The Use of Adlerian Therapy in Guidance in Schools
Brief History
Alfred Adler was born in Vienna, Austria in 1870 and died in Aberdeen, Scotland in
1937, when he was lecturing in that country. Adler's early childhood was overshadowed
by personal illness, the death of his younger brother, and rivalry between him and his
elder brother. This was one of the principal reasons that he pursued a career in
medicine, graduating from the University of Vienna in 1895.
Adler was a member of the Freudian circle from 1902 until his resignation in 1911. In
1910 had become the first president of the Viennese Psychoanalytic Society. His break
with Freud revolved around the latter's insistence on sex as the primary motivating
force in the human personality. Adler founded his own organisation The Society for
Individual Psychology in 1912.
Adler's experiences as a field-doctor with the Austrian army during World War 1 had a
decisive influence on his future career. The collapse of Austria-Hungary in 1918 and the
resultant social upheaval and social deprivation drew Adler in particular to the areas of
educational reform, child guidance and therapeutic education. Twenty-eight of his child
guidance clinics were still functioning in 1934, the year the Fascists came to power in
Austria.
In 1929, Adler settled permanently in the USA. He became very successful in America
through the popularity of his books and his extensive lecturing programme. Adler
secured a chair in medical psychology at Long Island College of Medicine in 1931 (now
renamed the Downstate Medical School, N.Y.). Rudolf Dreikurs a psychiatrist, and a codirector of one of Adler's child guidance clinics in Vienna was instrumental in
establishing the Alfred Adler Institute in Chicago, in 1952, now the Adler School of
Professional Psychology.
Brief Description of Theory
Dewey (1978: 2-3) outlines five basic
principle of Adlerian or Individual
Psychology which Dreikurs delineated:
1. Socially Embedded
Adlerians emphasise the social basis of
behaviour in contrast to the biological
basis of behaviour. The human person
is above all a social being who wishes
to find a place in the group and belong.
Gemeinschaftsgefühl - social interest or
community feeling is the measure or
yardstick of the person's ability to
contribute to or co-operate with others.
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2. Self-determinating and Creative
For the human person change is always
possible. Even in situations which
appear quite hopeless or in situations
where we experience powerlessness we
can still choose how we wish to act.
For this reason, deterministic and
mechanistic theories of behaviour have
no place in the Adlerian scheme of
things.
3. Goal Directed or Teleological
From the perspective of Individual
Psychology, all behaviour is goaldirected or purposive. Often an
individual pursues a goal without being
aware or conscious of it. Goals which an
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1.4.13
individual is motivated to pursue can be
changed when they are brought into
conscious awareness (i.e. if the goal is
seen to be self-defeating a person has a
choice of changing it), whereas the
causal explanation of behaviour is more
difficult if not impossible to change.
4. Subjective
Individual Psychology maintains that
each person views reality from a
subjective point of view. Furthermore, it
is difficult to be objective about
ourselves and how we interpret
experience in general.
The individual perceives reality
subjectively and interprets it accordingly
to her/his own 'private logic' and
therefore 'can learn by experience only
if no personal bias is involved'.
(Dreikurs 1989: 45).
5. Holistic
Adlerian psychology has always
stressed the importance of the unity or
wholeness of the individual. The human
person always functions holistically and
moves through life towards a goal,
according to a definite life pattern. Each
person develops a life style in early
childhood, which gives a basic unity to
the personality. In counselling/therapy,
the pattern of the lifestyle or how the
individual moves through life can be
discerned.
with adolescents is always supportive,
encouraging, consistent and respectful.
Dreikurs (1968) stated that discouraged
students pursue four mistaken goals of
misbehaviour:




Kelly and Sweeney (1979) added
three more:



