AP Biology
Summer Assignment 2011
Exploring Life!
As you wrap up the current school year, I’d like to begin to get you excited
about next year, more specifically, AP Biology. The AP Biology course is
designed to be the equivalent of a college introductory Biology course. AP
Biology aims to provide students with the conceptual framework, factual
knowledge, and analytical skills necessary to deal critically with the rapidly
changing science of Biology.
This summer assignment has been designed:
• to get you to think during the summer months to keep your mind sharp, because you
will need a lot out of it come August!
• to be able to cover the vast amount of information by May 2012
READING ASSIGNMENT AND GUIDED READING MINIUNIT
The field of Ecology lends itself to be ideal for independent study prior to formal classes in
August. You will be responsible for reading Chapters 51-56 (unit on Ecology & Animal
Behavior), in Campbell’s AP 8th Edition Biology over the summer (if you have an earlier
edition, you may use that, but you will have to check chapter numbers, as they are
different.) You will also be required to complete a “mini-unit” with vocabulary and reading
exercises covering the material. This will help direct your reading and help you discern the
most important points. You will have a quiz and be tested over this material the first week
of school.
The test will be on Friday, September 2, 2011.
***The completed “Miniunit” is due the first day of class, August 29, 2011!!
Many of you have inherited or bought your textbook from someone. The school has
purchased internet access to the text website for additional resources and study aids. By
using the following code, you can gain access. This code is for ANY EDITION of the
Campbell, BIOLOGY text.
1. Go to:
www.pearsonschool.com/access, and follow the simple steps for registering with this
student access code shown below.
SSNAST-STEAD-OBEYS-SIDED-ORACY-TOTES
Should you have any difficulty, please let me know.
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I will have the beginning of our schedule up on my website by the first of August. The
website is: www.drlytle.org. All assignments, handouts and important dates will be located
on this site. I will also place a copy of the “Miniunit” and summer assignment on the website
for downloading (just in case yours gets soaked at the pool).
Throughout the summer feel free to contact me with any questions or concerns. You can
email me at slytle@ursulineacademy.org. This is big assignment, so don’t procrastinate!! It
will be to your benefit to make a schedule and read a certain number of pages each day.
The Miniunit can also be time consuming so work on it throughout the summer. Although you
may be able to “fill in the blanks” over a long weekend, this will not give you time to
assimilate all the information contained in these chapters. This course is cumulative, so you
will want to remember the information far past September!
WELCOME to AP BIOLOGY!! I look forward to an exciting year with each of you. Have a
great summer and remember…
the light of evolution.”
“Nothing in biology makes sense except in
-- Theodosius Dobzhansky
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Name______________________
AP BIOLOGY 2011-2012
Summer Assignment 2011
Due August 29, 2011
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Mini-Unit INSTRUCTIONS:
For many of the units we will be studying this year, I have prepared a “Mini-unit”. These will
consist of vocabulary, and some guided reading to complete. The purpose is to help you
solidify concepts and be able to discern the more important concepts in the chapters. You
will not get nightly homework, as you do in math or other sciences, instead you are expected
to keep up with the readings and to work on the mini-unit. Typically, the mini-unit is due the
day of the test, but for the summer assignment, I will review it and return it to you prior to
our first test. The first test over this material will be the week of Sept. 14.
The chapters listed are the ones in the 8th AP edition of Campbell, Biology. If you have
an older edition, the material should be the same as the 8th edition, it is just organized a bit
different. If you have questions, please feel free to email me at
slytle@ursulineacademy.org or drlytle@cinci.rr.com.
Grading for the miniunits:
™ Miniunit is worth 80 (assignment) points
o Vocabulary is worth 0.5 points/definition.
ƒ Maximum 20 points (so you are only required to define 40 words),
but you are responsible for knowing the meaning of all of the words.
o “Exercises” are worth a total of 60 points. The points will be divided up
evenly among the questions.
™ I do have some objectives on the Miniunit. You are NOT required to write these out
and NO extra credit is given for them. The purpose is to help you focus your energies
and studies.
