Biology Final Review Study Guide
Chapter 6: Photosynthesis
I.
Photosynthesis Equation a.
6 2 62 6 12 6 62
II.
Light Energy and Pigments a.
Sunlight is a form of energy- Radiation(Travels in waves) b.
Wavelength- Distance between crest of 1 wave and the next crest of next wave. c.
Reflection is called “White Light” d.
Colors appear longest to shortest ROYGBIV e.
Shorter the wavelength more energy carried by photon f.
Pigments absorb light, but when you see a color you are actually seeing every color but that color.
III.
Chloroplasts a.
Photosynthetic Pigments b.
In 2 plants: Chlorophyll A and Chlorophyll B—both absorb red and blue light and reflect green. Chlorophyll is green so it can’t absorb it. c.
Chlorophyll A i.
Primary pigment- Converts light energy to chemical energy. d.
Chlorophyll B i.
Absorbs light and transfers energy to Chlorophyll A
IV.
Light Reactions (Reactants and Products) a.
Reactants: Water, NAPD+ b.
Products: NADPH, Oxygen, ATP
V.
Calvin Cycle a.
Reactants: Take place in the Stroma. b.
Begins and ends with a 5 Carbon compound sugar(RuBP) c.
RuBP
ATPDH CO
2
ATP
Ends with the result of G3P( 1 time around ½ glucose molecules, 2x around is 1 sugar molecule) d.
RuBP reacts with CO
2 and forms a 3 phosphoglycerate (3- PGA) e.
Energy from NAPDH and ATP convert 3- PGA to G3P. f.
Remaining G3P is converted back to RuBp
VI.
Factors that affect Photosynthesis

a.
Light Intensity, Temperature, Co
2 levels, availability of water, other nutrients. b.
Photosynthesis occurs best at Optimum Temperature c.
Basic water/nutrient requirements meet
VII.
Leaf Structure a.
b.
Cuticle- keeps the leaf tissues from drying out and protects them from insects and disease.
c.
Epidermis- the “skin” or outer protective layer of cells on a leaf.
d.
Hypodermis- It protects against water loss e.
Palisade Carries out photosynthesis f.
Vacuole Stores compounds g.
Vain Made of xylem and Phylum h.
Guard Cell Open/ closes stomates i.
Gas Exchange i.
Plants have to carry Carbon Dioxide
(From: Harvard Forest)
Chapter 7: Cellular Respiration
I.
II.
Oxidation- Reduction Reactions a.
** Remember OIL-RIG** i.
Oxidation is lost, Reduction is gained(electrons)
Anaerobic Respiration a.
Does not need oxygen b.
Autotrophs- organisms produce essential nutrients from simple substances found in the environment. c.
Heterotrophs- Organisms that can’t produce all essential nutrients. They must eat other organisms. d.
Breakdown of Glucose into pyruvic acid.

e.
Chart:
Glycolysis
Aerobic Anaerobic
ATP ATP
Conversion of pyruvic acid to
Acetyl Co
A
Fermentation
Kreb’s Cycle Alcohol+ CO
2
Lactic Acid+CO
2
Electrons go onto ETC 2 ATP
(Chemiosmosis makes
ATP proton comes
Through ATP sythase)
34 ATP
Chapter 8: Mitosis and Asexual Reproduction
I.
Cell Cycle a.
Interphase i.
G 1 phase cells grow rapidly ii.
S Phase replication occurs(DNA) iii.
G 2 phase more growth b.
Mitosis i.
Interphase ** I P assed M y A lgebra T est** ii.
Before Prophase iii.
Prophase iv.
Chromatids connect to the centromere; centrioles migrate to pole of cell. v.
Microtubules form spindle fibers(resemble a football) vi.
Metaphase vii.
Chromosomes line up at the equator viii.
Sister Chromatids split

ix.
Anaphase x.
Move to opposite poles xi.
Telophase xii.
Nuclear membrane being to form, nucleoli reappear. c.
Cytokinesis i.
Division in the cytoplasm d.
Differences between Plant and Animal Cell Division i.
Process in which cell duplicates is Mitosis e.
Asexual Reproduction- Binary Fission i.
Binary Fission is when bacteria cells can reproduce.
Chapter 8: Meiosis and Sexual Reproduction
I.
Haploid and Diploid a.
Haploid- 1 Copy of every chromosome. Ex: Egg/Sperm b.
Diploid- 2 Copies of every chromosome. Ex: Any body cell.
II.
Homologous Chromosomes, Chromatin, Sister Chromatids a.
Carbon copies of each other chromosome
III.
Meiosis 1 and Meiosis 2 a.
1 round of replication( reduction division) b.
Original cell produces 4 haploid daughter cells.
IV.
Gametogenesis: Spermatogenesis, Oogenesis a.
Spermatogenesis- Sperm develop from spermatgonia mitotically divide to produce more spermatogonia. 1 cell divides to make 4 haploid cells which are all sperm. b.
Oogenesis- production of eggs in ovary. Diploid may divide many times. Develops into a mature egg while the left over cells die.
Unequal division resulting in only the egg. Remaining 3 cells are polar bodies.
Chapter 9: Genetics
I.
II.
Dominant and Recessive Traits a.
Dominant- Expressed by a capital letter and dominates the other trait, and expressed in the F 1 generation b.
Recessive- Expressed by a lowercase letter and it is an allele that does not produce a characteristic effect when present with a dominant allele.2 copies of same trait can come back in other generation.
Laws of Genetics a.
Law of Dominance

