 2.9 Development of the Haber process DQGLWVVLJQL¿FDQFH 111 5. Monitoring the water supply 145 5.1 Ions in water 145 'HWHUPLQLQJZDWHUTXDOLW\ )LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ:DWHUWHVWLQJ 5.4 Monitoring water for heavy metals and eutrophication 150 5.5 The local water supply 152 5.6 Effectiveness of water management 154 0LFURVFRSLFPHPEUDQH¿OWHUV 2.10 The Haber process and catalysts 112 2.11 Monitoring the Haber process 113 $SSOLHGTXHVWLRQ 3. Chemical analysis 115 )LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ)ODPHWHVWV 3.2 Monitoring ions in substances we use 118 3.3 Deducing ions present from test results 119 LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ6XOIDWH ) content of lawn fertiliser 3.5 Analysing reliability of results 122 3.6 Atomic absorption spectroscopy 124 3.7 Interpreting data from AAS analysis 126 Answers to Chemical Monitoring and Management 299 Science Press Dot Point HSC Chemistry xi Chemical Monitoring and Management Notes ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 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Science Press Chemical Monitoring and Management xii Dot Point HSC Chemistry Industrial Chemistry Dot Point Page Dot Point Page OHFWURO\VLVRIPROWHQDQGDTXHRXV ( sodium chloride 4.4 Industrial production of sodium hydroxide by electrolysis 183 4.5 The mercury, diaphragm and membrane processes 184 5. 6DSRQL¿FDWLRQ 189 )LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ6DSRQL¿FDWLRQ LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ$QDO\VLQJDQ ) HTXLOLEULXPUHDFWLRQ 6DSRQL¿FDWLRQ 5.3 Fats and oils to make soap 190 2.3 Effects of changes on HTXLOLEULXPUHDFWLRQV 163 /DERUDWRU\DQGLQGXVWULDOVDSRQL¿FDWLRQ 7KHHTXLOLEULXPFRQVWDQW LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ ) An emulsion, properties and uses &DOFXODWLQJWKHHTXLOLEULXPFRQVWDQW. 2QO\WHPSHUDWXUHFDQFKDQJH. LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ ) Soap as an emulsion $SSOLHGTXHVWLRQ 5.7 Soap – structure and cleaning action 193 3. Sulfuric acid 171 5.8 Soap as an emulsion 194 3.1 Industrial uses of sulfuric acid 171 5.9 194 3.2 Sulfuric acid ionisation 171 Anionic, cationic and QRQLRQLFGHWHUJHQWV 3.3 Safety using sulfuric acid 171 3.4 Transport and storage of sulfuric acid 172 3.5 Extraction of sulfur 172 3.6 Indusrial production of sulfuric acid 174 3.7 Reaction conditions – production of SO2 and SO3 174 DWHVRIUHDFWLRQDQGHTXLOLEULXP± 5 production of SO2 and SO3 3.9 Industrial production of H2SO4 – chemistry and output 176 1. Resources and replacements 158 1.1 A natural resource (not a fossil fuel) 158 1.2 Shrinking world resources 159 $SSOLHGTXHVWLRQ 2. Equilibrium and the equilibrium constant 161 LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ0RGHOOLQJDQ ) HTXLOLEULXPUHDFWLRQ ) LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ Reactions of H2SO4 3.11 Reactions of H2SO4 – an oxidising and dehydrating agent 178 4. Sodium hydroxide 179 *DOYDQLFDQGHOHFWURO\WLFFHOOV LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ ) Electrolysis of sodium chloride 5.10 Soaps and synthetic detergents 195 5.11 Environmental impacts of soaps and detergents 196 6. The Solvay process 199 6.1 The Solvay process – raw materials 199 6.2 Uses of sodium carbonate 199 6.3 The Solvay process – steps and chemistry 199 6.4 The Solvay process – environmental issues 201 LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ ) The Solvay process 6.6 Calculations involving the Solvay process 202 6.7 Location of a chemical plant using the Solvay process 204 $SSOLHGTXHVWLRQV Answers to Industrial Chemistry 325 Science Press Dot Point HSC Chemistry xiii Industrial Chemistry Notes ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 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Science Press Industrial Chemistry xiv Dot Point HSC Chemistry Shipwrecks, Corrosion and Conservation Dot Point Page Dot Point Page 1. The ocean as an electrolyte 208 4.6 Cathodic protection 232 1.1 Minerals in oceans 208 4.7 233 1.2 Electron transfer in redox reactions 208 Cathodic protection – chemistry and uses 1.3 Redox reactions occur when ions are free to move 209 4.8 Applications of cathodic protection 234 5. Corrosion in a sunken ship 235 , PSDFWRI*DOYDQL'DY\)DUDGD\ and electron transfer reactions 5.1 Solubility of gases 235 *DVHVGLVVROYHGLQRFHDQV :RUNRI*DOYDQL'DY\DQG)DUDGD\ 5.3 Solubility of gases and depth of oceans 237 $SSOLHGTXHVWLRQ 5.4 Temperature and corrosion rates 237 2. Ships of metal 213 Rusting of iron 213 LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ ) Rate of corrosion 2.1 2.2 Conditions for rusting 214 5.6 Predicting corrosion rates at depth 239 LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ ) Corrosion of iron and steel $SSOLHGTXHVWLRQ 6. Corrosion at depth 241 2.4 Composition and properties of steel 218 Composition, properties and uses of a range of steels 219 LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ5DWHRI ) corrosion and acidity 2.5 6.2 Acidity and corrosion rates 242 2.6 Iron and steel in ships 219 6.3 Corrosion at depth 243 2.7 Corrosion of active and passivating metals 220 6XOIDWHUHGXFLQJEDFWHULDDQGFRUURVLRQ 7. Electrolytic cells 221 Salvage, conservation and restoration of artefacts 245 3. 3.1 Electrolysis – anode and cathode reactions 221 7.1 Artefacts from shipwrecks are saturated 245 7.2 Factors affecting electrolysis 224 Evaporation of a saturated solution from artefacts 245 3.2 LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ ) Rate of electcrolysis 7.3 Electrolysis to remove salts from artefacts 246 4. Corrosion in a marine environment 227 7.4 History of ship construction – materials used 227 Electrolysis to clean and stabilise metal artefacts 247 4.1 7.5 LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ ) Corrosion rate of metals and alloys Chemical procedures to clean, preserve and stabilise artefacts 247 7.6 Protection of metal hulls 228 RHVWRUDWLRQWHFKQLTXHVXVHG in Australian projects 4.3 LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ ) Prevention of corrosion Answers to Shipwrecks, Corrosion and Conservation 345 4.5 Using the redox table to predict corrosion 231 Science Press Dot Point HSC Chemistry xv Shipwrecks, Corrosion and Conservation Notes ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 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Science Press Shipwrecks, Corrosion and Conservation xvi Dot Point HSC Chemistry DOT POINT Production of Materials Science Press Dot Point HSC Chemistry 1 Production of Materials 1. Fossil fuels provide both energy and raw materials such as ethylene, for the production of other substances. 1.1 Identify the industrial source of ethylene from the cracking of some of the fractions from the UH¿QLQJRISHWUROHXP 1.1.1 Describe the composition of petroleum. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 1.1.2 When petroleum undergoes distillation, fractions are produced. Identify some of these. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 1.1.3 D 'H¿QHIUDFWLRQDOGLVWLOODWLRQ ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... (b) Use a diagram to show the industrial process of fractional distillation of petroleum. (c) Use a diagram to show the process of fractional distillation in the school laboratory. Science Press Production of Materials 2 Dot Point HSC Chemistry 1.1.4 (a) Identify the IUPAC name for ethylene. (b) Construct the structural formula for ethylene. (c) Outline the main source of ethylene. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 1.1.5 Ethene is produced by the cracking of petroleum fractions. Describe the process of cracking. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 1.2 Identify that ethylene, because of the high reactivity of its double bond, is readily transformed into many useful products. 1.2.1 Complete the following: Ethylene (ethene) belongs to a homologous group of hydrocarbons called ........................................ . All alkenes have a ........................................ bond as their functional group. This is called a covalent bond because the carbon atoms ........................................ electrons. It is called a double bond because the ........................................ atoms share ........................................ pairs of ........................................ . 1.2.2 (a) Complete the following table to summarise the differences between the three series of hydrocarbons, alkanes, alkenes and alkynes. Homologous series General formula Functional group Alkane CnH2n –CŁC– Science Press Dot Point HSC Chemistry 3 Production of Materials (b) 1.2.3 Write molecular formulas for: (i) ethane ....................................................................................... (ii) ethene ....................................................................................... (iii) ethyne ....................................................................................... Ethane and ethene (ethylene) are both hydrocarbons, and they share a number of properties. 7KH\ERWKKDYHVPDOOQRQSRODUPROHFXOHVZLWKZHDNGLVSHUVLRQIRUFHVEHWZHHQWKHLU molecules, they are both relatively insoluble in water, have low melting and boiling points and they both burn readily in air or oxygen. Despite these similarities, ethene is used much more extensively in industry than ethane. Account for this difference in use. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 1.2.4 Alkanes such as ethane undergo substitution reactions. (a) What is meant by a substitution reaction? ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... E 8VHDQHTXDWLRQWRVKRZDQH[DPSOHRIDVXEVWLWXWLRQUHDFWLRQ 1.2.5 Alkenes such as ethene (ethylene) undergo addition reactions. (a) What is meant by an addition reaction? ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... E 8VHDQHTXDWLRQZLWKVWUXFWXUDOIRUPXODVWRVKRZWKHDGGLWLRQRIK\GURJHQWRHWKHQH F 8VHDQHTXDWLRQZLWKVWUXFWXUDOIRUPXODVWRVKRZWKHDGGLWLRQRIFKORULQHWRHWKHQHHWK\OHQH Science Press Production of Materials 4 Dot Point HSC Chemistry , GHQWLI\GDWDSODQDQGSHUIRUPD¿UVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQWRFRPSDUHWKHUHDFWLYLWLHVRI appropriate alkenes with the corresponding alkanes in bromine water. 1.3.1 Describe the test you would use to distinguish an alkane such as ethane from an alkene such DVHWKHQHHWK\OHQH7KLVVKRXOGLQFOXGHWHVWUHVXOWVDQGHTXDWLRQV ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 1.3.2 'XULQJ\RXUFRXUVH\RXSODQQHGDQGSHUIRUPHGD¿UVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQWRFRPSDUHWKH reactivities of appropriate alkenes with the corresponding alkanes in bromine water. (a) Identify the chemicals you used and justify their choice. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... (b) Explain one safety precaution necessary when carrying out this experiment. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 1.4 Identify that ethylene serves as a monomer from which polymers are made. 1.4.1 D 'H¿QHPRQRPHU ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... E 'H¿QHSRO\PHUDQGLGHQWLI\WKUHHH[DPSOHVRISRO\PHUV ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... (c) Identify the term used to describe the process by which monomers are converted to a polymer. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... Science Press Dot Point HSC Chemistry 5 Production of Materials 1.4.2 -XVWLI\WKHFODVVL¿FDWLRQRIHWK\OHQHHWKHQHDVDPRQRPHU ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 1.5 1.4.3 Classify each of the following as either a monomer or a polymer. (a) starch ............................................................................. (b) glucose (c) ethylene (ethene) .................................................... (d) polyethylene ......................................................................... ............................................................. Identify polyethylene as an addition polymer and explain the meaning of this term. 1.5.1 'H¿QHZKDWLVPHDQWE\DQDGGLWLRQSRO\PHU ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 1.5.2 (a) Identify the monomer used to manufacture the polymer called polyethylene. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 1.6 E 8VHDQHTXDWLRQWRVKRZWKDWSRO\HWK\OHQHLVDQDGGLWLRQSRO\PHU (c) Draw the structural formula for a part of a polyethylene molecule showing three monomer units joined together. Outline the steps in the production of polyethylene as an example of a commercially and industrially important polymer. 1.6.1 Justify the statement that polyethylene is a commercially important polymer. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... Science Press Production of Materials 6 Dot Point HSC Chemistry 1.6.2 Outline the steps in the production of polyethylene. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 1.6.3 (a) Explain what is meant by a free radical. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... (b) Explain how the formation of an ethene free radical assists in the formation of a polymer. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 1.6.4 (a) Identify the type of catalyst used in the industrial production of polyethylene. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... (b) Describe the effect of this catalyst on the polymerisation process. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 1.6.5 8VHDÀRZFKDUWWRVKRZWKHLQGXVWULDOSURGXFWLRQRISRO\HWK\OHQHIURPHWK\OHQH Science Press Dot Point HSC Chemistry 7 Production of Materials 1.6.6 , QLQGXVWULDOSURFHVVHVVXFKDVSRO\PHULVDWLRQTXDOLW\FRQWUROLVFDUULHGRXW,GHQWLI\WKUHH factors that would need to be continually monitored and explain why this process is important in the production of polyethylene. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 1.6.7 During the production of polyethylene it is important to monitor temperature of the reaction vessel. Explain. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 1.7 Analyse information from secondary sources such as computer simulations, molecular model kits or multimedia resources to model the polymerisation process. 1.7.1 Describe how you modelled the polymerisation process in class. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ,GHQWLI\WKHIROORZLQJDVFRPPHUFLDOO\VLJQL¿FDQWPRQRPHUV YLQ\OFKORULGH VW\UHQH by both their systematic and common names. 1.8.1 Complete the following table to summarise information about the monomers vinyl chloride and styrene. Common name of monomer Systematic name of monomer Formula of monomer Name of polymer Vinyl chloride Styrene (Vinyl benzene) Science Press Production of Materials 8 Dot Point HSC Chemistry 1.9 Describe the uses of the polymers made from the above monomers in terms of their properties. 1.9.1 Use the following table to summarise some uses of the polymers made from the monomers vinyl chloride and styrene. Name of polymer Structure of polymer Uses Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) Polystyrene 1.9.2 Complete the following table to link the uses of the different forms of the polymers shown to properties that allow them to be used in these ways. Name of polymer Use PVC Flooring and carpet backing PVC Sheets for roofs and skylights Polyethylene Natural gas pipes Coating steel pipes Polyethylene Plastic bags and Food containers Polyethylene Sheathing for wire cables used for phone and TV Polystyrene Disposable foam cups Polystyrene Surfboards Property that determines this use Science Press Dot Point HSC Chemistry 9 Production of Materials 1.9.3 Assess the impact of the development of the production of polymers on society and on the environment. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... Science Press Production of Materials 10 Dot Point HSC Chemistry 2. Some scientists research the extraction of materials from biomass to reduce our dependence on fossil fuels. 2.1 Discuss the need for alternative sources of the compounds presently obtained from the petrochemical industry. 2.1.1 What is meant by the petrochemical industry? ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2.1.2 Identify 10 chemicals presently produced by the petrochemical industry. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2.1.3 Discuss the need for alternative sources of compounds presently manufactured by the petrochemical industry. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2.2 Use available evidence to gather and present data from secondary sources and analyse progress in the recent development and use of a named biopolymer. This analysis should name the VSHFL¿FHQ]\PHVXVHGRURUJDQLVPXVHGWRV\QWKHVLVHWKHPDWHULDODQGDQHYDOXDWLRQRIWKHXVH or potential use of the polymer produced related to its properties. 2.2.1 'H¿QHWKHWHUPELRSRO\PHU ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2.2.2 (a) Identify a biopolymer which is produced commercially. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... (b) Describe the structure of this polymer. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... Science Press Dot Point HSC Chemistry 11 Production of Materials (c) Identify and give the formula of the monomer(s) used to manufacture this named biopolymer. (d) Identify the source of the monomer(s). ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2.2.3 $QVZHUWKHIROORZLQJTXHVWLRQVDERXWWKHELRSRO\PHULGHQWL¿HGLQ4XHVWLRQ D 1DPHWKHVSHFL¿FHQ]\PHVRURUJDQLVPVXVHGWRV\QWKHVLVHWKLVELRSRO\PHU ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... (b) Analyse progress in the development of this biopolymer. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... (c) Identify uses of this biopolymer. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... (d) Identify properties of this biopolymer. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... (e) Choose one use of this biopolymer and relate this use to its properties. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... Science Press Production of Materials 12 Dot Point HSC Chemistry (f) Analyse progress in the uses of this biopolymer. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2.3 Explain what is meant by a condensation polymer. 2.3.1 Explain what is meant by a condensation polymer and identify three examples. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2.4 Describe the reaction involved when a condensation polymer is formed. 2.4.1 8VHDQHTXDWLRQWRVKRZWKHIRUPDWLRQRIDFRQGHQVDWLRQSRO\PHU 2.4.2 Describe the reaction involved when a condensation polymer is formed. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2.4.3 Compare condensation and addition reactions. Condensation reactions Addition reactions Both involve .................................................... joining to form a long chain molecule. No double bonds necessary No small molecule produced Science Press Dot Point HSC Chemistry 13 Production of Materials 2.5 Describe the structure of cellulose and identify it as an example of a condensation polymer found as a major component of biomass. 2.5.1 (a) Describe the structure of glucose. Include a diagram in your answer. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... (b) Describe the structure of cellulose. Include a diagram in your answer. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... (c) Explain why cellulose is a condensation polymer. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2.5.2 Cellulose is a condensation polymer found in biomass. Outline the importance of this compound. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... Science Press Production of Materials 14 Dot Point HSC Chemistry , GHQWLI\WKDWFHOOXORVHFRQWDLQVWKHEDVLFFDUERQFKDLQVWUXFWXUHVQHHGHGWREXLOGSHWURFKHPLFDOV and discuss its potential as a raw material. 2.6.1 Explain why cellulose is a suitable raw material for the production of petrochemicals. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2.6.2 Discuss the potential of cellulose as a raw material in the manufacture of petrochemicals. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 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Science Press Dot Point HSC Chemistry 15 Production of Materials 2.7 Applied question. 2.7.1 Ethene is a starting point for the petrochemical industry. At the present time, ethene is produced from petroleum, however in the future it may be produced from cellulose in biomass. Compare and evaluate these two methods of ethene production. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 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Science Press Production of Materials 16 Dot Point HSC Chemistry 3. Other resources, such as ethanol, are readily available from renewable resources such as plants. 3.1 Describe the dehydration of ethanol to ethylene and identify the need for a catalyst in this process and the catalyst used. 3.1.1 (a) Write the structural formula of ethanol. E -XVWLI\WKHFODVVL¿FDWLRQRIHWKDQRODVDQDONDQRO ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3.1.2 (a) What is meant by a dehydration reaction? ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... E &RQVWXFWDQHTXDWLRQWRLOOXVWUDWHWKHGHK\GUDWLRQRIHWKDQROWRHWK\OHQH (c) Describe the dehydration of ethanol. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3.1.3 Outline a reason for the use of a catalyst in the dehydration of ethanol. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... Science Press Dot Point HSC Chemistry 17 Production of Materials 3.2 Describe the addition of water to ethylene resulting in the production of ethanol and identify the need for a catalyst in this process and the catalyst used. 3.2.1 :ULWHDPROHFXODUHTXDWLRQWRVKRZWKHDGGLWLRQRIZDWHUWRHWK\OHQHWRSURGXFHHWKDQRO ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3.2.2 Describe the addition of water to ethylene to produce ethanol. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3.3 Process information from secondary sources such as molecular model kits, digital technologies RUFRPSXWHUVLPXODWLRQVWRPRGHO WKHGHK\GUDWLRQRIHWKDQRO WKHDGGLWLRQRIZDWHUWRHWK\OHQH 3.3.1 Use structural formulas to model the following reactions: (a) dehydration of ethanol (b) addition of water to ethylene 3.3.2 Describe how you modelled one of the following reactions: WKHGHK\GUDWLRQRIHWKDQRO WKHDGGLWLRQRIZDWHUWRHWK\OHQH ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... Science Press Production of Materials 18 Dot Point HSC Chemistry 3.4 Process information from secondary sources to summarise the processes involved in the industrial production of ethanol from sugar cane. 3.4.1 Outline the processes involved in the industrial production of ethanol from sugar cane. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3.4.2 7KHIROORZLQJÀRZFKDUWVXPPDULVHVWKHLQGXVWULDOSURGXFWLRQRIHWKDQROIURPELRPDVV organic biomass crush and grind dilute acid, e.g. HCl hydrolyse Process A more acid solid residue filtrate hydrolyse sugars in acid solution Ca(OH)2 to neutralise acid Process A solid residue, e.g. (CaSO4) sugar solution yeast or bacteria Process B ethanol mixture carbon dioxide Process C by-products and wastes ethanol Identify the processes that occur at: A ...................................................................................... B ...................................................................................... C ...................................................................................... Science Press Dot Point HSC Chemistry 19 Production of Materials HVFULEHDQGDFFRXQWIRUWKHPDQ\XVHVRIHWKDQRODVDVROYHQWIRUSRODUDQGQRQSRODU ' substances. 3.5.1 (a) Identify the type of bonding within a molecule of ethanol. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... (b) Explain why ethanol is a polar molecule. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... (c) Identify the intermolecular forces between molecules of ethanol. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... (d) Use a diagram to show a hydrogen bond between atoms in adjacent ethanol molecules. 3.5.2 Describe and account for the many uses of ethanol as a solvent for polar and QRQSRODUVXEVWDQFHV ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3.6 Outline the use of ethanol as a fuel and explain why it can be called a renewable resource. 3.6.1 Outline the use of ethanol as a fuel. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... Science Press Production of Materials 20 Dot Point HSC Chemistry 3.6.2 -XVWLI\WKHFODVVL¿FDWLRQRIHWKDQRODVDUHQHZDEOHUHVRXUFH ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3.6.3 Distinguish between the terms renew, reuse and recycle. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ,GHQWLI\WKH,83$&QRPHQFODWXUHIRUVWUDLJKWFKDLQHGDONDQROVIURP&WR& 3.7.1 D &RPSOHWHWKHIROORZLQJWDEOHWRUHYLVHWKHVWUXFWXUHDQGQRPHQFODWXUHRIWKH¿UVWHLJKW alkanols. Name of alkanol Molecular formula Structural formula Methanol H C C H H HO H H Propanol C4H9OH Pentanol Hexanol C7H15OH Octanol Science Press Dot Point HSC Chemistry 21 Production of Materials (b) Show the structural formulas of: L KH[DQRO LL SURSDQRO , GHQWLI\GDWDVRXUFHVFKRRVHUHVRXUFHVDQGSHUIRUPD¿UVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQWRGHWHUPLQHDQG compare heats of combustion of at least three liquid alkanols per gram and per mole. 3.8.1 D ,GHQWLI\WKHWKUHHOLTXLGDOFRKROV\RXXVHGZKHQSHUIRUPLQJD¿UVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQWR determine and compare heats of combustion of alkanols. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... (b) Use a labelled diagram to show the method you used. (c) Comment on the accuracy of your results. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... Science Press Production of Materials 22 Dot Point HSC Chemistry (d) Suggest ways you could improve the accuracy of your results. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... (e) Explain one safety precaution you applied when carrying out this experiment. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... H¿QHWKHPRODUKHDWRIFRPEXVWLRQRIDFRPSRXQGDQGFDOFXODWHWKHYDOXHIRUHWKDQROIURP ' ¿UVWKDQGGDWD 'H¿QHWKHPRODUKHDWRIFRPEXVWLRQRIDFRPSRXQG 3.9.1 ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3.9.2 The following table shows the heats of combustion for a number of fuels. (a) Complete the following table by calculating the heat of combustion in kJ g–1 for each of the fuels shown. Fuel Hydrogen Coke (carbon) Formula Heat of combustion (kJ/mole) H2 285 C 393 Methane CH4 890 Ethane C2H6 1560 Propane C3H8 2220 Methanol CH3OH 727 Ethanol C2H5OH 1367 (b) Heat of combustion (kJ/gram) Identify the fuel that would produce the most heat by the combustion of 1 g of fuel. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... (c) Consider which has the lower heat of combustion, ethanol or methanol. Using this information, which would be more expensive to use as a fuel? ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... Science Press Dot Point HSC Chemistry 23 Production of Materials 3.9.3 JURXSRI<HDUVWXGHQWVSHUIRUPHGD¿UVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQRIWKHKHDWRIFRPEXVWLRQRI $ ethanol. They burned ethanol in a spirit burner, and used it to heat 100 mL of water, as shown in the diagram below. thermometer lid container water wick fuel, e.g. ethanol in spirit burner The results they obtained were: Initial temperature of 100 mL water = 22.6°C Final temperature of 100 mL water = 35.9°C Initial mass of spirit burner + ethanol = 235.56 g Final mass of spirit burner + ethanol = 234.23 g 6SHFL¿FKHDWRIZDWHU î3 J kg–1.–1 Use these results to calculate the experimental molar heat of combustion of ethanol. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3.10 Process information from secondary sources to summarise the use of ethanol as an alternative car fuel, evaluating the success of current usage. 3.10.1 Describe and evaluate the use of ethanol as a fuel in cars. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3.10.2 Identify one secondary source you used to obtain this information and evaluate the validity of the information obtained from this source. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... Science Press Production of Materials 24 Dot Point HSC Chemistry 3.11 Assess the potential of ethanol as an alternative fuel and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of its use. 3.11.1 Assess the potential of ethanol as an alternative fuel and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of its use. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ROYHSUREOHPVSODQDQGSHUIRUPD¿UVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQWRFDUU\RXWWKHIHUPHQWDWLRQRI 6 glucose and monitor mass changes. 3.12.1 ' HVFULEHWKH¿UVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ\RXFDUULHGRXWWRIHUPHQWJOXFRVHDQGPRQLWRU mass changes. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... Science Press Dot Point HSC Chemistry 25 Production of Materials 3.12.2 D :ULWHDQHTXDWLRQIRUWKHIHUPHQWDWLRQRIJOXFRVH ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... (b) Identify a potential problem in the fermentation of glucose and outline the method you used to overcome this problem. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... (c) Explain any mass changes that occur during fermentation. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3.13 Describe conditions under which fermentation of sugars is promoted. 3.13.1 Describe conditions under which fermentation of sugars is promoted. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3.14 Summarise the chemistry of the fermentation process. 3.14.1 Summarise the chemistry of the fermentation process. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3.15 Present information from secondary sources by writing a balanced equation for the fermentation of glucose to ethanol. 3.15.1 :ULWHDEDODQFHGHTXDWLRQIRUWKHIHUPHQWDWLRQRIJOXFRVHWRHWKDQRO ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... Science Press Production of Materials 26 Dot Point HSC Chemistry 4. Oxidation-reduction reactions are increasingly important as a source of energy. HUIRUPD¿UVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQWRLGHQWLI\WKHFRQGLWLRQVXQGHUZKLFKDJDOYDQLFFHOO 3 is produced. 4.1.1 Identify the conditions under which a galvanic cell is produced. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4.1.2 (a) Describe a galvanic cell that you set up. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... (b) Identify any observations you made. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... HUIRUPD¿UVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQDQGJDWKHU¿UVWKDQGLQIRUPDWLRQWRPHDVXUHWKHGLIIHUHQFH 3 in potential of different combinations of metals in an electrolyte solution. 4.2.1 XULQJWKLVWRSLF\RXSHUIRUPHGD¿UVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQLQZKLFK\RXPHDVXUHGWKH ' difference in potential of different combinations of metals in an electrolyte solution. (a) Identify two combinations of metals that you used in this investigation. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... (b) Identify the electrolytes you used. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... Science Press Dot Point HSC Chemistry 27 Production of Materials (c) For one of the pairs of metals used, draw a labelled diagram to show how you performed the experiment. (d) Outline one possible source of error in this investigation and describe how you could overcome this. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... (e) Outline one safety issue involved in the carrying out of this experiment and describe how you would handle this issue. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... I HVFULEHZKDW\RXXVHGDVDVDOWEULGJHDQGLQGLFDWHWKHGLUHFWLRQRIÀRZRILRQVRYHUWKLV ' salt bridge. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4.3 Explain the displacement of metals from solution in terms of transfer of electrons. 4.3.1 Explain the displacement of metals from solution in terms of transfer of electrons. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4.4 Identify the relationship between displacement of metal ions in solution by other metals to the relative activity of metals. 4.4.1 Identify the relationship between displacement of metal ions in solution by other metals to the relative activity of metals. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... Science Press Production of Materials 28 Dot Point HSC Chemistry 4.4.2 List the following metals in order of activity from most active to least active: iron, magnesium, sodium, silver, zinc, lead, aluminium, calcium, copper. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4.4.3 (a) A series of solutions is set up and pieces of metal are placed in each solution as shown in the table below. Complete the table to show where displacement reactions will occur. Solution Metal added Calcium chloride Zinc Zinc chloride Calcium Lead chloride Magnesium Lead chloride Silver (b) Any displacement reaction Which would cause the more vigorous displacement reaction, placing magnesium metal in zinc nitrate or in silver nitrate solution? Explain. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... (c) A piece of zinc is placed into a copper sulfate solution. The copper sulfate loses its blue colour, copper is deposited on the bottom of the beaker and the zinc disappears. What can you deduce about the relative reactivity of copper and zinc? ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4.5 Account for changes in the oxidation state of species in terms of their loss or gain of electrons. 4.5.1 Account for changes in the oxidation state of species in terms of their loss or gain of electrons. (Hint: Show the connection between an increase or decrease in oxidation state and the processes of oxidation and reduction.) ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... Science Press Dot Point HSC Chemistry 29 Production of Materials 4.5.2 State the rules for working out oxidation states/numbers. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4.6 4.5.3 Identify the oxidation states of the following: (a) Iron in FeSO4 .................................................................. (b) Iron in FeCl3 .................................................................... (c) Iron metal (d) Oxygen in CO2 (e) The nitrate ion NO3 ....................................................... I 0DQJDQHVHLQ.0Q24 .......................................................................... ............................................................... – ............................................... Describe and explain galvanic cells in terms of oxidation/reduction reactions. 4.6.1 What is meant by a galvanic cell? ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4.6.2 'H¿QHWKHWHUPV (a) oxidation ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... (b) reduction ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... (c) redox reaction ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... (d) oxidant ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... (e) reductant ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... Science Press Production of Materials 30 Dot Point HSC Chemistry 4.6.3 Explain galvanic cells in terms of oxidation/reduction reactions. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2XWOLQHWKHFRQVWUXFWLRQRIJDOYDQLFFHOOVDQGWUDFHWKHGLUHFWLRQRIHOHFWURQÀRZ 4.7.1 Outline the construction of galvanic cells. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4.7.2 D 'HVFULEHWKHGLUHFWLRQRIHOHFWURQÀRZLQDJDOYDQLFFHOO ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... (b) Add arrows to show: L WKHÀRZRIHOHFWURQVLQWKHIROORZLQJJDOYDQLFFHOO (ii) the movement of ions in the salt bridge zinc anode copper cathode V Cu2+(aq) electrolyte, e.g. ZnSO4 salt bridge electrolyte, e.g. CuSO4 Science Press Dot Point HSC Chemistry 31 Production of Materials 'H¿QHWKHWHUPVDQRGHFDWKRGHHOHFWURGHDQGHOHFWURO\WHWRGHVFULEHJDOYDQLFFHOOV 4.8.1 'H¿QHWKHIROORZLQJWHUPV (a) electrode ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... (b) electrolyte ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... (c) anode ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... (d) cathode ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4.8.2 (a) Identify the purpose of galvanic cells in society today. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... E ,QWHUPVRIR[LGDWLRQUHGXFWLRQH[SODLQWKHSXUSRVHRIVHSDUDWLQJWKHUHDFWLRQVLQWRWZRKDOIFHOOV ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... Science Press Production of Materials 32 Dot Point HSC Chemistry 4.9 Solve problems and analyse information to calculate the potential E requirement of named electrochemical processes using tables of standard potentials and half equations. 4.9.1 (a) What is meant by a standard reduction potential? ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... E 'H¿QHDVWDQGDUGK\GURJHQKDOIFHOO,QFOXGHDGLDJUDPLQ\RXUDQVZHU ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... F ,GHQWLI\WKHLQVWUXPHQWXVHGWRPHDVXUHWKHSRWHQWLDOGLIIHUHQFHEHWZHHQWZRKDOIFHOOV ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4.9.2 (a) What is meant by the redox table? ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... (b) Complete the following prose passage to describe the redox table. In the redox table, forward reactions are written as ................................................................. reactions. The higher the reduction potential the more easily the species is .............................................................. . Oxidations are shown by .................................................................. the reactions and changing the sign. Oxidising agents are on the .................................................................. side of the table, and they increase in strength as you move .................................................................. the table. The strongest oxidising agent is .................................................................. . Fluorine is most likely to accept .................................................................. from another species, thus causing the oxidation of that species. Reducing agents are found on the right side of the table, the strongest reducing agent is at the .................................................................. of the table. Science Press Dot Point HSC Chemistry 33 Production of Materials Potassium and barium are the strongest reducing agents, so they are the metals most likely to .................................................................. electrons to another species, thus causing that species to be .................................................................. . A metal higher in the redox series will displace a metal .................................................................. from a solution of its ions. All metals above hydrogen will displace ............................................................. from a solution of its ions. A reducing agent will react with an .................................................................. agent lower in the table. 4.9.3 8VHWKHUHGR[WDEOHLQWKHEDFNRIWKLVERRNWRDQVZHUWKHTXHVWLRQVEHORZ (a) What is the reduction potential for Fe2+ + 2e– U Fe(s)? (b) Convert the following reduction reactions to oxidation reactions: (i) Al3+ + 3e– UAl(s) –1.68 V (ii) Cu2+ + 2e– U Cu(s) +0.34 V .................................................................................. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... (c) An iron electrode is placed in a beaker of aluminium sulfate solution. Another iron electrode LVSODFHGLQFRSSHUVXOIDWHVROXWLRQ:ULWHHTXDWLRQVWRVKRZLQZKLFKEHDNHUDUHGR[UHDFWLRQ is occurring. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... (d) A galvanic cell is set up containing a copper electrode in copper sulfate solution connected to a zinc electrode in zinc sulfate solution. Calculate the E potential for this cell if standard conditions apply. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... Science Press Production of Materials 34 Dot Point HSC Chemistry DWKHUDQGSUHVHQWLQIRUPDWLRQRQWKHVWUXFWXUHDQGFKHPLVWU\RIDGU\FHOORUOHDGDFLGFHOO * DQGHYDOXDWHLWLQFRPSDULVRQWRRQHRIWKHIROORZLQJ EXWWRQFHOO IXHOFHOO YDQDGLXPUHGR[FHOO OLWKLXPFHOO OLTXLGMXQFWLRQSKRWRYROWDLFGHYLFHHJWKH*UDW]HOFHOO LQWHUPVRI FKHPLVWU\ FRVWDQGSUDFWLFDOLW\ LPSDFWRQVRFLHW\ HQYLURQPHQWDOLPSDFW 4.10.1 (a) Draw a diagram of either a dry cell OR a lead acid cell and describe its chemistry. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... (b) Draw a diagram of either a button cell, fuel cell, vanadium redox cell, lithium cell OR a OLTXLGMXQFWLRQSKRWRYROWDLFGHYLFHHJWKH*UDW]HOFHOODQGGHVFULEHLWVFKHPLVWU\ ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... Science Press Dot Point HSC Chemistry 35 Production of Materials 4.10.2 )RUWKHWZRFHOOVFKRVHQLQ4XHVWLRQFRPSOHWHWKHIROORZLQJWDEOHWRFRPSDUHWKHP Dry cell or lead acid cell Button cell, fuel cell, vanadium redox cell, lithium cell, OR Gratzel cell Cost and practicality Impact on society Environmental impact Science Press Production of Materials 36 Dot Point HSC Chemistry 4.10.3 $VVHVVDGU\FHOORUDOHDGDFLGFHOOLQFRPSDULVRQWRRQHRIWKHIROORZLQJ EXWWRQFHOO IXHOFHOO YDQDGLXPUHGR[FHOO OLWKLXPFHOO OLTXLGMXQFWLRQSKRWRYROWDLFGHYLFHHJWKH*UDW]HOFHOO ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 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Science Press Dot Point HSC Chemistry 37 Production of Materials 4.11 Applied question. 4.11.1 During the 19th and 20th centuries, fossil fuels were our main source of energy. However, there are problems with the use of these fuels today. It seems likely that renewable resources RIHQHUJ\DQGR[LGDWLRQUHGXFWLRQUHDFWLRQVZLOOEHFRPHLQFUHDVLQJO\LPSRUWDQWLQWKHVW century as sources of energy. Discuss this statement. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 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Science Press Production of Materials 38 Dot Point HSC Chemistry 5. Nuclear chemistry provides a range of materials. 5.1 Distinguish between stable and radioactive isotopes and describe the conditions under which a nucleus is unstable. 5.1.1 D 'H¿QHLVRWRSH ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... (b) Distinguish between a stable and a radioactive isotope. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... (c) Describe the conditions under which the nucleus of atoms is unstable. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5.1.2 Complete the following table to compare alpha, beta and gamma radiation. Alpha radiation Structure Beta radiation Particles Consist of Charge Electron from the nucleus +2 Ionising ability Penetration Gamma radiation Fair Poor (2-10 cm in air) Deflection in electric field Towards positive plate Science Press Dot Point HSC Chemistry 39 Production of Materials 5.1.3 Label the three types of radiation shown in the following diagram as alpha, beta or gamma radiation. negatively charged field radioactive source positively charged field 5.1.4 (a) Describe radioactive decay. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... E :KDWLVPHDQWE\WKHKDOIOLIHRIDUDGLRDFWLYHLVRWRSH" ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5.2 Process information from secondary sources to describe recent discoveries of elements. 5.2.1 Describe recent discoveries of elements. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5.2.2 Identify two recently discovered elements and outline their method of production. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... Science Press Production of Materials 40 Dot Point HSC Chemistry 5.3 Describe how transuranic elements are produced. 5.3.1 (a) What is meant by a transuranic element? ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... E %ULHÀ\RXWOLQHKRZWUDQVXUDQLFHOHPHQWVDUHSURGXFHG ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... F 'HVFULEHWKHSURGXFWLRQRIWZRWUDQVXUDQLFHOHPHQWV,QFOXGHHTXDWLRQV ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5.4 Describe how commercial radioisotopes are produced. 5.4.1 (a) Identify some commercial radioisotopes. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... (b) Describe how commercial radioisotopes are produced. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... Science Press Dot Point HSC Chemistry 41 Production of Materials 5.5 Identify instruments and processes that can be used to detect radiation. 5.5.1 Identify instruments that can be used to detect radiation. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5.5.2 For two of the instruments named above, outline the processes involved. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ,GHQWLI\RQHXVHRIDQDPHGUDGLRLVRWRSH LQLQGXVWU\ LQPHGLFLQH 5.6.1 (a) Identify one use of a named radioisotope in industry. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... (b) Identify one use of a named radioisotope in medicine. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5.7 Describe the way in which the above named industrial and medical radioisotopes are used and explain their use in terms of their chemical properties. 5.7.1 'HVFULEHWKHZD\LQZKLFKWKHUDGLRLVRWRSHVQDPHGLQ4XHVWLRQDUHXVHG (a) industrial radioisotope ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... (b) medical radioisotope ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... Science Press Production of Materials 42 Dot Point HSC Chemistry 5.7.2 RURQHRIWKHUDGLRLVRWRSHVGHVFULEHGLQ4XHVWLRQH[SODLQLWVXVHLQWHUPVRI ) its properties. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... VHDYDLODEOHHYLGHQFHWRDQDO\VHEHQH¿WVDQGSUREOHPVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKWKHXVHRIUDGLRDFWLYH 8 LVRWRSHVLQLGHQWL¿HGLQGXVWULHVDQGPHGLFLQH 5.8.1 $QDO\VHEHQH¿WVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKWKHXVHRIUDGLRDFWLYHLVRWRSHVLQLGHQWL¿HGLQGXVWULHV and medicine. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 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............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5.8.2 QDO\VHSUREOHPVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKWKHXVHRIUDGLRDFWLYHLVRWRSHVLQLGHQWL¿HGLQGXVWULHV $ and medicine. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 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Science Press Dot Point HSC Chemistry 43 Production of Materials Notes ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 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Science Press Production of Materials 44 Dot Point HSC Chemistry DOT POINT Answers Science Press Dot Point HSC Chemistry 249 Answers Notes ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 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Science Press Answers 250 Dot Point HSC Chemistry Production of Materials 1.1.1 Petroleum consists of crude oil and natural gas. Petroleum contains a mixture of up to 300 hydrocarbons, as well as sulfur and nitrogen compounds. &UXGHRLOOLTXLGSHWUROHXPFRQWDLQVPDLQO\DONDQHVDQGDONHQHVIURP&WRDERXW& DWXUDOJDVLVDPL[WXUHRIPHWKDQHHWKDQHSURSDQHDQGEXWDQHDQGVPDOOHUDPRXQWVRIRWKHU 1 DONDQHV,WPD\DOVRFRQWDLQQLWURJHQZDWHUYDSRXUFDUERQGLR[LGHDQGWUDFHVRIK\GURJHQVXO¿GH 1.1.2 Various, e.g. gases; petroleum ether; gasoline (petrol); kerosene; diesel; gas oil; lubrication oil and wax; bitumen 1.1.3 (a) Process used to separate a mixture such as petroleum into its components, depending on the components having different boiling points. (b) light gases gasoline fractionating column naptha kerosene gas oil lubricating oils residue hot crude oil (c) thermometer condenser fractional distillation column water out water bath water in hotplate mixture with porous pot 1.1.4 (a) Ethene (b) H H (c) C=C H H Petroleum and natural gas. In Europe and Japan, ethylene (ethene) is obtained from petroleum by fractional distillation to produce fractions, followed by the cracking of some of the fractions. In Australia and the USA, where natural gas is more readily available, we mostly pipe natural gas directly from its source and crack the ethane, propane and butane to obtain ethylene (ethene). Science Press Dot Point HSC Chemistry 251 Production of Materials 1.1.5 Cracking is a process in which molecules of carbon compounds are broken down into smaller molecules with the help of heat and/or catalysts. ,QRUJDQLFFDWDO\VWVVXFKDVDOXPLQDVLOLFDJHODUHXVHGLQWKHFUDFNLQJSURFHVV Examples of cracking are: C2H6Jĺ&2H4(g) + H2(g) C8H18Oĺ&2H4(g) + C2H6(g) 1.2.1 alkenes, –C=C– , share, carbon, two, electrons 1.2.2 (a) Homologous series (b) General formula Functional group Alkane CnH2n+2 –C–C– Alkene CnH2n –C=C– Alkyne CnH2n–2 –CŁC– (i) C2H6 (ii) C2H4 (iii) C2H2 1.2.3 (WKHQHLVPRUHUHDFWLYHWKDQHWKDQHEHFDXVHHWKHQHFRQWDLQVDGRXEOHFDUERQFDUERQERQGZKHUHDVHWKDQHRQO\KDVDVLQJOH FDUERQFDUERQERQG7KHGRXEOHERQG±& &±LVPXFKPRUHUHDFWLYHWKDQWKHVLQJOH±&±&±ERQG 1.2.4 (a) A reaction in which an atom is substituted for another already in the molecule, e.g. a hydrogen atom may be replaced ZLWKDKDORJHQDWRP/LJKWHQHUJ\LVUHTXLUHG (b) Various, e.g. H H H H A double bond is broken, and other atoms, or group of atoms, are added into the molecule. H H C H + H2 - - H - H C - C- H - - - - H C - - H (b) - (a) - H - C - C- H + HCl - 1.2.5 - light - - H - C - C- H + Cl2 - H Cl - - H H H H - C H + Cl2 - H C - C- H - - - - H C H H - H - H - - (c) Cl Cl 1.3.1 7RDVDPSOHRIWKHK\GURFDUERQDGGEURPLQHZDWHUZKLFKLVDUHGEURZQFRORXUDQGVHHLILWUHDFWV An alkene, such as ethene, will undergo an addition reaction, even in the dark, and the bromine water will change from UHGEURZQWRFRORXUOHVVYHU\TXLFNO\Note: You must always state colour changes – from… to ...; it is not enough to say the bromine water decolourises.) An alkane, such as ethane, will undergo a substitution reaction with bromine water, but this reaction is very slow and only occurs in the presence of light. This reaction may take several hours, or even days, to complete. Br2(g) + H2O(l) U+2%UDT++DT%U–DT H C C H H C C H + HOBr OR - Br Br - - - H H - - H H - H C - C- H - - + Br2 - - H - - C C H - H- - - H H - - H- - Alkene Br OH Alkane - - - - H H - - H - C - C - H + HOBr H H light - - H H H - C - C - H + H2O Br H Science Press Production of Materials 252 Dot Point HSC Chemistry 1.3.2 D 9DULRXV±\RXSUREDEO\XVHGF\FORKH[DQHDQGF\FORKH[HQHEHFDXVHWKH\DUHFRORXUOHVVDQGOLTXLGDWURRP temperature. This allows you to readily see colour changes. E 9DULRXVHJ<RXPXVWFDUU\RXWWKLVH[SHULPHQWLQDIXPHFXSERDUGXVLQJYHU\VPDOOTXDQWLWLHVRIFKHPLFDOVDQG wearing protective clothing including gloves and safety glasses. These precautions are to avoid bromine water, cyclohexane and cyclohexene from coming into contact with the skin and eyes or being inhaled. Such precautions are essential as bromine water is toxic by all routes of exposure. It is a skin irritant, vapour irritant and it is corrosive. &\FORKH[DQHDQGF\FORKH[HQHDUHDOVRWR[LFE\DOOURXWHVRIH[SRVXUHDVZHOODVEHLQJKLJKO\ÀDPPDEOH 1.4.1 (a) A monomer is a small molecule, such as ethylene (ethene). Many monomer molecules can be joined together to form a long chain molecule called a polymer. (b) A polymer is a large molecule consisting of a large number of identical small molecules (monomers) joined together, for example plastics, rubber, synthetic textiles, starch, cellulose, protein and DNA in our genes. (c) Polymerisation. 