Ecology Objectives
Chapter 51 – Animal Behavior
1. Explain the difference between innate and learned behaviors
2. Describe the evolutionary basis for behavioral ecology
3. Explain the difference between ultimate and proximate causations of behavior
4. Describe a fixed-action pattern and a sign stimulus
5. Explain the nature versus nurture controversy
6. Explain the effect of maturation on behavioral improvement
7. Define habituation
8. Discuss imprinting, imprinting stimulus, and critical period
9. Define associative learning
10. Distinguish among classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning
11. Describe 2 hypotheses for the evolution of play behavior
12. Discuss the ultimate bases of learning
13. Describe and define kinesis, taxis, and migration
14. Explain the differences among piloting, orientation, and navigation
15. Compare generalist and specialist foraging strategies
16. Explain how a search image is adaptive
17. Describe optimal foraging strategies in terms of energetics and prey densities
18. Describe agonistic behavior
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19. Explain what is meant by a ritual behavior and describe the evolutionary advantage of
ritual behavior
20. Describe a dominance hierarchy and explain the advantages to individuals in the
hierarchy
21. Explain how dominance hierarchies and territories may stabilize population densities
22. Describe the advantages of courtship
23. Explain how ritualized courtships may have evolved
24. Define parental investment
25. Discuss the intimate bases for mate selection
26. Compare and contrast the 3 main mating systems
27. Describe the differences between polygyny and polyandry
28. Discuss how the needs of the young influence the development of mating systems
29. Describe how the certainty of paternity influences the development of mating systems
30. Describe the various modes of communication
31. Relate an animal's mode of communication to its lifestyle
32. Discuss why altruistic behavior might evolve
33. Define inclusive fitness and kin selection
34. Define reciprocal altruism
35. Define cognitive ethology
36. Describe the premise of sociobiology
Chapter 52 – An Introduction to Ecology and the Biosphere
1. Explain why the field of ecology is a multidisciplinary science
2. Distinguish among organismal ecology, population ecology, community ecology, ecosystem
ecology, landscape ecology and global ecology
3. Describe the relationship between ecology and evolution
4. Explain the importance of temperature, water, light, soil, and wind to living organisms
5. Explain the principle of allocation
6. Describe how environmental changes may produce behavioral, physiological,
morphological, or adaptive responses in organisms
7. Explain the concept of environmental grain and under what situation(s) a single
environment may be both coarse-grained and fine-grained
8. Describe the characteristics of the major biomes
a. Tropical forest
b. Savanna
c. Desert
d. Chaparral
e. Temperate grassland
f. Temperate forest
g. Taiga
h. Tundra
9. Compare and contrast the types of freshwater communities
10. Be able to diagram the various zones found in the marine environment
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Chapter 53 – Population Ecology
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Define the scope of population ecology
Distinguish between population and density
Explain how ecologists measure species density
Describe conditions which may result in clumped dispersion, random dispersion, and
uniform dispersion of populations
Explain how age structure, generation time, and sex structure of populations can affect
population growth
Describe the characteristics of populations which exhibit Type I, Type II, and Type III
survivorship curves
Explain how carrying capacity of the environment affects the intrinsic rate of increase
of a population
Explain how density dependent factors affect population growth
Describe how weather and climate can function as density-independent factors in
controlling population growth
Explain how density-dependent and density-independent factors may work together to
control a population's growth
List the 3 major characteristics of a life history and explain how each affects the
a. number of offspring produced by an individual
b. population's growth
Explain how predation can affect life history through natural selection
Distinguish between r-selected and K-selected populations
Explain how a stressful environment may alter the standard r-selection and K-selection
characteristics
Chapter 54 – Community Ecology
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Compare and contrast the individualistic hypothesis of H. A. Gleason and the interactive
hypothesis of F. E. Clements with respect to communities
Explain the relationship among species richness, relative abundance, and diversity
List 4 properties of a community and explain the importance of each
Explain how interspecific competition may affect community structure
Describe the competitive exclusion principle and explain how competitive exclusion may
affect community structure
Distinguish between an organism's fundamental niche and realized niche
Explain how resource partitioning can affect species diversity
Describe the defense mechanisms evolved by plants to reduce predation by herbivores
Explain how cryptic coloration and aposematic coloration aid an animal in avoiding
predators
Distinguish between Batesian mimicry and Mullerian mimicry
Describe how predators use mimicry to obtain prey