excitement,
peer acceptance, and
superiority.
The Adlerian counsellor in individual
work with the student may often focus
on the following typical guidance
counselling intervention strategies:
I. Natural and logical
consequences to highlight the
consequences of the student's
behaviour;
II. Equality and mutual respect in
order to foster the student's cooperation;
III. Encouragement training to
increase the student's selfacceptance, self-confidence and
self-esteem;
Examples of Practical Use in
Guidance in School
IV. Confronting the student’s
'private logic', subjective views,
mistaken goals of misbehaviour,
and/or any self-defeating
behaviours. This may involve
closer examination of the
student's family constellation:
A. One to one situations with
students
The main focus of Adlerian counselling
with teens is to heighten and increase
awareness around the issues of selfrespect/self-esteem and belongingness.
Adler drew attention to the minus and
plus situations of life or how the
individual moves from a felt or
perceived minus to a desired plus.
a) how the student
developed his/her unique
personality
characteristics in relation
to other family members;
The Adlerian counsellor in her/his work
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attention,
power,
revenge, and
inadequacy.
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1.4.14
b) the role played by the
family atmosphere and
values, and
democratic society;
IV. the classroom as a key place for
therapeutic learning (i.e.
understanding group dynamics,
group guidance, structured class
meetings for problem solving,
decision-making behaviour,
conflict resolution,
encouragement and other
related issues);
c) how these in turn
influence the
d) individual students
unique response to life
situations and/or
difficulties.
This will provide the counsellor with an
understanding of the student's life style
and 'private logic'.
V. raising awareness of community
feeling by reaching out to others
through self acceptance and an
understanding of the tasks of
life:
1. the task of communal life
or social relationships;
2. the task of work or
contributing in a useful
way;
3. the task of sex, love and
intimacy;
4. the task of self or
relating with oneself, and
5. the task of one's
relationship to God, the
universe and for finding
meaning in life (i.e. the
spiritual task).
V. The emphasis is always on
'movement,' i.e., what the
student 'does' rather than purely
describing or labelling her/his
behaviour.
VI. The counsellor whilst working
with the individual student, will
focus specifically on the goal(s)
of the student's behaviour, i.e.
the purpose of the behaviour
and/or how it may be inhibiting
the student's potential and
progress.
B. Group situations and/or
class situations
Individual Psychology methods and
applications are particularly useful in
the following areas which also
complement individual work with
students:
I. class room management which
fosters students self-discipline,
responsibility and
belongingness;
II. encouragement training which
promotes self-esteem and selfacceptance;
C. Advantages/disadvantages of
use with students (12 - 18)
Using Individual Psychology with
students in counselling and/or guidance
has far more advantages than
disadvantages:

Students like working on the life
style information, as it relates to
their unique personality
characteristics, however this can be
time consuming.

Students also like working on their
early recollections or early
memories. These can be used as a
projective technique to see how the
student uses his/her creative self.
Is s/he an active participant in
III. co-operation based on mutual
respect and equality to prepare
students to live optimally in a
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1.4.15
life or just passive?
What emotions does s/he use?
Does s/he work with others or
on her/his own? etc.

Early recollections can also be used
as a projective technique for career
choice.

Dinkmeyer et al., (1987) have
produced a Motivating Worksheet
for students which have wide
applications.

Dinkmeyer et al., (1990/1980) have
also developed Parenting
Teenagers: STEP- Systematic
Training for Effective Parenting of
Teens and STET (Systematic
Training for Effective Teaching).

Linda Albert has developed 'Cooperative Discipline' which contains
numerous intervention strategies for
classroom management.