1.4.2 Ethene is a small molecule. Many ethene molecules can be joined together to form a polymer such as polyethylene. 1.4.3 Monomers – b, c Polymers – a, d 1.5.1 A long chain molecule that can be formed from an addition reaction involving many molecules of one or more monomers with double bonds. 1.5.2 (a) Ethylene (ethene) (b) ethylene polyethylene ĺ (ethene) nCH2=CH2 ⎯catalyst ⎯⎯→ (where n is a large number) (polyethene) (–CH2–CH2–)n (c) - - - - - - H H H H H H - - - - - - - C - C- C - C- C - CH H H H H H 1.6.1 Various – in your answer you should include the following points: HVFULEHVRPHFRPPHUFLDOXVHVRISRO\HWK\OHQHDQGOLQNWKHVHXVHVWRLWVSURSHUWLHVHJ3RO\HWK\OHQHLVXVHGIRUPLON ' bottles, detergent containers, food containers and garbage bins. It can be used for these purposes as it is insoluble in water, inert, lightweight (low density), tough and strong. [SODLQHJ7KHVHSURGXFWVPXVWEHVWURQJVRWKH\GRQRWEUHDNHDVLO\LQHUWVRWKH\GRQRWGLVVROYHLQRUUHDFWZLWK ( their contents; and light for ease of transport. - XVWLI\WKHLPSRUWDQFHHJ7KXVSRO\HWK\OHQHLVLPSRUWDQWFRPPHUFLDOO\EHFDXVHLWVSURSHUWLHVPDNHLWVXLWDEOHIRUD wide range of commercial uses. 1.6.2 Initiation – A chemical called an initiator starts (initiates) the reaction by opening the double bond of an ethylene (ethene) monomer. This forms an ethylene (ethene) free radical. Propagation – The monomers join, to form a chain. Termination – When free radical ethylene (ethene) chains combine, a complete polyethylene (polyethene) molecule is formed and the process stops (it is terminated). 1.6.3 1.6.4 (a) A species with an unpaired outer shell electron. (b) A free radical is very reactive because of the presence of an unpaired outer shell electron. Free radical ethene molecules readily join together. D 7UDQVLWLRQPHWDOFDWDO\VWVDOVRFDOOHG=HLJOHU1DWWDFDWDO\VWV (b) Affects the rate of reaction and allows the process to be carried out at a lower temperature and pressure. 7KHVHFDWDO\VWVFDQDOVRDIIHFWWKHDUUDQJHPHQWRIXQLWVDWWDFKHGWRWKHPDLQFKDLQDQGWKXVWKHSRO\PHU¶V physical properties such as density and stability to heat. Science Press Dot Point HSC Chemistry 253 Production of Materials 1.6.5 initiation breaks double bonds monomers ethene free radicals propagation – monomers join long chain molecules complete polymer termination 1.6.6 Factors – Various, e.g. molecular weight, density, type and amount of additives and purity of the product. XDOLW\FRQWUROLVQHFHVVDU\WRHQVXUHWKHSURGXFWLQWKLVFDVHSRO\HWK\OHQHLVRIXQLIRUPKLJKTXDOLW\ZLWKWKHVDPH 4 FRPSRVLWLRQDQGDEVHQFHRILPSXULWLHVVRWKDWFXVWRPHUVZLOOIHHOFRQ¿GHQWWKDWWKHSRO\HWK\OHQHZLOODOZD\VKDYHWKHVDPH properties and so they will continue to purchase the product. 1.6.7 The reaction is exothermic, so heat is constantly being released. This heat may make the polymer decompose as it is formed, decreasing the yield. 1.7.1 Various, e.g. you might have made models of ethene molecules, then broken the double bonds and joined them together. 1.8.1 Common name of monomer Vinyl chloride Systematic name of monomer Formula of monomer Chloroethene H H Styrene (Vinyl benzene) Ethenylbenzene H H C=C Polyvinylchloride (PVC) H C=C Name of polymer Cl Polystyrene H C6H5 1.9.1 Name of polymer Structure of polymer Polyvinylchloride (PVC) H H C C H Cl Polystyrene Uses – Various, e.g. Containers, blister packaging, vegetable oil bottles, electrical insulation, pipes and hoses, vinyl flooring, records, outdoor furniture, videos and credit cards n H H C C Fruit boxes, clothes hangers, packing foam, foam egg cartons, meat trays, compact disc and audiocassette cases, plastic cutlery, toys, surfboards and hot drink cups H C6H5 n 1.9.2 Name of polymer Use Property that determines this use PVC Flooring and carpet backing Soft and pliable Low static electricity Fire and water resistant PVC Sheets for roofs and skylights Rigid and strong Will not dissolve in water or let water through Polyethylene Natural gas pipes Coating steel pipes Strong, insoluble in water High resistance to chemical corrosion Polyethylene Plastic bags and food containers High tensile strength Transparent or translucent Soft and flexible Insoluble in water Low reactivity with food Low density Polyethylene Sheathing for wire cables used for phone and TV Electrical insulator Flexible Insoluble in water Polystyrene Disposable foam cups Relatively cheap Low density and keep their shape Heat insulator Not chemically active Polystyrene Surfboards Cheap Low density Rigid Not chemically active Science Press Production of Materials 254 Dot Point HSC Chemistry 1.9.3 Various. In your answer you should include the following: , GHQWLI\DWOHDVWWKUHHPDQXIDFWXUHGSRO\PHUVE\QDPHDQGVWDWHWKHIRUPXODRIHDFKHJSRO\HWK\OHQHSRO\VW\UHQH and polyvinyl chloride. XWOLQHWKHPDQXIDFWXUHRIWKHVHSRO\PHUV±LGHQWLI\WKHPRQRPHUVXVHGLQHDFKFDVHDQGLGHQWLI\WKHVWHSVLQWKH 2 production process – initiation, polymerisation and termination. 'HVFULEHVRPHXVHVRIWKHWKUHHSRO\PHUV HVFULEH%27+DGYDQWDJHVDQGGLVDGYDQWDJHVRIXVLQJWKHVHSRO\PHUV,QFOXGHHIIHFWVRQWKHHQYLURQPHQWDQGRQ ' people, e.g. Plastic cups are cheaper, less dense and safer than those made of glass. If they break, they are less likely to cause damage especially to children. The use of plastic containers also helps to conserve beach sand as this is used in glass production. If they are made from a polymer which can be recycled, then they are also environmentally friendly. Early plastics could not be recycled which caused problems with their disposal and led to accumulation of wastes. The development of polymers has also led to the production of cheap, disposable articles suitable for medical uses, e.g. tubing and syringes. The use of these can greatly decrease the spread of infection among society, but has increased the problems of waste disposal. Recently, the development of biodegradable polymers has helped to decrease the problem of waste disposal. RXFRXOGDOVRLQFOXGHSUREOHPVLQWKHPDQXIDFWXUHRISRO\PHUVDQGWKHQHHGIRUSUHFDXWLRQVWREHWDNHQZKHQ < producing these chemicals, e.g. Vinyl chloride is the monomer used to manufacture PVC. This chemical irritates the eyes, skin and respiratory tract, causes liver damage and may be carcinogenic. It is highly toxic to marine life. Workers in industries using vinyl FKORULGHVKRXOGZHDUSURWHFWLYHFORWKLQJDQGH\HSURWHFWLRQKDYHPDVNVDYDLODEOHLQFDVHRIOHDNVFKHFNIUHTXHQWO\ for leaks so as to avoid contamination of air or water. Some workers were affected adversely before the dangers of using these chemicals were realised. KHQPDNHDQDVVHVVPHQWDERXWWKHLPSDFWRIWKHGHYHORSPHQWRIWKHVHFKHPLFDOV<RXUDVVHVVPHQWVKRXOGEH 7 FRQVLVWHQWZLWKWKHHYLGHQFH\RXKDYHSUHVHQWHGDVPRVWO\IDYRXUDEOHRUXQIDYRXUDEOH<RXVKRXOGDOVRTXDOLI\WKH impact, e.g. has it had a slight impact or a huge impact on society and has it had a slight impact or a huge impact on the environment. 2.1.1 Industries that produce or use compounds which come from petroleum, e.g. production and use of fossil fuels, production of polymers, lubricating oils. 2.1.2 Various, e.g. petrol, aviation fuel, diesel, candle wax, road tar, ethene, polyethylene, polyvinylchloride, kerosene, lubricating oils, synthetic fabrics. 2.1.3 Various, e.g. in your answer you should include the following: 'H¿QHSHWURFKHPLFDOLQGXVWU\ ,GHQWLI\DYDULHW\RIFKHPLFDOVSURGXFHGE\WKHSHWURFKHPLFDOLQGXVWU\DQGWKHLUXVHV 3RLQWRXWWKDWWKHSHWUROHXPLQGXVWU\LVEDVHGRQWKHXVHRIIRVVLOIXHOVZKLFKDUHQRQUHQHZDEOHDQGPRVWDUHOLNHO\WR run out within the next 100 years, some much sooner. LVFXVVWKHHIIHFWVRQRXUOLYHVLIZHFDQQRORQJHUSURGXFHVRPHRIWKHFKHPLFDOVZHFXUUHQWO\PDNHXVLQJIRVVLO ' fuels and petroleum. 'UDZDFRQFOXVLRQHJWKDWLWLVLVQRWLPSRUWDQWZHLQYHVWLJDWHRWKHUVRXUFHVRIWKHVHFKHPLFDOV 2.2.1 ELRSRO\PHULVDQDWXUDOO\RFFXUULQJORQJFKDLQFKHPLFDOPDGHRIUHSHDWLQJPRQRPHUXQLWV%LRSRO\PHUVDUHPDGHIURP $ UHQHZDEOHUHVRXUFHVXVXDOO\SODQWVRUPLFURRUJDQLVPV([DPSOHVRIELRSRO\PHUVDUHFHOOXORVHVWDUFKFRWWRQSURWHLQVDQG gluten. Science Press Dot Point HSC Chemistry 255 Production of Materials 2.2.2 ® (a) Various, e.g. Biopol (b) Biopol LVDSRO\K\GUR[\DONDQRDWH3+$,WLVDFRSRO\PHUDVLWFRQVLVWVRIWZRPRQRPHUVK\GUR[\EXW\UDWHDQG K\GUR[\YDOHUDWH F K\GUR[\EXW\UDWH ® DQG K\GUR[\YDOHUDWH CH3 CH2 O = = CH3 O HO CH C CH2 OH HO CH C CH2 OH (d) They occur naturally in bacteria such as Azobacter and Pseudomonas. (a) Bacteria, e.g. Alcaligenes eutrophus. (b) The polymer is presently produced industrially by bacteria (especially Alcaligenes eutrophus) growing in tanks with a FDUERQEDVHGIRRGVRXUFH7KHSRO\PHULVWKHQLVRODWHGDQGSXUL¿HG HFHQWO\DWWHPSWVWRSURGXFHWKHSRO\PHUPRUHHFRQRPLFDOO\KDYHXVHGJHQHWLFHQJLQHHULQJWHFKQLTXHVDQH[DPSOH 5 RIELRWHFKQRORJ\*HQHWLFDOO\HQJLQHHUHGEDFWHULDVXFKDVE. coli, can be used to produce PHA. The advantages are faster growth, better yields, easier recovery and the production of less extra waste biomass. Also cheaper substrates can be used to grow the bacteria, e.g. whey, molasses and agricultural wastes. HQHWLFDOO\HQJLQHHULQJSODQWVVXFKDVFUHVVDQGSRWDWRHVFDQDOVREHPDGHWRSURGXFHELRGHJUDGDEOHSODVWLFVUDWKHU * than storing starch. 2.2.3 Although these biopolymers are at present more expensive to produce than conventional plastics, they have the advantage of being biodegradable, thus allowing better waste management, and of being made from renewable crops rather than fossil fuels. The use of transgenic plants is expected to lower costs so this polymer becomes price FRPSHWLWLYHZLWKWUDGLWLRQDOSHWUROHXPSURGXFHGSRO\PHUV (c) Various, e.g. a carrier for slow release of insecticides, herbicides or fertilisers; disposable containers for shampoo and cosmetics, and disposable items such as razors, rubbish bags, disposable nappies, fast food utensils and plastic plates. (d) Similar to those of polypropylene, e.g. insoluble in water, permeable to oxygen, resistant to UV light, acids and bases, soluble in chlorinated hydrocarbons, high melting point, high tensile strength and more dense than water. It is also QRQWR[LFELRFRPSDWLEOHDQGELRGHJUDGDEOH (e) Various, e.g. medical applications such as the production of surgical pins and sutures. URSHUWLHVHJKLJKWHQVLOHVWUHQJWKLQVROXEOHLQZDWHUQRQWR[LFELRGHJUDGDEOHLWVSURGXFWVGHFRPSRVHQDWXUDOO\ 3 and no surgery is needed to remove them) and it is biocompatible (the body does not react to this polymer or reject it as a foreign object). (f) Uses of Biopol are varied, and more are continually being found. As it is biodegradable and biocompatible, it is increasingly used for medical applications and the production of items which previously presented a disposal problem. For medical applications, where biodegradability and biocompatability are important properties, there is often no IRVVLOIXHOEDVHGDOWHUQDWLYH ® 2.3.1 A long chain compound formed when monomer molecules join together, forming a polymer, and releasing a small molecule such as water. Examples are cellulose, nylon, polyester, cotton, cellophane, dacron. 2.4.1 Various, e.g. CH2OH O OH HO HO + OH OH 2.4.2 OH OH + O OH HO CH2OH CH2OH O OH HO + OH OH CH2OH O OH OH + O OH CH2OH etc O OH OH OH O OH CH2OH O O OH O CH2OH OH section of a cellulose molecule OH O OH + 3H2O O O CH2OH Small monomer molecules each release one or more atoms and the molecules join at that point. The released atoms combine to form a new compound. For example, in the formation of cellulose, an H and an OH, released from adjoining monomers, combine to form a molecule of water. Science Press Production of Materials 256 Dot Point HSC Chemistry 2.4.3 Condensation reactions Addition reactions Both involve monomers joining to form a long chain molecule. 