Explain the role of predators in community structure
Distinguish among parasitism, mutualism, and commensalism
Explain why it is difficult to determine what factor is most important in structuring a
community
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15. Distinguish between primary succession and secondary succession
16. Explain how inhibition and facilitation may be involved in succession
17. Describe how natural and human disturbances can affect equilibrium and species
diversity
18. List the factors involved in limiting a species to a particular range
19. Describe the mechanisms which contribute to the global clines in diversity
20. Explain the factors which determine what species eventually inhabit islands
Chapter 55 - Ecosystems
1. Explain the importance of autotrophic organisms with respect to energy flow and
nutrient cycling in ecosystems
2. List and describe the importance of the 4 consumer levels found in ecosystems
3. Explain how gross primary productivity is allocated by the plants in an ecosystem
4. Explain why productivity declines at each trophic level
5. List factors that can limit ecosystem productivity
6. Distinguish between energy pyramids and biomass pyramids
7. Describe the hydrologic (water) cycle
8. Describe the carbon cycle and explain how it results from the reciprocal processes of
photosynthesis and cellular respiration
9. Describe the nitrogen cycle and explain the importance of nitrogen fixation to living
organisms
10. Explain how phosphorus is recycled locally inmost ecosystems
11. Explain why the soil in tropical forests contains lower levels of nutrients than soil in
temperate forests
12. Describe how agricultural practices can interfere with nitrogen cycling
13. Describe how deforestation can affect nutrient cycling within an ecosystem
14. Describe how the carbon cycle differs in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems
15. Explain how "cultural eutrophication" can alter freshwater ecosystems
16. Explain why toxic compounds usually have the greatest effect on top-level carnivores
17. Describe how increased atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide could affect the
earth
18. Describe how human interference might alter the biosphere
Chapter 56 – Conservation Biology and Restoration Ecology
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
List the major threats to biodiversity and give an example of each
Describe the importance of biodiversity
Describe the 3 basic concepts upon which the field of biodiversity is based
Describe the goal of conservation biology
Describe ho biodiversity is distributed
Define the term : "biodiversity hot spot"
Describe the problems presented to conservation by migratory species
Describe how the biodiversity crisis extends throughout the hierarchy of biological
organization
9. Describe how habitat fragmentation affects population dynamics
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10. Define "source habitat" and "sink habitat" and how these concepts relate to
conservation habitats
11. Describe how population viability analysis and estimates of minimum viability size and
effective population size are used to evaluate the chances of a species persisting or
becoming extinct
12. Give examples of how predictive models are being used in conservation efforts
13. Describe the conflicting demands that arise in conservation management plans
14. Describe how edges and corridors influence landscape biodiversity
15. Discuss why nature reserves are important to preserving biodiversity and why
conservation efforts will involve working in landscapes dominated by humans
16. Describe why restoring degraded areas is an important part of conservation biology and
how bioremediation and augmentation play a role in restoration efforts
17. Describe how sustainable development goals are reorienting ecological research and will
require changes in some human values
VOCABULARY
abiotic
abyssal zone
acclimation
Ammonification
aphotic zone
aposematic coloration
benthos
biodiversity hot spot
biome
biosphere
biosphere
biotic
climate
clumped
coevolution
cognitive ethology
cognitive maps
community
demography
Denitrification
density
detritus
dispersion
ecology
ecosystem
ectoparasite
endoparasite
estuary
ethology
Evapo-transpiration
fecundity
foraging
habituation
habituation
herbivory
imprinting
imprinting
intraspecific competition
iteroparity
kinesis
littoral zone
logistic population growth
mark-recapture method
migration
movement corridor
neritic zone
Nitrogen fixation
oceanic zone
opportunistic populations
permafrost
polyandry
polygyny
population
predation
promiscuous
recruitment
ritual
semelparity
sign stimulus
sociobiology
species richness
symbiosis
taxis
thermocline
Transpiration
tropics
zero population growth
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EXERCISES- You must complete ALL portions of this section.
Adapted from K. Foglia and D. Knuffke
CHAPTER 51: BEHAVIORAL BIOLOGY
1. How do genes affect the behavior of an individual animal?____________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
2. Compare and contrast instincts and reflexes. ____________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3. What is a fixed action pattern? Give an example.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
4. Describe and give an example of each of the following behaviors. Explain why it is an example:
a.
Imprinting __________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
b. Habituation _________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
c.
