AP European History
Unit 3: Religious Wars
FRANCE
-population losses caused by plague and Hundred Years’ War
results in the end of serfdom in France.
-Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis ends Habsburg-Valois Wars in
1559… Spain is victor.
*One of the main reasons they’ll sign that treaty is they both
were concerned with the spread of Calvinism and
Protestantism.
-Protestant Ref. Kills idea that society will organize under one
leader, with one church, to which everyone belonged.
Francis I (r. 1515-47)
-French budget strained by Habsburg-Valois Wars AND
extravagant art promo.
-deliberately imitating the Italian Renaissance princes, France
built a huge court, redesigned the Louvre, Francis I purchased
the Mona Lisa, brings Leonardo to Paris, employs
Michelangelo’s star pupil, Il Rosso.
-Francis tries two methods of raising some money:
1. Sell public offices… works once, but then
hereditary…they become tax-exempt… called “nobility of
the robe”
2. treaty with papacy: Concordat of Bologna 1516 (signed
between Francis and Pope Leo X)– papacy supreme over
council, Pope gets first year’s income, but, French crown
appoints all bishops and abbots in France. Gave France
huge wealth… and power over Church until 1789… This
is why France doesn’t become Protestant: Catholicism =
state religion of France.
*at the time of the Concordat: 1 French official for every
115 square kilometers and 1,000 people. By 1556, 1 for
every 10 square miles and 75 people.
Eventually, the financial squeeze will even be put on the
peasants… especially later… 1560-1660. Many peasants
reduced to share-cropping and dividing lands. Hit with taxes
and tithes… some even reverted to violence: the “Hunters of
Thieves” and the “bare feet” were just two groups who struck
out at nobles…hoping that rulers would look after their
subjects (1590’s).
It was said of Francis I, “if the King endures bodily fatigues
unflinchingly, he finds mental preoccupations more difficult to
bear.”
Most of his power was still very dependent on good will of
nobles.
-Yet, by 1559, there were 40 Calvinist churches, and 2150
mission stations in France.
Roughly 10% of France were Calvinist (Calvin wrote in
French)
**wars of 16th and 17th centuries much more severe,
gunpowder and armies larger and more expensive.
Medici Family
Lorenzo the Magnificent has son Piero, son Giuliano, son
Pope Leo X…. Piero has son Lorenzo, who has daughter
Catherine (Q. of France)
Italics = Machiavelli dedicates The Prince to Giuliano –
1513... then switched it to Lorenzo in 1516
Lorenzo (the Magnif.) has brother = Giuliano... who has
illegit. son = Giulio (who becomes Pope Clement VII)
... who has illegit. son = Alessandro...
Holloway
Henry II (r. 1547-1559) –
• Tried to repress Calvinism
• Ends up creating Calvinist martyrs
• Yet, he allies himself with German Protestants in
his war against Charles V (HRE)
• War will continue w/ Charles’ son, Philip II of
Spain (who is allied w/ Mary Tutor of England)
• Spread of Calvinism led king to sign Treaty of
Cateau-Cambresis in 1559 (Diane was influential in
getting him to sign it)
• This ends war with Spain… so they celebrate with
a joust!
• accidentally killed by errant lance during a jousting
tournament – succeeded by 15-yr-old son
Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis - 1559
• ends Habsburg-Valois Wars in 1559… Spain
is victor
• France to respect Habsburg primacy in
Italy…and Habsburg control over Flanders
• Spain would desist in attempts to weaken
Valois kings
• Both sides, as Catholics, shared their concerns
with spread of Calvinism (in Span. Neths and
France)… plus, resources exhausted with
fighting
• About 40% of French nobles convert to
Calvinism… some to spite monarchy
After Henry II’s death:
Challenge to the throne by 3 strongest noble families
Guise (Catholic) – northern and eastern France
Montmorency (Cath.) – southwest, oldest and wealthiest
in the kingdom
Bourbon (Huguenot) – southwest and central
Son #1 Francis II (born 1544, r. 1559-1560) – dies
after 17 months. He is married to Mary Stuart, Queen
of Scots (born 1542, becomes Queen of Scotland just 6
days old when her father died….raised in France, and
marries Francis II. When Francis dies she goes to
Scotland and rules from 1560-67.
Mary’s Background:
•Grandfather = James IV – King of Scotland
•James IV married Margaret Tudor (Henry VIII’s
sister)
•They have a son… James V
•James V first married Madeleine (daughter of
Francis I)
•She dies…
•Then James V marries Mary of Guise
•They eventually have daughter, Mary… who
becomes Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots
Son #2 Charles IX (1560-74) – succeeds at 10 years
old, but dominated by mother: Catherine de’ Medici
(widow of Henry II, serves as Francis II regent) She is
described as talented, manipulative, and domineering.
