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The Gracchi and the Roman
Revolution
Beginning with the Gracchi, the Political
Turmoil of the Late Republic led to the
death of aristocratic government
What Was the Roman Revolution?
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Alföldi, Social and Economic History of Rome, on the social
and political crisis of the Roman republic and society.
Alföldi’s fourfold revolution:
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“The Roman Revolution was an exercise of popular
sovereignty that led Rome not from oligarchy to democracy
but to repeated dictatorships.” (Hall)
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Slave wars (ended in 71 B.C. with Spartacus)
Italian discontent (ended with Social War, 89 B.C.)
Provincial resistance (ended with Sulla’s defeat of Mithridates
and suppression of Greek revolt in 85 B.C.)
Political Interest groups at Rome (the continuing revolution)
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Results of Imperialism
Crises of the Late Republic (Flor. Ep. 1.47.1-13 = packet, 13-14)
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Economic: flood of wealth from the empire into Italy
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Social
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Rich become richer, poor become poorer
Establishment of latifundia and slave-based commercial
agriculture
Ruin of the small farmer
Increase of the urban proletariat
Decrease in the citizen soldier
Repeated threats of slave revolts
Political
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Division of wealthy into the politically empowered and the
relatively disenfranchised
Rise of demagogic politics and political violence
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Alföldi’s Political Tensions
Fourfold political struggle
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Within the senatorial aristocracy
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Between senatorial class and the new equestrian order
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Equestrians: non-political wealthy, elites that did not pursue
public careers and did not sit in the senate
Between the upper classes and the proletariat
Between the rich estate owners and the poor peasants and
landless poor
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Between noble factions and their clients
Senators pursued different political methodologies (e.g., working
through the people or through the Senate), not necessarily
different programs
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Sources for the early revolution
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Appian, Civil Wars
Plutarch
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Would that we had Livy!
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Lives of Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus
Periochae are tantalizing
Much of his discussion of Struggle of the Orders actually
reflects issues of the Late Revolution
Florus, Epitome of Roman History
(or “Abridgment of All the
Wars over 1200 Years”)
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2nd century A.D., drawn largely from Livy
See packet, 13-14
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The Gracchi
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Tiberius and Gaius, two sons of Ti. Sempronius
Gracchus, hero of the Spanish wars
Part of the senatorial aristocracy
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The Gracchi were pivotal figures in Roman political history
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Senatorial opposition to their reforms was more political
than economic
Introduced both demagoguery and violence (on both sides) to
Roman politics
The “Roman Revolution” begins with Tiberius’ tribunate and
murder
Coopted by modern political “reformists”
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the elder Gracchus had ennobled the family through his
consulship and then gained more auctoritas through his
career
Be careful of modern interpretations of their motivations
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What drove Tiberius’ reforms?
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Greek political philosophy
Sagging military recruitments
Prevalence of latifundia
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Sicilian slave rising
Senatorial abuses
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Example of Etruscan estates (see Plut. Vit. Ti. Gracch. 8.7–
9, 14.1–2 = LR I no. 97)
Extortionate governors
double dealing with Spanish settlements, etc.
Power politics . . .
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Reality of Factional Politics
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Collapse of the Gracchan and Scipionic alliance after Numantia
(see Table 2 [packet, 39])
‰ The elder Gracchus had married a Cornelia, daughter of
Africanus the elder
‰ Adoption of Scipio Aemilianus (the younger Africanus) took the
Cornelii into the family faction of L. Aemilius Paullus
Macedonicus
‰ New alliance of Aemilii, Fabii, and Cornelii cut Tiberius and
Gaius out of the picture!
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Building a New Faction
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Marriages of Tiberius and Gracchus brought them into a
potentially powerful new grouping
‰ included P. Mucius Scaevola, P. Licinius Crassus, and
Ap. Claudius Pulcher
‰ Not enough initially to overcome senatorial
opposition
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Cursus Honorum and the tribunate
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180 B.C., lex Villia annalis regulated the cursus and one’s
political career
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Position of the tribune of the plebs had been
incorporated into the senatorial hierarchy
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Served interest of senatorial nobility
Functioned as a stepping-stone for plebeian nobiles
Tiberius and his faction decide to do something new with
the tribunate . . .
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Set ages for positions: quaestor 25 (followed by tribunate if
plebeian), aedile 36, praetor 39, consul 42
No continuous office holding—no iteration (traditionally ten years
between consulships if repeated)
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Goals of Tiberius Gracchus
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Gain revenge on political enemies (not necessarily the
entire senate!)
Restore family’s reputation and position
‰ His own name had been blackened by the senate’s
refutation of his Numantine Treaty
Gain political preeminence
‰ Challenging political program a tool to this end
‰ Build a large clientele for future support
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Tiberius’ lex agraria
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Question of ager publicus
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Defeated Italian enemies routinely surrendered portion of
territory to Roman state
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Leased out to wealthy Romans, who treated it as personal
property
Land package moderate (see Appian, BC 1.1.8 = Mellor2,
69–70)
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Limit of 500 iugera per family
Additionnal 250 iugera per son
Recovered ager publicus to be distributed to landless poor
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vast amounts confiscated after defeat of rebellious allies in II
Punic War
Reduce dependence upon slave labor
Restore citizen farmer class, increase military recruitment
Produce a new clientele for Tiberius!
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Land Commission
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Tiberius’ plebiscitum established a three man board for
division of land
‰ Tiberius Gracchus, father-in-law Ap. Claudius Pulcher,
Gaius Gracchus
Senate refused to fund commission
Usurpation of Pergamum bequest infringed upon
senatorial monopoly of foreign affairs (see Appian, BC
1.1.9-1.2.16 = packet, 15)
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