i.
States that when an organism is hybrid for a pair of contrasting traits, only the dominant trait can be seen in the hybrid. ii.
Hybrid- offspring of parents that differ in genetically determined traits. (From: Encyclopedia Britannica) b.
The Law of Segregation i.
States that a pair of factors separated during the formation of gametes. ii.
Only the dominant trait is expressed and could reappear. c.
Law of Independent Assortment i.
States that alleles for individual characteristics are distributed to gametes independently. ii.
Observed only for genes that are located on separate chromosomes or far apart on the same chromosome. d.
Law of Probability i.
States that if there are several possible events that might occur and none is more likely to occur than any other they will all happen in equal numbers over large trials. ii.
Larger number of trials the more likely the ratio of observed results comes from expected results.
III.
Genotype and Phenotype a.
Genotype- Genetic make-up of an organism, describe what alleles are present, not an organisms appearance b.
Phenotype- Physical expression of traits in an organism
IV.
Autosomes and Sex Chromosomes a.
In a human, 22 Autosomes pairs and 2 are sex chromosomes or 1 pair b.
Females have 2 X chromosomes( XX ) c.
Males have an X and a Y( XY )
VIII.
Multiple Gene Inheritance a.
Multiple Genes- more than 2 alleles in the gene pool( code for the same thing)
IX.
Punnett Squares a.
Monohybrid and Dihybrid Crosses i.
Monohybrid- Punnett Square is more useful in complicated crosses, example: Bb x Bb

ii.
Dihybrid- Cross more than 1 trait at a time. 16 square Punnett square. Example: RrTt x RrTt b.
Test Cross i.
Determine the genotype of an individual whose phenotype expresses the dominant trait. ii.
Example: Purple Flowered Pea Plant is it PP or Pp iii.
Cross it with pp which is a white flowered plant. If it is homozygous(same letter either upper or lowercase) then all of the offspring will be purple(Pp) iv.
If it is heterozygous( capital and lowercase letter) ½ the offspring will be purple(Pp) and ½ will be white (pp) c.
Incomplete Dominance i.
Used with 2 different capital letters. Example: BW x BW ii.
1:2:1 ratio of 1 Blue, 2 Light blue and 1 White d.
Codominance i.
2 dominant alleles are expressed at the same time ii.
Uses a superscript with same base letter, different super script letters. Example: F W x F B e.
Multiple Alleles i.
Human Blood Types- A, B, AB, or O ii.
Represented by a superscript. Example I A is type A and it is paired with another allele. A B is type B and ii is O. f.
Sex Linked Traits (X- Linked)

i.
Red Eyed is Dominant and white eyed is recessive so cross red male and female form F 1 Generation= produces ¾ red eyed and ¼ white eyed
Chapter 10: Protein Synthesis
I.
II.
Discovery of Structure of DNA a.
Watson and Crick identified DNA in 1953
DNA a.
Structure and Function i.
Arranged in a ladder-like Double Helix, with nitrogenous basses making the rungs of the ladder. ii.
Nitrogenous Bases: Adenine(A), Guanine(G), Cytocine(C) and
Thymine(T). iii.
** A pairs with T and C pairs with G** in DNA only b.
Replication i.
DNA is copied in a cell before it divides. Divides in the S phase of
Interphase ii.
Steps
1.
Complimentary Bases pair up( AT, CG)
2.
Break after replication and strands separate
3.
Free Nucleotides attach to complimentary bases
4.
Made a Semi-Conservative replication c.
Code i.
20 amino acids and all code for something different. ii.
III.
RNA a.
Structure and Function i.
Acts as the link between the DNA in the nucleus and the protein products of the ribosome’s ii.
Differences:
1.
Ribose is in place of deoxyribose
2.
Uracil replaces Thymine ( now A pairs with U and C pairs with
G)
3.
RNA is single stranded and DNA is double stranded b.
3 types of RNA

i.
mRNA- Messenger RNA.DNA is copied into RNA strand, bases pair up and RNA production stops when it gets to the stop code. RNA separates from DNA. Complimentary copy of DNA. ii.
tRNA- Transfer RNA. Codon pairs up with its anti codon. Acts as the carrier for an amino acid to place specified by mRNA. Picks up amino acids and brings them to the ribosome. iii.
rRNA- Ribosomal RNA. Makes Ribosome’s c.
Codons and Anti-Codons i.
Codon- 3 bases that code for a specific amino acid ATG ii.
Anti- Codon- Pairs with the codon. UAC
IV.
Transcription a.
Same is mRNA. Process of making mRNA from DNA
V.
Translation a.
The process of making proteins based upon the genetic code in RNA
Chapter 15: Evolution (only section1)
I.
Lamarack’s Theory of Evolution a.
Law of Use and Disuse i.
Animals develop certain body parts with increased use. Muscles that are used less frequently are weaker. b.
Law of Acquired Characteristics i.
Characteristics were passed on through generations. Example:
Giraffes. Once had shorter Necks. ** Modern Genetics DOES NOT support the principles.**
II.
Darwin’s Theory of Evolution a.
Six Main Principals i.
Overproduction ii.
Competition iii.
Variation iv.
Adaptations v.
Natural Selection vi.
Speciamtion b.
Survival of the Fittest i.
Describes Natural Selection. Fitness means a measure of an individual’s hereditary contribution to the next generation. c.
Darwin wrote the book “The Origin of Species”