2.5.1 No double bonds necessary. Monomer has double bond which breaks during polymerisation. Polymer forms and also another small molecule. No small molecule produced. D *OXFRVHPROHFXODUIRUPXOD&6H12O6) is a ring structure. Five carbon atoms and one oxygen atom form the ring and OH and H groups protrude above and below the ring. It also has a CH2 group out of the ring. In solution the ring can open, forming a straight chain structure. H 1 CHO 6 CH2OH 5 O 4 H OH 2 CHOH OH U H1 H HO H 3 CHOH U 4 CHOH H OH 4 H H1 OH HO 5 CHOH H OH Bglucose ring 6 CH2OH 5 O H OH Aglucose ring 6 CH2OH Open chain structure (b) Cellulose is a very long polymer containing about 2000 to 8000 glucose molecules in long chains. These glucose molecules are strongly linked together by covalent bonds. Hydrogen bonding between the chains makes cellulose chains linear, rigid, strong and resistant to chemical attack. CH2OH O OH OH O CH2OH O OH O O OH OH O OH O CH2OH OH Section of a cellulose molecule OH O O CH2OH F 0RQRPHUVMRLQWRJHWKHUZLWKRXWWKHEUHDNLQJRIDGRXEOHERQGIRUPLQJFHOOXORVHDQGDZDWHUPROHFXOH6HHHTXDWLRQ IRU4XHVWLRQ 2.5.2 Cellulose is a polymer of the sugar glucose. It makes up the cell walls of plants and is the most abundant carbohydrate on Earth. Cellulose is the main component of biomass and thus is a potentially important raw material for the production of synthetic polymers. 2.6.1 3HWURFKHPLFDOVDUHFDUERQEDVHGFRPSRXQGVVRVXEVWDQFHVXVHGWRPDQXIDFWXUHSHWURFKHPLFDOVPXVWDOVREHFDUERQEDVHG Also, being a major component of biomass, cellulose is a readily available renewable raw material for the production of petrochemicals. 2.6.2 Your answer should include the following points: &HOOXORVHLVDFDUERQEDVHGFRPSRXQGDVDUHSHWURFKHPLFDOV &HOOXORVHLVUHDGLO\DYDLODEOH,WLVRQHRIWKHPDLQFRPSRQHQWVRIELRPDVV %LRPDVVLVRUJDQLFPDWWHUSURGXFHGIURPSODQWV KHXVHRIIRRGFURSVWRPDNHSRO\PHUVSUHVHQWVHWKLFDOSUREOHPVDVWKHUHDUHSHRSOHVWDUYLQJLQPDQ\SDUWV 7 of the world. RWHQWLDOO\XVHIXOELRPDVVLQFOXGHVWKHZDVWHSODQWPDWWHUIURPDJULFXOWXUDOSURGXFWVVXFKDVVXJDUFDQHDQGFRUQ 3 FURSVZDVWHIURPIRUHVWU\VXFKDVVDZGXVWDQGZRRGFKLSDQGVHZDJH1RUPDOO\VXFKZDVWHVDUHGLI¿FXOWWRGLVSRVH of, so using them to make substances such as polymers is desirable. XPXSHJ&HOOXORVHKDVKXJHSRWHQWLDOLQWKHPDQXIDFWXUHRISHWURFKHPLFDOVDVLWLVUHDGLO\DYDLODEOHLQKXJH 6 amounts and can be converted to petrochemicals thus reducing our reliance on petroleum. This is important as petroleum supplies are running out. Science Press Dot Point HSC Chemistry 257 Production of Materials 2.7.1 Various. Your answer should include the following: Describe the production of ethene by the fractional distillation of petroleum and then the cracking of fractions. Include equations for cracking, e.g. C16H 34(l) ⎯catalyst ⎯⎯ heaat → C8H16(l) + C8H18(l) and C8H16(l) ⎯catalyst ⎯⎯ heat → C 2H 4(g) + C6H12(l) Describe the composition of cellulose as consisting of chains of glucose monomers. Include formulas. Describe the manufacture of ethene by: K\GURO\VLVRIFHOOXORVHWRJOXFRVH IHUPHQWDWLRQRIJOXFRVHWRSURGXFHHWKDQRO GLVWLOODWLRQRIWKHIHUPHQWDWLRQPL[WXUHWRSURGXFHHWKDQRO GHK\GUDWLRQRIHWKDQROXVLQJFRQFHQWUDWHGVXOIXULFDFLGDVDFDWDO\VWWRIRUPHWKHQH yeast Include equations, e.g. C6H12O 6(aq) ⎯enzymes ⎯⎯ → 2C 2H 5OH(aq) + 2CO 2(g) C 2H 5OH(aq) ⎯Hconc. ⎯⎯ SO→ C2H 4(g) + H 2O(g) 2 4 Explain that cellulose is a renewable resource which is obtained from plant cell walls. If crops are used to manufacture ethanol then it could be argued that these would be better used to feed people. However, it is also abundant in waste biomass, the plant PDWHULDOOHIWRYHUDIWHUWKHFURSHJFRUQRUVXJDUKDVEHHQUHPRYHG+RZHYHUSHWUROHXPLVDQRQUHQHZDEOHIRVVLOIXHODQG its supplies will eventually run out. Explain that at the present time it is more cost effective to produce ethene from petroleum, however, as petroleum supplies are reduced this will become more expensive. The cost of producing ethanol is relatively high at the present time as the GLVWLOODWLRQVWHSUHTXLUHVDODUJHLQSXWRIHQHUJ\$VWHFKQRORJ\LPSURYHVDQGVRODUFHOOVEHFRPHPRUHHI¿FLHQWWKLVSURFHVV will become less expensive. Make a value judgement, e.g. At present, the preferred method of manufacturing ethene is from petroleum. However, as the cost of its manufacture from cellulose decreases this will become a viable alternative. <RXUHYDOXDWLRQVKRXOGUHÀHFW\RXUYLHZV±EXWLWPXVWPDWFK\RXUGLVFXVVLRQSRLQWV 3.1.1 (a) - - H H H C - C- OH - - - H H E (WKDQROLVDQDONDQROEHFDXVHLW¿WVWKHIROORZLQJGHVFULSWLRQRIDONDQROV ,WVIRUPXOD&2H52+¿WVWKHJHQHUDOIRUPXOD52+ZKHUH5VWDQGVIRUDVDWXUDWHGFDUERQFKDLQZLWK formula CnH2n+1. ,WFRQWDLQVWKHIXQFWLRQDO2+K\GUR[\OJURXS 3.1.2 (a) A reaction in which a molecule of water is released as one product. (b) H C OH - - (c) C - - H - - H - conc. H2SO4 180oC H H C=C + H H H2O A molecule of water is removed (dehydration). A hydrogen atom and an OH group are removed from adjacent carbon atoms to form a water molecule. To do this the ethanol is heated to between 100 and 200°C with concentrated sulfuric acid used as a catalyst. 3.1.3 The catalyst, concentrated sulfuric acid, speeds up the reaction. 3.2.1 C2H4(g) + H2O(l) ĺ C2H5OH(l) 3.2.2 Water is added to ethylene (ethene), using dilute sulfuric acid as a catalyst. Science Press Production of Materials 258 Dot Point HSC Chemistry dehydration of ethanol - - H H H C C OH - - - - - H H H 180°C H C=C H + H H O H addition of water to ethylene (ethene) H + H O H dilute acid H H H C - C- OH - - C=C H - H H H H (b) conc. H2SO4 - (a) - 3.3.1 3.3.2 Various, e.g. computer simulations or using a molecular model kit. Describe how you did this. 3.4.1 Ethanol can be produced by fermenting sugar in soluble forms such as sucrose and molasses from sugar cane, and fructose IURPFRUQSODQWV,IFHOOXORVHLVSUHVHQWLWQHHGVWREH¿UVWK\GURO\VHGWRJOXFRVH The sugars are fermented by enzymes produced by fungi such as the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. ERXWRIWKHVXJDUSURGXFHGIURPSODQWPDWWHULVLQWKHIRUPRIxylose, a sugar that cannot be fermented by fungi. To $ overcome this problem, genetically engineered E. coli bacteria are now being used instead of fungi as they can ferment both glucose and xylose. After fermentation the ethanol must be separated from the reaction mixture by distillation. 3.4.2 A – Filtering, B – Fermentation, C – Distillation. 3.5.1 (a) Covalent bonds. (b) Covalent bonds within the molecule are polar and do not balance each other out. Oxygen is more electronegative than carbon or hydrogen atoms, so a dipole forms. F 'LVSHUVLRQ9DQGHU:DDOVIRUFHVGLSROHGLSROHIRUFHVDQGK\GURJHQERQGV (d) H H H H C -H - C - - HO - - - H C -OH - C - - H - - H - H H = hydrogen bond 3.5.2 (WKDQROLVDVROYHQWIRUERWKSRODUDQGQRQSRODUVXEVWDQFHV,WLVXVHGDVDVROYHQWLQPHGLFLQHVHJFRXJKPL[WXUHVDQGLQ many industrial processes, e.g. the production of perfumes, varnishes, adhesives and plastics. Ethanol is polar, so it is able to GLVVROYHSRODUVXEVWDQFHVE\IRUPLQJGLSROHGLSROHIRUFHVRUK\GURJHQERQGVZLWKWKHP,WVFDUERQFKDLQDOORZVLWWRERQG ZLWKDQGGLVVROYHQRQSRODUVXEVWDQFHV Ethanol is very useful in dissolving substances that are not soluble in water and hence allowing these substances to become VROXEOHLQZDWHUHWKDQROPL[WXUHV7KLVDOORZVPHGLFLQHVWKDWDUHQRWZDWHUVROXEOHWREHWDNHQDVDOLTXLG 3.6.1 Ethanol readily undergoes relatively complete combustion, in air or oxygen, releasing 1367 kJ of energy per mole of ethanol burned. C2H5OH(l) + 3O2(g) ĺ 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(g) WKDQROLVPDLQO\XVHGDVDIXHOWRVXSSOHPHQWSHWUROVXSSOLHV,WLVPL[HGZLWKSHWUROXVXDOO\ZLWKQRPRUHWKDQHWKDQRO ( to avoid engine damage. 3.6.2 Ethanol is a renewable resource because it is mainly produced by the fermentation of plant matter, such as the residues from the production of corn and sugar cane. More crops can be grown to make more ethanol and replace that which is used. 3.6.3 Renew – able to grow more and replace that which was used. Reuse and recycle – use a substance again, e.g. melt down aluminium cans and recast them to use again. Note that you cannot reuse or recycle a fuel. Science Press Dot Point HSC Chemistry 259 Production of Materials 3.7.1 (a) Name Molecular formula Structural formula CH3OH H - Methanol H C OH - - - H C2H5OH H H - - Ethanol H C C OH - - - - - H H C3H7OH H H C - - C OH - - - C - - H - H - - Propanol H H H H H - - H H - C4H9OH - Butanol H C C C C OH - - - - - - - - - H H H H H H - - - H H H - C5H11OH - Pentanol H C C C C C OH - - - - - - - - - - - H H H H H H H H H - - - - H H - C6H13OH - Hexanol H C C C C C C OH - - - - - - - - - - - - - H H H H H H - - - - - H H H H H H H - C7H15OH - Heptanol H C C C C C C C OH - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - H H H H H H H H - - - - - - H H H H H H H - C8H17OH - Octanol H C C C C C C C C OH - - - - - - - H H H H H H H OH H - - H - - - - H OH H H H - - H LL SURSDQROSURSDQRO - L KH[DQROKH[DQRO - - - H - - - - - - H - C - C - C- H H - C - C - C - C- C - C- H H H E - - - - - - - - - H - H H H H H H Science Press Production of Materials 260 Dot Point HSC Chemistry 3.8.1 D 9DULRXVHJHWKDQROPHWKDQROSURSDQROSURSDQRO (b) Various, e.g. thermometer container water wick fuel, e.g. ethanol in spirit burner (c) This experimental design provides extremely inaccurate results due to the large loss of heat to the environment hence it is not suitable for measuring the actual heat of combustion. However, it can be used to compare heats of combustion of different alkanols as they will all have the same order of inaccuracy as long as they are measured in exactly the same way. G 5HGXFHORVVRIKHDWWRWKHHQYLURQPHQWHJ8VHDPHWDOFDQUDWKHUWKDQDÀDVNDVWKLVZLOOFRQGXFWWKHKHDWWRWKHZDWHU PRUHHI¿FLHQWO\LQVXODWHWKHFDQUHGXFHWKHJDSEHWZHHQWKHÀDPHDQGZDWHUFRQWDLQHUHQVXUHR[\JHQVXSSO\LVVXI¿FLHQW WRDOORZIRUFRPSOHWHFRPEXVWLRQRIWKHDONDQROHQFORVHHTXLSPHQWWRSURWHFWIURPGUDXJKWVXVHDOLGRQWKHÀDVNRUFDQ H DULRXV±$ONDQROVUHSUHVHQWD¿UHKD]DUGVR\RXVKRXOGKDYHDQH[WLQJXLVKHUKDQG\WRTXLFNO\SXWRXWDQ\¿UHVLIDQ 9 accident occurs. Check the school safety package for instructions regarding each of the alkanols you used and describe JHQHUDOVDIHW\SURFHGXUHVDVZHOODVDQ\VSHFL¿FIRUHDFKIXHO8VHVDIHW\JRJJOHVWRSURWHFWH\HV 3.9.1 Molar heat of combustion is the heat energy, in joules or kilojoules, released by the combustion of 1 mole of a fuel. 3.9.2 (a) Fuel Formula Heat of combustion (kJ/mole) Heat of combustion (kJ/gram) Hydrogen H2 285 142.5 Coke (carbon) C 393 32.8 Methane CH4 890 55.6 Ethane C2H6 1560 51.9 Propane C3H8 2220 50.5 Methanol CH3OH 727 22.7 Ethanol C2H5OH 1367 29.7 (b) Hydrogen (c) Methanol has the lower heat of combustion. Therefore methanol releases less energy per gram burnt than ethanol. Thus methanol would be more expensive to use as a fuel. 3.9.3 193 kJ mol–1 3.10.1 Various, e.g. Ethanol is mainly used, mixed with petrol, as a fuel to supplement petrol supplies. Brazil and the United States use ethanol as a supplement to reduce the purchase of foreign oil supplies and to reduce pollution levels. ,QWKH8QLWHG6WDWHVHWKDQROLVPDQXIDFWXUHGPDLQO\E\IHUPHQWDWLRQRIFRUQDQGVXJDUFDQHUHVLGXHVDQGVDOHVRIHWKDQRO JDVROLQHEOHQGVPDNHXSDERXWRIWKHWRWDOJDVROLQHIXHOVDOHVSHU\HDU Sugar cane and wheat have been fermented in Australia to produce ethanol. However, in Australia there is increasing acceptance of ethanol/petrol blends, e.g. E10. The large scale production of ethanol is generally considered an uneconomic proposition, mainly because of the huge cost RIGLVWLOODWLRQDQGWKHGLI¿FXOW\RIUHPRYLQJDOOZDWHUIURPWKHDOFRKRO+RZHYHUUHFHQWLQFUHDVHVLQIXHOSULFHVKDYHPDGH the use of ethanol as a supplement to petrol more attractive. It would be expected that, in the future, as the price of petrol increases, ethanol/petrol blends will be more widely valued and used in Australia. Science Press Dot Point HSC Chemistry 261 Production of Materials 3.10.2 Various, e.g. you may have used information from websites set up by the government, a petrol company, an ethanol manufacturer or an organisation such as the NRMA. To assess the validity of this source of information, you would need to consider how reputable it is, e.g. is it a government source or an established university. If the source is an environmental organisation or a petrol company or a company manufacturing ethanol, then the information needs to be viewed as possibly biased. A range of different sources is essential to compare the information obtained. The internet site should provide evidence for the reader to evaluate. 