Mosak and Maniacci (1999) point
out that Adler wrote before the
main developmental theorists and
as a result "Adlerians do not have
an adequate developmental or
learning theory" (p.166). This point
needs to be borne in mind when
adapting Adlerian methods for use
with students.
Training
The Irish Institute of Adlerian
Counselling and Psychology (IIACP) has
run three diploma courses to date. The
training usually takes around two and
half years. The cost was approximately
£1,300 per annum (1998). To date
training has taken place in Waterford
City. Current information on training
may be obtained from:
Ms Ann Madigan,
IIACP,
Ballydaw,
Kilmacow, via Waterford.
Tel.: (051) 885 245
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The Department of Adult and
Continuing Education at Waterford
Institute of Technology is currently
examining the feasibility of introducing
a four-year degree in counselling. The
degree will focus in depth on two
schools of counselling - Adlerian and
Psychodynamic.
Further Information
Ireland:
For information on the Adlerian
Summer School held in Clonmel during
the first week in July each year, please
contact:
Ms Patricia O'Leary,
Adlerian Network of Ireland,
Resource Centre,
Kickham Street,
Clonmel,
Co. Tipperary.
Tel:
(052) 66346.
UK:
Education Office,
Bottisham Village College,
Lode Road,
Bottisham,
Cambridge CB5 9DL
UK
(For Adlerian counselling courses at
certificate and diploma levels).
USA
Adler School of Professional
Psychology,
65 East Wacker Place,
Suite 2100,
Chicago, IL 60601-7203.
USA
Information on postgraduate training Masters / Doctorate.
North American Society of Adlerian
Psychology (NASAP),
65 East Wacker Place,
Suite 1710,
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1.4.16
Chicago, IL 60601-7298.
USA.
International
Two excellent books on how Adlerian
principles can be applied especially in
areas of motivating students and
problem solving.
The International Committee for
Adlerian Summer Schools and
Institutes – (ICASSI),
Administration Office,
33 Leys Avenue,
Cambridge CB4 2AN,
UK.
Dewey, E. A. (1978). Basic Applications
of Adlerian Psychology for SelfUnderstanding and Human
Relationships. Coral Springs, Florida;
CNTI Press.
A very good book on the practical
application of Adlerian Psychology.
Information on the two-week
International Summer School including
experiential workshops on applied
Adlerian Psychology. The school is held
in a different country each year.
Dinkmeyer, D., et al. (1987). Adlerian
Counselling and Psychotherapy. (2d
Edition). New York: Merril.
Although a bit dated now this book
gives an excellent overview on how
Individual Psychology can be applied in
a number of settings. It gives a very
good grounding in Adlerian Counselling
and Psychotherapy.
References:
Adler, A. (1998/1938). Social Interest:
Adler’s Key to the Meaning of Life.
Oxford. Oneworld.
This book is devoted to Adler’s key
concept of Gemeinschaftsgefühl –
community feeling or social interest, the
central idea in Adler’s philosophical and
psychological system.
Adler, A. (1997/1927). Understanding
Life: an Introduction to the Psychology
of Alfred Adler. Oxford: Oneworld.
This book gives a very good overview of
Adler's work.
Barry, S. (1998). "The Guidance
Counsellor as Consultant: A Brief
Introduction to Adlerian-based
Consultation in Educational Settings."
Journal of the Institute of Guidance
Counsellors, Spring 1998, 43-48. This
article complements the present one on
"The Use of Adlerian Therapy in
Guidance in Schools", and gives more
depth to some of the issues raised in
the current article.
Bettner, B.L., Lew, A. (1996). Raising
Kids Who Can and Raising Kids Who
Can: A Leader's Guide. Boston and
Philadelphia: Connections Press.
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Dreikurs, R., et al. (1998/1982).
Maintaining Sanity in the Classroom:
Classroom Management Techniques
(2nd Edition). Philadelphia, PA:
Accelerated Development. The reissue
of this classic text is to be welcomed. It
provides a step by step approach in
handling a wide range of classroom
issues including techniques of
motivation modification.
Dreikurs, R., Soltz, V. (1991/1964).
Children: The Challenge. New York:
Plume. A classic book on parent-child
relationships, essential reading.
Lew, A., Bettner, B.L. (1995).
Responsibility in the Classroom: A
Teacher's Guide to Understanding and
Motivating Students. Boston and
Philadelphia: Connections Press.
Very good hands-on. practical book.
Mosak, H., Maniacci, M. (1999). A
Primer of Adlerian Psychology: The
Analytic Behavioural - Cognitive
Psychology of Alfred Adler. Philadelphia,
PA: Brunner/Mazel. Written by two
senior Adlerian scholars and clinical
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1.4.17
psychologists, this book is aimed
towards students and practitioners - it
is highly recommended.
Sweeney, T. (1998). Adlerian
Counselling: A Practitioner’s Approach.
(4th Edition). Philadelphia, PA:
Accelerated Development. This book is
another example of a classic text in a
new edition. The section on children
and adolescents is particularly good, as
well as the section on encouragement.
This is a key text for both the serious
student and practitioner.
Walton, F. (1980). Winning Teenagers
Over in Home and School: A Manual for
Parents, Teachers. Counsellors and
Principals. Columbia, SC: Adlerian
Childcare Books.
Very practical book, still in print. The
section on creating an encouraging
atmosphere in school is very good.
Websites
Main Sites
The South Carolina Society of
Adlerian Psychology
http://members.aol.com/scsap/
The Author
Séamus Barry B.A., M.Ed., is a guidance
counsellor in Mount Sion Secondary
School, Waterford City. He also works
as a freelance trainer, counselling
supervisor and accredited counsellor
(IACT) in private practice.
The author wishes to acknowledge his
thanks to the editor of the Institute of
Guidance Counsellor's Journal, Mr.
Peter Ó Murchú for permission to quote
some material from "The Guidance
Counsellor as Consultant: A Brief
Introduction to Adlerian-based
Consultation in Educational Settings."
Journal of the Institute of Guidance
Counsellors, spring 1998, 43 - 48.
North American Society of Adlerian
Psychology (NASAP)
www.alfredadler.org
American Guidance Service (AGS)
www.agsnet.com
Information on Adlerian applications in
home, school and related issues.
Other Sites
The Alfred Adler Graduate School
www.alfredadler.edu
The Adlerian Society (UK)
www.adleriansociety.co.uk
Journal of Individual Psychology
www.utexas.edu/utpress/journals/jip.ht
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