She was reviled as the “shopkeeper’s daughter” since
her Florentine ancestors had been merchants, bankers,
etc. Okay in Italy to reach nobility from this economic
sector, but the French frowned upon it. The French
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AP European History
Unit 3: Religious Wars
refer to her as the “legend of the wicked Italian queen.” She
has 3 “sickly and incapable sons.”
 The history: way back in 1560, Louis, prince of Conde, a
Bourbon, conspired to capture Francis II and remove him
from the clutches of the Guise family. Guise family discover
plan… kill some Bourbon conspirators…etc.
 Calvinists seized control of Lyon back in 1562… forced
population to attend services. Where they were a majority,
they desecrated Catholic cemeteries, smashed stain-glassed
windows, shattered alter rails, mocked Catholic ceremonies,
and covered statues of saints with mud and excrement.
Catholics slaughtered Calvinists and, more than once, forced
them to wear crown of thorns to their death.
 Full Scale War begins:
• when Francis, duke of Guise, learns that some
Huguenots are worshiping on his lands
• They are executed… 3,000 die in fighting in Toulouse
• Bodies of Protestants thrown into river –
neighborhoods burned to “purify” lands
• First stage of war ends when Huguenots assassinate the
duke of Guise in 1563
• Royal edict allows Huguenots right to worship where
they are already established
Admiral Gaspard de Coligny - A Montmorency noble,
converted to Protestant,
• Guise accused him w/ assassination of duke... So, Guise
family tries, but fails, to assassinate him! – 1572
Saint Bartholomew’s Day massacre
King Charles IX’s sister, Margaret of Valois marries Henry
of Navarre, a Protestant. Occasion was to bring sides
together. Instead, Saint Bartholomew’s Day massacre results
on Aug. 24, 1572. Henry of Navarre was given the choice of
becoming a Catholic or being executed… he chose the
former. His mother was Huguenot, but father was Catholic.
Admiral Gaspard de Coligny – head of great noble family,
leader of Huguenots, was attacked by Henry of Guise, leader
of Catholic aristocracy. Coligny had been very influencial w/
Charles IX (especially after Catherine de Medici) Coligny
was murdered, battered, thrown from a window, castrated,
and “then his corpse was dragged through the dusty streets of
Paris by children.” (J. Merriman quote)
Huguenots in Paris massacred… between Aug. 25-Oct. 3,
12,000 Hugs died.
The pope held special Mass sung in celebration of this news.
This launches the War of the Three Henry’s:
--Catholic Henry of Guise – Guise family is the strongest
here… esp. in Northern and Eastern France. Guise is
assassinated just before Christmas 1588 by Henry III’s
bodyguards…
--Protestant Henry of Navarre – Huguenot Bourbon family
extended to the far southwest corner and central France
--new King Henry III… a Catholic but one who feared the
Guise plan. The Catholic Montmorency family, one of the
oldest and wealthiest in the kingdom. At his coronation, the
crown twice slipped off his head… not a good sign. He
seemed pious and hoped to bring back religious revival… but
also like to dress in women’s clothing.
Meanwhile, Charles IX dies in 1574 – he was sweating
blood...
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Son #3 Henry III (born 1551, r.1574-89) – intelligent,
cultivated… but male lovers, enjoyed dressing up as a
woman, and other distractions weaken his rule. Crown
slipped off his head twice during coronation.
Assasinated by a monk.
** meanwhile, between 40-50% of French nobility will
become Calvinist… mostly as indirect way of becoming
anti-monarchial (code for noble independence).
Upper class: issue = power, rule (religion issue was
second)
Lower social classes = religious concerns
 Henry III signs a concession w/ Protestants that
allows more toleration of their worship. This infuriates
Catholics… and they’ll unite under the “Holy League”
or Catholic League – its led by dashing Henry, duke of
Guise. Philip II of Spain is actually pumping money to
support this plan of war against Protestants.
 Guise plan: use Catholic noble alliance called “Holy
League” and defeat Protestants AND replace Henry III
with Guise.
 Politiques – people who believed only the restoration
of strong monarch would save France from collapse.
They favored recognizing Hugs as a group… coexist.
Not really completely tolerant, just co-exist.
 Mary, Queen of Scots, and a Guise, is executed by
Eliz in 1587… this infuriates Henry of Guise against
Henry III who did nothing to try to stop it.
 Catherine de Medici dies, Henry of Guise and Henry
III are both assassinated
 Henry of Navarre, a politique, becomes King…
Henry IV (r. 1589-1610) He is assassinated by
Catholic extremist (“fanatics” or devots).