3.11.1 7RDQVZHUWKLVTXHVWLRQIXOO\\RXVKRXOGLQFOXGHWKHIROORZLQJ 6WDWHGHVFULEH$1'H[SODLQDWOHDVWWKUHHDGYDQWDJHV$1'GLVDGYDQWDJHVRIHWKDQRODVDIXHOVHHEHORZ ,QFOXGHHTXDWLRQVZKHUHYHUSRVVLEOH DNHDQDVVHVVPHQWEDVHGRQWKHSRLQWV\RXKDYHLQFOXGHG$Q\DVVHVVPHQWLVFRUUHFWDVORQJDVLWLVEDVHGRQIDFWV,I 0 you say ethanol has huge potential as a fuel, you must have described more advantages than disadvantages. Consider: Does ethanol have huge potential or little potential? Can it be used alone or only as an extender? +HUHDUHVRPHH[DPSOHVRIZKDWLVPHDQWE\VWDWHGHVFULEHDQGH[SODLQ Advantages of using ethanol: Statement Ethanol is produced from a renewable source (unlike fossil fuels). Description Ethanol is produced by the fermentation of biomass whereas other fuels are produced from petroleum. Explanation Ethanol is produced by fermenting biomass – this comes from plants which are renewable as they can be grown to replace the ones used. Fermentation is by fungi such as the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae and genetically engineered E. coli bacteria. Ethanol burns more completely/ cleanly than fossil fuels. Carbon dioxide neutral C2H5OH(l) + 3O2(g) ĺ 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(g) Toxic carbon monoxide is reduced by 25-30%. The oxygen in the ethanol molecule ensures that less oxygen is needed to allow complete combustion of the fuel. Little or no carbon is produced so less is deposited in the car and spark plugs last longer. Ethanol is an excellent solvent, dissolving deposits built up in the engine. Net CO2 stays constant. The amount of CO2 used to produce crops for ethanol production = CO2 produced when ethanol burns. Carbon dioxide is produced when ethanol burns. CO2 used in photosynthesis to make crops that will later be converted to ethanol. 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(g) ĺ C2H5OH(l) + 3O2(g) 10% ethanol can be safely added to petrol. Ethanol acts as a petrol extender without damage to engines. No engine modification needed if only 10% added. Makes petrol supplies last longer. Disadvantages of using ethanol: Statement Description Explanation Ethanol has a lower heat of –1 combustion (29.7 kJ g ) than petrol –1 (47.9 kJ g ). Combustion of ethanol produces less energy than combustion of same amount of octane. Car can travel further with the same amount of octane than ethanol thus ethanol is more expensive. Existing car engines need to be modified if > 10% ethanol used in fuel. It is difficult to remove all water during distillation of fermented biomass. Water causes corrosion of engines and fuel lines. Large areas of land needed. Land is needed to grow crops to make ethanol. This is a problem because land is also needed to grow food crops and removal of forests is not acceptable on ecological grounds. (Note: Ethanol can now be produced from waste left over from food crops which removes this objection and means that it could be listed as an advantage – it gets rid of wastes from crops such as sugar cane without having to burn off.) Lots of energy is used in production of ethanol. Ethanol has to be distilled from the fermentation mix. This is a problem because distillation is energy intensive – energy is obtained by burning fossil fuels and also costs are high, making ethanol expensive. Science Press Production of Materials 262 Dot Point HSC Chemistry 3.12.1 Various. Your answer should include a description of: WKHHTXLSPHQW\RXXVHGXVHDGLDJUDP PDNLQJXSRIWKHJOXFRVHVROXWLRQ VWHULOLVDWLRQRIWKHHTXLSPHQW KRZORQJWKHPL[WXUHZDVDOORZHGWRUHDFWDQGXQGHUZKDWFRQGLWLRQV PDVVFKDQJHVDQGKRZ\RXPHDVXUHGWKHP GLVWLOODWLRQWRVHSDUDWHWKHDOFRKROSURGXFHGIURPWKHUHDFWLRQPL[WXUHLQFOXGHDGLDJUDP KRZ\RXSURYHGWKDWDOFRKROZDVSURGXFHG <RXVKRXOGDOVRLQFOXGHDODEHOOHGGLDJUDPRI\RXUHTXLSPHQW 3.12.2 (a) by yeast C6H12O6DT ⎯fermentation ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ → 2C2H52+DT&22(g) (b) Various, e.g. (QVXULQJDOOHTXLSPHQWLVVWHULOHWREHJLQZLWKVRRWKHURUJDQLVPVGRQRWJURZLQWKHVXJDUVROXWLRQ± GHVFULEHKRZ\RXVWHULOLVHWKHHTXLSPHQW 'LI¿FXOW\RIGLVWLOOLQJDOFRKROSURGXFHGDVVRPHZDWHUERQGVWRWKHDOFRKROPROHFXOHV 7KHSUREOHPRIWKHDOFRKROSURGXFHGNLOOLQJ\HDVWFHOOVZKHQFRQFHQWUDWLRQRIDOFRKROUHDFKHVDERXW± so alcohol must be removed as it forms. 1HHGWRPDLQWDLQDFRQVWDQWWHPSHUDWXUHDV\HDVWJURZVEHVWDW&DQGGLHVLIWKHPHGLXPLVWRRKRW (c) Mass of reacting vessel and contents decreases as carbon dioxide gas is produced and this escapes from the container. 3.13.1 Maintain at a temperature of 37°&RUDVQHDUDVSRVVLEOHUHPRYHDOFRKRODVLWLVSURGXFHGHQVXUHDOOHTXLSPHQWLVVWHULOH before starting. Also to produce ethanol, respiration needs to be anaerobic so oxygen needs to be excluded as far as possible, e.g. you may have boiled the water before starting to reduce the dissolved oxygen content. 3.14.1 Yeast cells (a fungus) grow in the sugar solution and produce ethanol and carbon dioxide as products under anaerobic FRQGLWLRQV(Q]\PHUHDFWLRQVDUHLQYROYHGVRFRQGLWLRQVVXLWDEOHIRUWKHHQ]\PHVDUHUHTXLUHGHJWHPSHUDWXUHRI°C. 7KLVSURFHVVLQYROYHVPDQ\VWHSVEXWFDQEHVXPPDULVHGE\WKHHTXDWLRQ by yeast C6H12O6DT ⎯fermentation ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ → 2C2H52+DT&22(g) 3.15.1 by yeast C6H12O6DT ⎯fermentation ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ → 2C2H52+DT&22(g) 4.1.1 7ZRKDOIFHOOVDUHQHHGHGHDFKFRQWDLQLQJDQHOHFWURGHLQDQHOHFWURO\WHVROXWLRQ $ZLUHFRQQHFWVWKHWZRHOHFWURGHVWRDOORZWKHHOHFWURQVSURGXFHGWRÀRZIURPRQHWRWKHRWKHU ,IWKHWZRVROXWLRQVDUHLQVHSDUDWHFRQWDLQHUVDVDOWEULGJHFRQQHFWVWKHPWRPDLQWDLQWKH EDODQFHRIFKDUJH KHVDOWEULGJHLVVDWXUDWHGZLWKDVXEVWDQFHVXFKDVSRWDVVLXPQLWUDWHWKDWDOORZVLRQVWRÀRZIURPRQHFRQWDLQHUWR 7 the other but does not react with any ions in the solutions. 4.1.2 (a) Various, e.g. We took two beakers. In one we put a solution of zinc sulfate with a strip of zinc (zinc electrode) in it. In the other we put a copper sulfate solution and a strip of copper (copper electrode). We connected the two electrodes to a wire and voltmeter. :HVRDNHGDVWULSRI¿OWHUSDSHULQSRWDVVLXPQLWUDWHDQGSODFHGWKLVVRLWVHQGVGLSSHGLQWRWKHWZRVROXWLRQV (b) Various, e.g. A voltage was observed on the voltmeter. If the salt bridge was not used, or if it was not in both solutions, there was no voltage (as the circuit is not complete). Mention if gas is produced, an electrode wore away or a substance was deposited on an electrode. Science Press Dot Point HSC Chemistry 263 Production of Materials 4.2.1 (a) Various, e.g. magnesium and copper or copper and iron. (b) Various, e.g. for Mg and Cu you might have used magnesium sulfate for the Mg electrode and CuSO4 for the Cu electrode. (c) Various, e.g. e– e– V copper electrode magnesium electrode salt bridge MgSO4 solution (d) CuSO4 solution Various, e.g. salt bridge could dry out – keep it moist. Make sure salt bridge is immersed in both solutions. (e) Various, e.g. spilling or splashing of chemicals – describe their toxicity if relevant. Wear safety goggles and protective clothing to protect the eyes and skin from splashes of chemicals. Wash hands thoroughly after using chemicals. I 9DULRXVHJIROGHG¿OWHUSDSHURUDÀH[LEOHWXEH¿OOHGZLWKDEVRUEHQWSDSHUVRDNHGLQDVROXWLRQVXFKDVSRWDVVLXP nitrate, with one end dipping into each electrolyte. Positive ions (cations) move to the cathode and negative ions (anions) move to the anode. 4.3.1 Active metals will displace less active metal ions from solution; for example, zinc metal will displace copper ions from solution of copper sulfate. Zinc releases electrons from its outer shell, forming zinc ions and going into solution. The electrons are accepted by the copper ions (in solution) so they become solid copper atoms. :HFDQVKRZWKLVE\ZULWLQJWZRKDOIHTXDWLRQVDQGWKHQDGGLQJWKHPWRVHHWKHIXOOUHDFWLRQ Zn (s) ĺ Zn2+ + 2e– Cu2+ + 2e– ĺ Cu(s) Cu2+DT=QVĺ Zn2+DT&XV 4.4.1 Active metals displace less active metals from solution. The greater the difference in activity between the two metals, the more vigorous the displacement reaction. 4.4.2 Most active Na 4.4.3 Ca Least active Mg Al Zn Fe Pb Cu Ag (a) Solution Metal added Any displacement reaction Calcium chloride Zinc No reaction Zinc chloride Calcium Calcium goes into solution, zinc is deposited Lead chloride Magnesium Magnesium goes into solution, lead is deposited Lead chloride Silver No reaction (b) Magnesium in silver nitrate. There is a greater difference in activity between magnesium and silver than between magnesium and zinc. (c) Zinc must be more active than copper because the zinc has displaced the copper from solution. Science Press Production of Materials 264 Dot Point HSC Chemistry 4.5.1 An increase in oxidation state occurs during oxidation. Oxidation is the loss of electrons. For example: Zn(s) ĺ Zn2+DTH– – – 2I DTĺ I2DTH Oxidation state of zinc changes from 0 to 2; it increases. Oxidation state of iodine changes from –1 to 0; it increases. A decrease in oxidation state occcurs during reduction. Reduction is the gain of electrons. For example: Ag+DTH– ĺ Ag(s) – – Cl2(g) + 2e ĺ 2Cl DT Oxidation state of silver changes from +1 to 0; it decreases. 2[LGDWLRQVWDWHRIFKORULQHFKDQJHVIURPWR±LWGHFUHDVHV 4.5.2 8QFRPELQHGHOHPHQWVKDYHDQR[LGDWLRQVWDWHRIHJ1D +2 = 0). ,RQVKDYHDQR[LGDWLRQVWDWHHTXDOWRWKHFKDUJHRQWKHLULRQHJ1D+ = +1, S2– = –2). 2[\JHQLQFRPSRXQGVKDVDFKDUJHRI±LQR[LGHVDQG±LQSHUR[LGHV +\GURJHQLQFRPSRXQGVKDVDFKDUJHRIZKHQFRPELQHGZLWKQRQPHWDOVHJLQ+2S) and –1 when combined with metals (e.g. in NaH). KHR[LGDWLRQVWDWHRIDFRPSRXQGRUSRO\DWRPLFLRQLVWKHVXPRIWKHR[LGDWLRQVWDWHVRIDOOLWVDWRPV)RUD 7 compound the sum is 0. 2[LGDWLRQLQYROYHVDQLQFUHDVHLQR[LGDWLRQVWDWH 5HGXFWLRQLQYROYHVDGHFUHDVHLQR[LGDWLRQVWDWH 4.5.3 (a) +2 (b) +3 (c) 0 (d) –2 (e) –1 (f) +7 4.6.1 $ JDOYDQLFYROWDLFHOHFWURFKHPLFDOFHOOLVDQDUUDQJHPHQWRIFKHPLFDOVDQGHTXLSPHQWWKDWDOORZVDVSRQWDQHRXVUHGR[ UHDFWLRQWRWDNHSODFHLQVXFKDZD\WKDWHOHFWULFLW\LVSURGXFHG,WFRQVLVWVRIWZRKDOIFHOOVR[LGDWLRQRFFXUVLQRQHDQG UHGXFWLRQLQWKHRWKHU(DFKKDOIFHOOFRQWDLQVDQHOHFWURGHLQDQHOHFWURO\WH 4.6.2 (a) reaction that involves the loss of electrons (b) reaction that involves the gain of electrons (c) electron transfer reaction involving oxidation and reduction (d) a substance that causes oxidation and is itself reduced (e) a substance that causes reduction and is itself oxidised 4.6.3 , QDJDOYDQLFFHOOWKHUHDUHWZRKDOIFHOOV,QRQHKDOIFHOOWKHUHLVDVSRQWDQHRXVR[LGDWLRQUHDFWLRQDQGLQWKHRWKHUD reduction reaction occurs. Oxidation occurs at the anode, releasing electrons. Reduction occurs at the cathode which gains electrons. A wire connects the two electrodes so that electrons can transfer from the anode to the cathode. 4.7.1 7ZRKDOIFHOOVDUHVHWXSHDFKFRQWDLQLQJDQHOHFWURGHLQDQHOHFWURO\WHVROXWLRQ $ZLUHFRQQHFWVWKHWZRHOHFWURGHVWRDOORZWKHHOHFWURQVSURGXFHGWRÀRZIURPRQHWRWKHRWKHU A salt bridge, saturated with potassium nitrate, is set up so that it dips into both electrolytes. Science Press Dot Point HSC Chemistry 265 Production of Materials 4.7.2 D (OHFWURQVÀRZIURPWKHDQRGHZKHUHR[LGDWLRQRFFXUVWRWKHFDWKRGHZKHUHUHGXFWLRQRFFXUV (b) zinc anode copper cathode electrons V negative ions positive ions electrolyte, e.g. ZnSO4 Oxidation Zn Zn2+ +2e– Zn is a reductant 4.8.1 4.8.2 4.9.1 salt bridge electrolyte, e.g. CuSO4 Reduction Cu Cu2+ +2e– Cu2+ is an oxidant (a) A device which carries electric current into and out of a cell. (b) An electrolyte is a chemical that conducts electric current. (c) The electrode where oxidation occurs. (d) The electrode where reduction takes place. (a) To produce an electric current. (b) Release of electrons occurs during oxidation at the anode. These have to travel to the cathode. By having the anode DQGFDWKRGHLQVHSDUDWHFHOOVZHFDQXVHWKHÀRZRIHOHFWURQVDVDVRXUFHRIHOHFWULFFXUUHQWYROWDJH (a) Standard reduction potential is a measure of the relative tendency of a substance to gain one or more electrons FRPSDUHGWRWKHVWDQGDUGK\GURJHQKDOIFHOO These are measured under standard conditions of 25°C, 1 atmosphere pressure and using a 1 mol/L electrolyte solution. The larger the E value, the greater the oxidising power of a substance. E $KDOIFHOOFRQWDLQLQJDVWDQGDUGK\GURJHQHOHFWURGHDVVKRZQLQWKHGLDJUDPEHORZ H2 gas inert metal e.g. Pt 1 mol L–1[H+] (c) Voltmeter 4.9.2 (a) The redox table is a list of standard reduction potentials (E ). A copy of this table can be found at the back of this book. E 5HGXFWLRQUHGXFHGUHYHUVLQJOHIWGRZQÀXRULQHHOHFWURQVWRSJLYHXSUHGXFHGORZHUGRZQK\GURJHQR[LGLVLQJ Science Press Production of Materials 266 Dot Point HSC Chemistry 4.9.3 (a) –0.44 volts (b) (i) Al(s) U Al3+ + 3e– 2+ Cu(s) U Cu + 2e (ii) (c) +1.68 V – –0.34 V There is no reaction with iron in a solution of aluminium ions. For the iron in copper sulfate solution, the reaction is as follows: (d) Cu2+ + 2e– U Cu(s) +0.34 V Fe(s) U Fe2+ + 2e– +0.44 V Cu 2+ Cu 2+ + Fe(s) U Fe 2+ + Cu(s) +0.78 V – + 2e U Cu(s) 2+ Zn(s) U Zn (a) = 0.78 volts E = 1.10 volts +0.34 V – + 2e +0.76 V Cu2+ + Zn(s) U Zn2+ + Cu(s) 4.10.1 E +1.10 V Various, e.g. Diagram of lead acid cell: H2SO4 and water e– Pb anodes PbO2 cathodes e– Chemistry of lead acid cell: Anode: lead plates Pb ĺ Pb2+ + 2e– Cathode: lead(IV) oxide PbO2 + 4H+ + 2e– ĺ Pb2+ + 2H2O Pb ions combine with sulfate ions and form lead sulfate. Electrolyte: 6 mol L–1 sulfuric acid (b) Various, e.g. Diagram of lithium cell: Electrolyte Lithium - Anode contact Seal + Positive electrode (mixture used varies with type) Separator Cathode contact/case Chemistry of lithium cell: Anode: lithium Li ĺ Li+ + e– Cathode: carbon Reaction involves silver chromate or iodine, e.g. I2 + 2e– ĺ 2I– Electrolyte: lithium iodide Science Press Dot Point