Agonistic behavior ___________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
d. Dominance Hierarchy __________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
e.
Altruistic Behavior____________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
5. Associate Learning includes classical and operant conditioning. How can you distinguish between
classical and operant (trial and error) conditioning?
___________________________________________________________________________
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a.
What are some examples of operant and classical conditioning that might occur in
nature?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
6. How do ethologists distinguish between proximate and ultimate causation of behavior. Give an example
of two of the ways of explaining an animal’s behavior.
____________________________________________________________________________
a. proximate causation_____________________________________________________
b. ultimate causation_______________________________________________________
7. List an advantage and a disadvantage of defending a territory._________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
8. What are the benefits of pheromones or other chemical communications in animals and insects?
_________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
9. What are circadian rhythms and how are they of adaptive value?________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
10. Explain the evolutionary adaptation of kin selection. _________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
11. Nazca boobies (Sula granti) lay 2 eggs several days apart. No matter how much food is available,
only one survives to adulthood. The first chick to hatch pushes its younger sibling from the nest,
and the younger one then dies of starvation and neglect. Formulate a hypothesis on how it might be
adaptive for parents of this species to lay 2 eggs if one hatching tends to kill the other. Design an
experiment to test your hypothesis. (See Design diagram at the end of this miniunit – page19.)
CHAPTER 51: ECOLOGY & THE BIOSPHERE
1. List several examples of factors that limit geographic distribution.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
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2. How does dispersal influence distribution?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. What are the most important factors influencing terrestrial distribution?__________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
4. What is the largest biome on earth? ______________________________________________
5. Identify factors that are significant to organism distribution and abundance in a lake.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
6. What is the difference between a lake that is oligotrophic and one that is eutrophic?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
7. Fill in the following chart – list Abiotic and biotic characteristics:
Terrestrial Biome
Abiotic Characteristics
Biotic Characteristics
Tropical Rain Forest
Savanna Desert
Temperate Grassland
Temperate Deciduous
Forest
Coniferous Forest (Taiga)
Arctic Tundra
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8. Fill in the chart with characteristics of each of the following Marine Biomes:
Aquatic Biome
Abiotic Characteristics
Biotic Characteristics
Lakes
Wetlands
Streams and Rivers
Intertidal zone
Ocean Pelagic Zone
Coral Reefs
Marine Benthic Zone
CHAPTER 53: POPULATION ECOLOGY
1. What is a common manner in which ecologists estimate the number of individuals in a population?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. What are some possible difficulties in counting populations?____________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. Describe three patterns of dispersal.
a._____________________________________________________________
b. _____________________________________________________________
c. _____________________________________________________________
4. What pattern is the most common? Why?_________________________________________
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5. Draw a graph showing the survival strategies of species and give an example of each type.
6. Although you need calculus to solve this equation, write the formula for population growth without
limits. Explain what each variable means.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
a. Describe the type of curve on a graph would be generated displaying this type of growth.
___________________________________________________________________________
7. Define carrying capacity. ______________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
8. Now, write the formula for population growth with limits. Explain what each variable means.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
a. Describe the type of curve on a graph would be generated displaying this type of growth.
___________________________________________________________________________
9. What happens to a population when the number of individuals in the population approaches
carrying capacity?_____________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
10. Compare & contrast K-selected to r-selected species. Give examples of each.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
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___________________________________________________________________________
11. Identify factors that regulate population size. _____________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
12. Compare density-independent and density-dependent factors limiting populations.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
13. Look at the growth curve of the human population. How does it compare to the growth
curve on the right. What are the differences and why?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
14. Have humans reached K? What factors are significant when explaining our growth curve?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
15. Look at the age structure diagrams (next page) of different countries. How might the age
structure influence government policy?____________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
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16. Explain why Kenya, U.S., and Italy display different growth patterns. In other words, how do
you know Kenya is rapid, U.S. is slow, and Italy is zero growth?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
CHAPTER 54: COMMUNITY ECOLOGY
1. How is co-evolution significant in community ecology?_________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. Fill in the chart of interspecific interactions, using symbols “+” and “-“ to indicate affects on
survival and reproduction between the 2 species.