He publishes the Edict of Nantes in 1598: grants
Huguenots liberty of conscience and liberty of public
worship in 150 fortified towns. Made Catholicism the
official religion, but gave 2 million Protestants (out of
18.5 mil) opportunity to worship freely.
Henry of Navarre – inherits mother’s intelligence and
father’s indecisiveness. Mother is committed
Huguenot, father Catholic. Henry, born 1553, raised by
mother – father, notoriously unfaithful to wife, sends
mother back to Navarre and raises Henry after 1563.
Henry converts to Catholicism… after his father’s
death he converts back to P. Among his friends at
court, since he was raised around Catherine de Medici
were Henry III and Henry of Guise (grew up together).
In August, 1572 he marries Margaret, Catherine’s
daughter and sister to the King (Charles IX and soon to
be Henry III). This marriage caused quite a stir and he
has to convert to Catholicism. He goes to SW France
(mostly Protestant) and endorses mutual toleration of
religion. Later, in 1593, he abjures Protestantism. He
does this because, Paris, “is worth a Mass.” In his life,
he survived 9 assassination attempts, and 23 other plots
against him. He carried two loaded pistols in his belt.
Also, his wife Marie de Medici had to deal w/ Henry’s
various infidelities and occasional bouts w/ gonorrhea.
He had produced 6 illegitimate children by three
AP European History
Unit 3: Religious Wars
mistresses, to go with the three born to the queen. His nine
offspring made up what he proudly referred to as “the herd.”
On one occasion he formally introduced one of his
mistresses to his wife and demanded that the latter repeat her
curtsy so that she could bow a bit lower, and then the three
dined together in what is referred to as a “most
uncomfortable meal.”
SPAIN, ENGLAND, and the NETHERLANDS
Philip II – son of Charles V
Philip is a complicated person to try to define…
Very well traveled: Italy, Alps, S. Germany, Rhineland,
Netherlands, France, England… more experience than any
other ruler at that time.
--believed you couldn’t impose morality on private citizens:
drop charges of homosexuality in Madrid… charges too vague
--yet, completely inflexible on religious toleration
--truly believed inquisition saved country from ruin as in the
Netherlands, etc.
--most places in Europe not ready for religious tolerance
Philip II, although strong Catholic, shared with Luther and
Calvin the belief that church and civil authorities should
destroy heresy.
Philip’s Marriages:
1. 1543 to double-first cousin: Maria of Portugal
son = Don Carlos... mom dies during childbirth
2. 1554 to cousin Mary I of England – becomes joint
sovereign of England until Mary’s death in 1558
3. 1559 to Elizabeth of Valois (daughter of Henry
II/Catherine Medici)... as result of Treaty of CateauCambresis.
two daughters... but Eliz dies in 1568
4. 1570 to neice, Anna of Austria (daughter of first cousin
Emp. Max. II)
son = Philip III... Anna dies in 1580
Holloway
he opens his own tribunal: the “Council of Blood” –
1500 are executed in 1568. Margaret resigns and
heads home.
For 10 years, civil war rages
Prince William of Orange (“The Silent”) – rallies the
people of Netherlands
Philip sends nephew, Alexander Farnese, duke of
Parma.
Alexander Farnese's strategy against the rebellious Low
Countries cities was to use patient siege
Spain will ultimately retain Belgium (the 10 southern
provinces) and they will remain Catholic. (landed
nobility = power)
The north 7 provinces declare independence under
Holland’s unity and become the Netherlands Protestant. (commercial aristocracy = power)
The United Provinces (Netherlands) will appeal to
Elizabeth in England for help.
She didn’t want to get involved right away… Philip had
been married to her half-sister, Mary I. Eliz survived
tremendous Catholic uprising in 1569. In addition, the
other Mary, Queen of Scots, legal heir to British
throne… and she was Catholic and was rallying point
of opposition to Eliz.
BUT, if Farnese (Spanish) capture northern provinces,
very likely Spain would invade England.
Turning Point
1. Due to war in Low Countries – English woolen
industry lost huge exports – hurt English revenues.
2. William the Silent murdered in July 1584…
3. Antwerp lost to the Spanish… sent shock waves to
the north.
*Eliz will send 250,000 pounds and 2,000 troops from
1585-87.
The Netherlands under Charles V
17 provinces… incredible trade… only loosely tied together
by common emperor… Lutheranism attracting many to
Protestantism… Charles V condemns but it is only mild
repression.
Charles V was born in Ghent and raised in the Netherlands.
He was Flemish in language and culture.