HSC Chemistry 267 Production of Materials 4.10.2 Lead acid cell 4.10.3 Lithium cell Cost and Practicality Expensive, but long lasting. Used as car batteries. Practical for this purpose as they do not need to be portable. They can be recharged. The reactions above are reversed by the car generator forcing current back into the battery. They work in a wide range of temperatures. Expensive compared to other batteries. Used in cardiac pacemakers, cellular phones, watches , computers and cameras. Practical for these uses as they are long-lasting, rechargeable and high voltage. Lithium batteries are very light and deliver more power (about 3 V) than dry cell and alkaline batteries (1.5 V). Impact on society Their development meant that cars could be started much more easily and reliably – they did not have to be cranked. They improved the capability of people to move around and travel long distances. The development of these long-lasting, rechargeable, very light batteries that produce a constant, relatively high voltage has led to the development of medical applications such as cardiac pacemakers which have saved lives. Their small size and portability have allowed the development of smaller electronic devices such as cameras, watches and phones. These have improved our ability to communicate over distance. Environmental impact Contains concentrated sulfuric acid (about 6 mol L ) which must be disposed of safely as it is highly corrosive. Also lead is a toxic heavy metal so must be disposed of carefully. –1 Lithium must be transported and disposed of safely to avoid environmental damage. Various, e.g. a dry cell versus a button cell: Dry cellsDUHXVHIXODQGTXLWHDGHTXDWHIRUVRPHSXUSRVHVHJLQWRUFKHVWR\VDQGUDGLRV7KHGU\FHOOZDVDQLPSURYHPHQW RYHUHDUOLHUFHOOVDVLWFRQWDLQHGQROLTXLG+RZHYHUHYHQWXDOO\WKH]LQFFDVLQJPD\EHXVHGXSDQGDOORZWKHEDWWHU\WROHDN Also, if used continuously, ammonia may be produced and cause the cell to burst. The button cell UHSUHVHQWVLPSURYHPHQWVLQGHVLJQDVLWDOVRFRQWDLQVQROLTXLGLWLVVPDOOHUKDVDORQJHUVKHOIOLIHDQG provides a more constant voltage for a longer period of time. These advantages have made possible the development of small watches, hearing aids, microphones and calculators. The reduction in size of these appliances has made them more portable and made them available to a greater percentage of the population. Hearing aids, which were previously bulky and obvious are now smaller and more convenient. At present the button cell is more expensive than the dry cell however, and it usually contains the heavy metal silver so must be disposed of carefully to prevent environmental damage. Heavy metals such as silver are toxic and they can bioaccumulate. Overall, the button cell is superior, its small size and constant voltage making possible the developments of small electronic devices that would not otherwise be possible. Its cost limits its use slightly, however, with time and mass production, this should decrease. 4.11.1 Various. In your answer you should include the following: Outline the fossil fuels used in the 19th and 20th centuries to obtain energy – include coal and petroleum (oil and gas). ,QFOXGHHTXDWLRQVVKRZLQJWKHFRPEXVWLRQRIWKHVHIXHOV0HQWLRQWKHVHDUHH[RWKHUPLFUHDFWLRQV Discuss the problems associated with the use of fossil fuels including the production of pollutants and their effects, the greenhouse effect (CO2DQGZDWHUYDSRXUPHUFXU\SROOXWLRQDFLGUDLQ,QFOXGHHTXDWLRQVWRLOOXVWUDWHWKHVHSUREOHPV Explain that supplies of these fuels are running out and they are not renewable. HVFULEHVRPHUHQHZDEOHVRXUFHVRIHQHUJ\HJHWKDQRODQGWKHXVHRIELRPDVV,QFOXGHHTXDWLRQV<RXVKRXOGDOVRLQFOXGH ' such sources as wind power and solar energy. 'HVFULEHZKDWLVPHDQWE\R[LGDWLRQUHGXFWLRQUHDFWLRQV 'HVFULEHWKHSURGXFWLRQRIHQHUJ\E\R[LGDWLRQUHGXFWLRQUHDFWLRQV [SODLQKRZR[LGDWLRQUHGXFWLRQUHDFWLRQVDUHXVHGLQWKHWZRFHOOVWKDW\RXVWXGLHG,QFOXGHGLDJUDPVDQGLGHQWLI\WKHDQRGH ( FDWKRGHHOHFWURO\WHR[LGDQWDQGUHGXFWDQW,QFOXGHKDOIDQGIXOOUHGR[HTXDWLRQV Sum up your ideas – is it likely that renewable resources will replace fossil fuels during this century? 5.1.1 (a) Isotopes are forms of an element with different numbers of neutrons in the atom and thus different atomic masses. They have the same number of protons, and the same atomic number, as they are the same element. But their mass numbers differ. (b) A stable isotope does not normally disintegrate. An unstable isotope is said to be radioactive. It continuously emits alpha, beta and/or gamma radiation from its nucleus. Science Press Production of Materials 268 Dot Point HSC Chemistry (c) The stability of isotopes is determined by the number of particles in the nucleus and also by the ratio of neutrons to protons. For light elements, the stable neutron to proton ratio is approximately 1:1. For heavy elements the stable neutron to proton ratio is approximately 1.5:1. 5.1.2 Alpha radiation Beta radiation Gamma radiation Structure Particles Particles Electromagnetic radiation Consist of 2 protons and 2 neutrons (same as a helium nucleus) Electron from the nucleus High frequency radiation Charge +2 –1 Nil Ionising ability Good Fair Poor Penetration Poor (2–10 cm in air) Fair (5 m in air, 2 mm in aluminium) Very good (several cm of lead) Deflection in electric field Towards negative plate Towards positive plate Nil alpha radiation 5.1.3 gamma rays beta radiation 5.1.4 (a) Radioactive atoms decay at random. The nucleus emits particles and/or energy in order to attain a stable structure. 7KHWLPHWDNHQIRUKDOIRIDVDPSOHRIDUDGLRLVRWRSHWRGHFD\LVFDOOHGLWVKDOIOLIH7KHGHFD\RIDUDGLRLVRWRSHLVD nuclear, not a chemical, reaction. E +DOIOLIHLVWKHWLPHWDNHQIRUKDOIRIWKHDWRPVLQDVDPSOHRIDUDGLRDFWLYHHOHPHQWWRGHFD\ 5.2.1 7 KH¿UVWHOHPHQWWRH[LVWRQO\LQWKHODERUDWRU\ZDVWHFKQHWLXPDWRPLFQXPEHUFUHDWHGLQE\ERPEDUGLQJ PRO\EGHQXPZLWKGHXWHULXPQXFOHL'XULQJDQGDIWHU:RUOG:DU,,DQ$PHULFDQWHDPOHGE\*OHQQ6HDERUJFUHDWHGQHZ HOHPHQWVLQDQDFFHOHUDWRULQFOXGLQJQHSWXQLXPWKH¿UVWHOHPHQWKHDYLHUWKDQXUDQLXPDQGSOXWRQLXPWKHHOHPHQWXVHGLQ the atomic bomb dropped on Nagasaki. 6LQFHWKHPLGVV\QWKHVLVRIHYHUKHDYLHUQHZHOHPHQWVKDVGHSHQGHGRQQHZJHQHUDWLRQVRISDUWLFOHDFFHOHUDWRUV 'XULQJWKHODVWGHFDGHDQXPEHURIQHZHOHPHQWVKDYHEHHQSURGXFHGDUWL¿FLDOO\HJKDVVLXP0DQ\UHFHQWGLVFRYHULHVDUH elements that only exist for a fraction of a second. 5.2.2 Various, e.g. (OHPHQW±XQXQSHQWLXP±LVRODWHGDIHZDWRPVRIWKUHHUDGLRDFWLYHLVRWRSHVLQXVLQJDF\FORWURQDQGWKHIXVLRQRI QXFOHLRIFDOFLXPDQGDPHULFLXP1RW\HWFRQ¿UPHGE\,83$& 243 95 Am + 243 95 Am + 48 20 287 115 Ca l 48 20 Ca l Uup + 41n 288 115 Uup + 31n Element 108 – hassium – isolated a few atoms by a nuclear reaction involving the fusion of isotopes of bismuth and iron. Hassium is radioactive and decays very rapidly. 208 Bi + 58 Fe ĺ 265 Hs + 1n Element 109 – meiterium – isolated a few atoms by the fusion of isotopes of lead and iron. Meiterium is radioactive and decays very rapidly. 208 5.3.1 Pb + 58 Fe ĺ 266 Mt + 1n (a) An element heavier than uranium, e.g. neptunium, americium. (b) Synthesised in a nuclear reactor or an accelerator. During the past 20 years, transuranic elements have been created in nuclear reactors and by accelerator laboratories in WKH8QLWHG6WDWHV*HUPDQ\DQG5XVVLD0RVWRIWKHUDGLRLVRWRSHVSURGXFHGLQWKLVZD\H[LVWIRURQO\DVKRUWWLPHDV they are radioactive and spontaneously decay. Nuclear reactors bombard targets with neutrons produced by uranium decay. For example neptunium and americium are produced in this way. Accelerators bombard target atoms with positive particles such as protons or nuclei of atoms such as helium or iron. For example, meiterium and hassium were produced in this way. Science Press Dot Point HSC Chemistry 269 Production of Materials (c) Various, e.g. In accelerators, e.g.: Hassium produced by bombarding lead with iron. 208 Pb + 58 265 Hs + 1n Fe ĺ In nuclear reactors: 1HSWXQLXP] ±REWDLQHGE\QHXWURQERPEDUGPHQWRIXUDQLXP 238 92 U + 01 n → 239 93 Np + 0 −1 e Americium – obtained by neutron bombardment of plutonium. 239 94 5.4.1 D Pu + 2 01 n → 241 95 Am + 0 −1 e 9DULRXVHJFREDOWVWURQWLXPLRGLQHLRGLQH (Note: You must be able to state name and mass number.) (b) Commercial radioisotopes are produced by accelerators and nuclear reactors. An accelerator is a machine that allows particles (e.g. protons, helium nuclei or other nuclei) to be accelerated to high VSHHGDQG¿UHGDWQXFOHLRIDWRPVZLWKFRQWUROOHGHQHUJLHVLQRUGHUWRVWXG\QXFOHDUUHDFWLRQVRUPDNHUDGLRLVRWRSHV Cyclotrons are accelerators. $FFHOHUDWRUVSURGXFHQHXWURQGH¿FLHQWLVRWRSHVHJLRGLQHÀXRULQH A nuclear reactor is a device that allows a uranium chain reaction to occur safely, releasing neutrons at a slow and controlled rate. A target is bombarded with neutrons to produce a radioactive species with extra neutrons in the QXFOHXVVRQXFOHDUUHDFWRUVSURGXFHQHXWURQULFKLVRWRSHVHJLRGLQHVWURQWLXPFREDOW 5.5.1 *HLJHU0OOHUWXEHEDGJHVFRQWDLQLQJSKRWRJUDSKLF¿OPWKHUPROXPLQHVFHQWGRVLPHWHUVFLQWLOODWLRQFRXQWHU 5.5.2 Various, e.g. *HLJHU0OOHUWXEH This consists of a sealed glass tube with a thin mica window at one end. The gas inside the tube, often argon, is ionised by UDGLDWLRQHQWHULQJWKHWXEH7KLVFDXVHVDFXUUHQWWRÀRZWKURXJKWKHDWWDFKHGFLUFXLWZKLFKKDVDUHFRUGLQJGHYLFHLQFOXGHG7KLV device is most effective in detecting beta particles; it can also detect alpha particles if the source is within 2 cm of the window. Thermoluminescent dosimeter (TLD) A TLD measures the amount of gamma radiation received over a period of time. It consists of a badge that contains crystals of an inorganic salt that absorbs the radiation. When these chemicals are heated, the energy they have gained from radiation is released as light. The intensity of the light emitted on heating gives a measure of the radiation the person wearing the badge has received. 5.6.1 D 9DULRXVHJ$PHULFLXPLVXVHGLQVPRNHDODUPV E 9DULRXVHJ7HFKQHWLXPPLVXVHGLQWKHGLDJQRVLVRIGLVHDVH 5.7.1 D PHULFLXPLVXVHGLQVPRNHDODUPVZKHUHLWHPLWVDOSKDSDUWLFOHVDQGORZHQHUJ\JDPPDUD\VWRIRUP $ 237 4 QHSWXQLXP 241 95 Am l 93 Np + 2 He When no smoke is present, the alpha particles ionise nitrogen and oxygen in the air in the detector. When smoke is present, the smoke absorbs the alpha particles emitted, so the rate of ionisation drops and this sets off the alarm. E 7HFKQHWLXPPLVXVHGLQWKHGLDJQRVLVRIGLVHDVH,WLVLQMHFWHGDQGWKHORZHQHUJ\JDPPDUD\VLWHPLWVFDQEH GHWHFWHGH[WHUQDOO\7HFKQHWLXPFDQVKRZEORRGÀRZDEQRUPDOLWLHVKHDUWGHIHFWVDQGWKHVL]HDQGORFDWLRQRI cancerous growths. It can be attached to a range of biological carriers and thus can concentrate in a number of different types of tissues and organs. Science Press Production of Materials 270 Dot Point HSC Chemistry 5.7.2 7HFKQHWLXPPLVVXLWDEOHIRUXVHLQQXFOHDUPHGLFLQHEHFDXVHRILWVSURSHUWLHVVXFKDV ,WVVKRUWKDOIOLIHRIKRXUV±WKLVLVORQJHQRXJKIRUPHGLFDOLQYHVWLJDWLRQVDQGVKRUWHQRXJKWRPLQLPLVHWKHSDWLHQW¶V exposure to radiation. ,WLVUHDGLO\H[FUHWHGPLQLPXPH[SRVXUH ,WHPLWVORZHQHUJ\JDPPDUDGLDWLRQ±WKXVFDXVLQJPLQLPDOGDPDJHWRKHDOWK\FHOOV , WFDQEHDWWDFKHGWRDUDQJHRIELRORJLFDOFDUULHUVDQGWKXVFDQFRQFHQWUDWHLQDQXPEHURIGLIIHUHQWW\SHVRIWLVVXHV and organs. , WFDQEHPDGHZKHQDQGZKHUHQHHGHGIURPPRO\EGHQXP0RLQDWUDQVSRUWDEOHJHQHUDWRU0RO\EGHQXPLV DSURGXFWRIQXFOHDU¿VVLRQLQDQXFOHDUUHDFWRU 5.8.1 Various, e.g. 0DQ\UDGLRLVRWRSHVDUHXVHGLQPHGLFLQHHJFREDOWLURQDQGLRGLQH7KHLUUROHVLQFOXGHWKHGLDJQRVLVDQG WUHDWPHQWRIGLVHDVHPRQLWRULQJWKHHIIHFWLYHQHVVRIGUXJVDQGVWHULOLVLQJPHGLFDODQGVXUJLFDOHTXLSPHQW&REDOWHPLWV JDPPDUD\VZKLFKFDQEHXVHGWRVWHULOLVHHTXLSPHQWDQGDOVRWRNLOOFDQFHUFHOOVLQKXPDQV DGLRLVRWRSHVSHUIRUPPDQ\XVHIXOIXQFWLRQVLQLQGXVWU\VXFKDVPHDVXULQJWKLFNQHVVRISODVWLF¿OPVDQGVWHHOVKHHWLQJ 5 checking the interior of solid objects for wear and cracks, analysis for forensic science and determining when containers are full. 5.8.2 One problem associated with the use of radioisotopes in industries and medicine is their effects on living cells. 5DGLDWLRQFDQDIIHFWWKHVWUXFWXUHRIHQ]\PHVVRWKH\FDQQRWDFWDVFDWDO\VWV 7KHVWUXFWXUHRIPHPEUDQHVFDQEHFKDQJHGWKXVSUHYHQWLQJWUDQVSRUWZLWKLQDQGEHWZHHQFHOOV 7KHVWUXFWXUHRI'1$PROHFXOHVFDQEHDOWHUHGVR'1$FDQQRORQJHUIXQFWLRQFRUUHFWO\ 6H[FHOOVFDQEHDOWHUHGDQGWKHFKDQJHVSDVVHGRQFDXVLQJGHIHFWVLQRIIVSULQJ Because of these harmful effects, the use of radioactive isotopes must be carefully monitored. Another problem is with security during transport and storage of radioactive substances and wastes. Waste disposal is also a problem. At present radioactive wastes are stored pending agreement on safe disposal. Science Press Dot Point HSC Chemistry 271 Production of Materials Notes ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 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Science Press Production of Materials 272 Dot Point HSC Chemistry

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