Interaction
Effects on Population
Example
Density
Competition
Predation(includes
parasitism)
Mutualism
Commensalism
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3. What is the competitive exclusion principle?________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
4. Describe Gausse’s experiment with Paramecia._______________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
5. Define ecological niche and give an example.________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
6. Define and give an example of resource partitioning.__________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
7. Describe several defense mechanisms to predation in plants.____________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
8. The following animal defenses are often confused. Define each, and give a “memorable” example
of each.
a. Cryptic coloration __________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
b. Aposematic coloration _______________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
c. Batesian mimicry ____________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
d. Mullerian mimicry ___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
9. What is meant by the “trophic structure” of a community?____________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
10. What does a food web show that isn’t indicated by a food chain? _______________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
11. Using the energetic hypothesis as a basis, explain why most food chains are limited in length,
where as, food webs are not?_____________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
12. Define a keystone species and why are they so important to a community? Why are they not
necessarily the most abundant species in a community?
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___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
13. Define ecological succession. Distinguish between primary and secondary succession.
_________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Chapter 55: Ecosystems
1. How does the definition of ecosystems expand on the concept of the community?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. What is needed to maintain a self-sustaining ecosystem?
__________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. Define the following energy budget terms:
a. Primary productivity _________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
b. Gross primary productivity ___________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
c. Net primary productivity _____________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
4. Which ecosystems have the highest productivity per unit area?
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
5. What factors do you think contribute to such high productivity?
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
6. Why is the open ocean so low in productivity?_______________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
7. What is secondary productivity? ________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
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___________________________________________________________________________
8. What happens to the size each level in the idealized pyramid as energy is transferred through the
trophic levels?_______________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
9. Explain what happens to the energy and biomass as it is passed through the trophic levels?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
10. Why is it essential that elements move through biogeochemical cycles in the ecosystem?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
11. What are the major processes that move carbon through the ecosystem?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
12. What is the impact of combustion on the carbon cycle?
___________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
13. Give 3 reasons why the Nitrogen cycle is so important to life on earth. __________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
14. Why is human population growth at the root of environmental issues?
___________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
15. Define eutrophication. Why is it a problem?_______________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
16. Why is acid rain a problem? ___________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
17. Explain biological magnification.________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
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18. What would be some of the properties of molecules that could be candidates for biological
magnification?________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
19. What is the greenhouse effect?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
20. Explain the relationship between greenhouse gases and global warming.
_________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
21. What is the cause for the depletion of the ozone layer? Why is it a problem? Did this cause
global warming?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
22. Look around you and name at least 5 objects, natural or manufactured, that might be
contributing to the amplification of the greenhouse effect.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
23. List several additional disruptive impacts humans have had on the environment.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
24. REVIEW: Water, Nitrogen and Carbon cycles. We will be discussing them in class. You are
RESPONSIBLE FOR KNOWING THESE CYCLES.
Chapter 56: Conservation Biology and Restoration Ecology
1. State at least 2 reasons why we currently face a “biodiversity crisis” on Earth.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. Define the three levels of biodiversity.____________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
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__________________________________________________________________________
3. Provide at least three benefits of maintaining a high level of biodiversity in the biosphere.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
4. Explain how the following human-caused problems threaten biodiversity:
a. Habitat destruction__________________________________________________________
b. Introduced species___________________________________________________________
c. Overexploitation_____________________________________________________________
d. Disruption of interaction networks_______________________________________________
5. Diagram and explain the extinction vortex.
6. Compare and contrast the “minimum viable population size” with the “effective population size.”
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
7. Pick one of the case studies presented in the first part of the chapter:
-greater prairie chickens, red-cockaded woodpeckers or grizzly bears.
Explain why the population was threatened and how conservation efforts were aimed towards
helping the struggling population.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
8. Why is conservation always a compromise between the organism involved and
human needs?________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
9. How do fragmentation and edges effect habitats?____________________________________
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___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
10. Explain the concepts of “Bioremediation” and “Biological Augmentation.”___________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
11. What are the goals of sustainable development?____________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN DIAGRAM (Chapter 50, #11)
Hypothesis: If_______________________________________________________________
then _______________________________________________________________________
Independent Variable (only 1):___________________________________________________
Dependent Variable:___________________________________________________________
How will you measure the dependent variable?_______________________________________
Constants(things you will keep the same between groups):______________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Brief synopsis of procedure:_____________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
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