He abdicates throne in 1556 to brother, Ferdinand I (Austria
and HRE), and his son, Philip II (Spain and Netherlands)
His son could only speak Spanish… this will later cause him
troubles in the Netherlands
Lutheranism no real threat to Spanish rule… it was the spread
of Calvinism that really posed the threat – very militant!
Lutherans taught respect for powers that be… Calvinists
encouraged opposition to “illegal” civil authorities.
Calvinism appealed to rich merchants, middle-class, and even
the working class, since merchants would only hire
Calvinists.
Philip II’s sister, Margaret, is the regent for Netherlands…
raised taxes… and in 1566, combined with huge grain price
increase, poorest classes revolt.
Inquisition imposed to wipe out Protestantism in Netherlands.
Duke of Alva is sent up to help… and on top of Inquistition,
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Elizabeth I (and Cecil):
Elizabeth I (r. 1558-1603) – end of Tutor line
Religious settlement, blending, to form Anglican
church.
Issued Act of Supremacy,
Act of Uniformity,
Thirty-Nine articles
Catholic majority favored Mary Stuart. Elizabeth was
lenient.
Puritans opposed Episcopal system and aspects of
ceremony and vestments;
Congregationalists broke off in favor of local control
which Eliz. would not tolerate
Elizabeth feared Spain, especially after being
excommunicated;
Hawkins and Drake preyed on Sp. shipping; Sea
Beggars led revolts;
St. Bartholomew's Day;
Treaty of Nonsuch giving English aid to Netherlands
and $ to support Navarre
Mary Queen of Scots – married to Francis II who died
in 1560…
AP European History
Unit 3: Religious Wars
Mary actually ruled from time she was 9 days old…sort of…
After Francis’ death, she returns to Scotland and was opposed
by John Knox (who studied under Calvin)…
Eventually, she is involved in scandal, forced to exile (1568)
in England, a constant threat.
Spanish plot by Mendoza, then Babington Plot and Mary
executed:
Mary, Queen of Scots, executed in England in 1587 (Elizabeth
had actually never met her)
Philip II and the Spanish Armada
Pope Sixtus V promises Philip 1 million gold ducats the
moment Spanish troops land in England
May 9, 1588, la felicissima armada, the “most fortunate fleet”
sailed for Flanders to pick up Farnese and his Flemish army.
--of the 130 vessels, maybe half reached home…
--met by English fleet: faster, smaller boats, combined with
bad weather (the Protestant wind!), foul food and water gave
British the victory… Spaniards had 5 different language
speaking sailors…
Results of defeat: MIXED
--Spain rebuilds navy with faster, better ships than ever.
--gold, silver continues to pour into Spain: more silver from
1588-1603 than any other 15 year period
-- Spain lost prestige, territory
--France began to dominate on the Continent, England and
others took pieces of Spain's New World
Elizabeth is succeeded by Mary Stuart’s son – James VI of
Scotland
He becomes James I (r. 1603-1625) begins Stuart line
– Elizabeth gives the nod to him, while she was on her
deathbed and almost unable to speak.
James is an absolute monarch – didn’t like the nuisance of a
parliament
The Thirty Year’s War (1618-48)
Charles V abdicates throne in 1556 to son Philip II and his
brother Ferdinand I – sets up Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs.
Peace of Augsburg not being followed: only applies to Caths
& Luths so Calvinists ignored. Meanwhile, Jesuits militarily
active and they convert some princes… Calvinists convert
some…
2 armed camps emerge: Protestant Union (1608) and the
Catholic League (1609)
When Ferdinand of Styria tried to close some Protestant
churches in Bohemia, the result, eventually is the
defenestration of Catholic officials in Prague. This event
marks the beginning of the 30-Years War.
(nice word for throwing someone out the window)
Yet, neither man was killed by the fall.
--Catholics said it was a miracle they were not hurt.
--Protestants like to say that the only reason the men
escaped harm was because they fell on large dungheaps
in the moat below.
The Thirty Year’s War
1. The Bohemian phase (1618-25) – civil war
between Catholic League (Ferdinand) and
Protestant Union (Prince Frederick of the
Palatinate). First the Bohemians gain victory…
but eventually Ferdinand, who becomes Ferd
II, wins and converts all to Catholicism.
2. Danish phase (1625-29) – Albert of
Wallenstein led tremendous Catholic imperial
army and was victorious in much of the north,
where the Danish king, Christian IV, could
only watch. 1629 Ferd II passes the Edict of
Restitution: all Catholic properties lost since
1552 restored and only Caths and Luths
allowed to practice faiths.
3. Swedish phase (1630-35) – devout Lutheran
Swedish king, Gustavus Adolphus intervenes.
Victorious in many battles and brings together
Denmark, Poland, Finland, and smaller Baltic
states under Swedish influence. Even Cardinal
Richelieu, chief minister to King Louis XIII of
France (r. 1610-43), sends money to Swedes…
they do not want to see increased Habsburg
power. Gustavus dies from battle wound in
1632… then Swedes defeated in 1634… this
brings French into the war to stop the
Habsburgs.
4. French, or international, phase (1635-48) –
drags on… neither side had enough to finish
the other side off.
French policy during the French (international)
phase of the Thirty Years' War was motivated
by the desire to maintain the political
fragmentation of the Habsburg empire
Treaties signed in Munster and Osnabruck: Peace of
Wesphalia – marks end of war and turning point in
European political, religious, and social history. These
treaties:
recognized the independence of the United
Provinces
allowed for powerful Swedish presence in
northern Germany
enhanced prestige and power for France which
seems to have been the “winner” of the War.
In addition, it:
--recognized sovereign, independent authority of German
princes
--power divided among 300+ princes, no central power,
courts, etc. HRE destroyed.
--papacy denied right to intervene in German religious
affairs
--Augsburg agreement reinstated permanently…
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The Defenestration of Prague
On May 23, 1618 a crowd of protesters carry a petition to
Prague’s Hradcany Palace where representatives of royal
government gathered.
--stormed the council chamber
--got into heated debate with Catholic officials
--organized impromptu trial
--and hurled two officials out the window
The crowd below roared its approval of this “defenestration”
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AP European History
Unit 3: Religious Wars
although Calvinism is recognized and legal.
Yet, some of the peasantry in eastern Germany was enserfed
by the end of the Thirty Year’s War
* Recognized Swiss Confederation and Netherlands
independence
* Elevated rank of Bavarian ruler to Elector
* France and Spain at war until Treaty of Pyrenees 1659
humiliated Spain
 Confirmed sovereignty of German areas: [no
war, peace, taxes, army, etc. without
agreement of all]. Reflected drift toward
nationalism.
In the end, these wars (French troubles, and 30 Years War)
will:
- strengthen the monarchs of France, Austria, and even
smaller German states
- Kings and princes will extend admin, judicial, and
fiscal reach over subjects in the interest of
maintaining control
Exploration:
Interest builds:
1. Marco Polo (Venice) – 1254-1324, published Travels
(1298) widely read.
2. Threat in East, 1450 = Ottoman Turks = Europeans begin to
look westward because of the territorial expansion by the
Ottoman Turks
3. Spice Trade = controlled by Muslims (Indian Ocean) before
the Portuguese gained
Motives for explorations
“religion supplies the pretext and gold the motive.”
Spain = the lure of precious metals.
European explorers = material profit.
Technological Advances make it possible
Caravel – the Portuguese developed this small, light, 3-mast
sailing ship… held more cargo, could load it w/ cannons, and
it was highly maneuverable.
Astrolabe
Mounting cannons onto ships
Compass
Portuguese – they take the lead in Europe’s explorations
Prince Henry (1394-1460) – “The Navigator”
Bartholomew Diaz – 1487 rounds Cape of Good Hope
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Columbus – debate:
The central feature of Columbus's character was his deep
religious convictions.
Columbus considered native Americans to be timid,
intelligent (trainable), and generous.
Today – most people debate his role in the destruction of
indigenous American societies.
Vasco da Gama – 1497-99 makes trip to India
Spanish upper classes found their opportunities to be
severely limited – more fortunes elsewhere. Nobility
was not allowed to participate in commercial ventures.
“While Buddha came to China on white elephants,
Christ was borne on cannon balls.”
SLAVERY
The Europeans assisted in slave trade by Africans who
sold people from other African societies.
the production of sugar required HUGE labor needs in
the Americas.
The European attitude toward blacks derived from
Christian theological speculation and Arab ideas about
Africans.
SPAIN
The quinto was a Spanish tax on all precious metals
mined in its colonies.
The influx of silver from the New World into Spain
resulted in:
• economic prosperity in Spain
• increased influence of Spanish power in the early
sixteenth century
• and severe strains on Spanish governmental budgets.
Remember: they had kicked out some of the best farmers
and business operators by expelling the Muslims and
Jews. In addition, they had a huge population increase in
the rest of the population.
THE DUTCH
The Dutch East India Company represents the
commercial imperialism of the Dutch.
The city of Antwerp was the city that actually served as
the “commercial capital” of Europe. It was controlled by
the Spanish Hapsburgs and they handled almost all the
finances. By the end of the 16th century, things shift to
Amsterdam.