Biological Psychology
In writing this resource I have focused on two questions:
What do you need to know?
How will your knowledge be assessed?
What do you need to know?
The simple answer to this is whatever is in these booklets. I have tried to reduce the
amount you need to know, without skimping on depth or breadth. Sometimes, it has been
hard to make choices – there are so many interesting points to make. I have added a You
might like to know section at the bottom of the page. Have a look at it – you could add it
to the main answer (perhaps by deleting another point I have made), or just store it in
your memory as a little back-up knowledge.
How will your knowledge be assessed?
One of the important skills for exam success is the ability to anticipate questions. It can be
difficult under exam conditions to work out what questions mean, and many marks are
lost when students misunderstand or misread the question. A crucial aim of this resource
is to provide you with a list of questions and appropriate answers that are most likely to
come up. However, these are not exhaustive – that wouldn’t be possible.
What kind of questions?
The same topic (e.g. illness and the immune system) could be assessed as a 2, 4, 6, 8,
10 or 12 mark question. The marks indicate how much you should write. In the exam, you
should be guided by the space provided. Examiner reports make the point that it is quite
possible to gain full marks in the space provided.
Long questions
The exam will include at least one 12 mark question, and may also include an 8 or 10
mark question. These questions are marked for both A01 (50%) and A02 (50%) content.
Preparing these answers in advance makes a lot of sense. You will develop the skill of
balancing A01 and A02 content – and writing concise answers. The essays provided here
are generally about 350 words. Students vary in how much they can write in 18-20
minutes – the range is usually 200-350 words. Don’t be discouraged if you can only
manage 200 words, you can improve during revision. And sometimes less is better. When
you revise you can reduce the length of the answers, either by deleting or compressing. It
is crucial however that you balance your A01 and A02 content. In the exam, use your time
wisely and don’t spend too much time on AO1 – always allow time for evaluation.
The essays are intended to be suggested ways of answering a question. However there
is rarely “the answer” to a question, only “an answer.” If you come across a study,
strength or weakness in a textbook that you think is relevant or interesting then feel free
to change the essay.
Short questions
The majority of the short questions are incorporated within the 12 mark essays. Once
you learn a 12 mark answer you will usually have answers for 3 or 4 short questions.
There is generally more detail given here than you will need for 2, 3 or 4 marks. Reducing
the answers during your revision will help your learning.
1
Biological Psychology
Research studies
You may be required to outline or describe a research study. These questions may:
• Ask for an overview of studies. “What have studies shown us about workplace
stress?” For this question you would give findings and conclusions of two or three
studies, but don’t include procedures.
• Ask you to outline one study on a specific topic: “Outline one study into Type A
behaviour.” For this question you would describe procedures and findings of one
study.
• Ask one way a topic has been investigated: “Describe how one study investigated
the impact of life events.” For this question you would only describe the procedure
(but in enough detail for 4 marks).
Research methods
The Unit 2 exam will include questions that ask you to demonstrate your knowledge and
understanding of research methods – 4 marks in each section (12 marks in all - out of 72
total marks for the Unit 2 exam). In order to prepare yourself for these questions, you
should revise the Research Methods section of the Unit 1 exam.
Application of knowledge
Perhaps the most challenging questions are those that require you to apply your
knowledge and understanding of psychology to a novel situation – what I term the
“Thinking on the spot!” questions. I have included some examples in the last section. You
can’t predict these questions but you can develop your ability to answer them. Some tips
are:
• Spend time reading your textbook – having more background knowledge
increases understanding.
• Create one or two “Thinking on the Spot questions!” for yourself on each topic.
Practise answering these questions. Use relevant psychological terms and ideas
in your answer. It is essential that you explicitly relate your answer to the situation
or person described in the question.
• Have confidence in yourself – if you know the material, you can apply it as well as
anyone else.
Many years ago when I started teaching A-level Psychology I read in the standard
textbook of that time “To remember is to have organised.” It was an amazing insight for
me – and explained where I had gone wrong as a student. The third aim of this resource
is to help you organise the information you need. It is a strategy that has worked for the
hundreds of students I’ve taught.
Jeanne Upson
email: info@psychseed.com
2
Biological Psychology
What you need to know
•
•
•
•
•
•
The body’s response to stress, including the pituitary-adrenal system and the
sympathomedullary pathway in outline
Stress-related illness and the immune system
Life changes and daily hassles as sources of stress
Workplace stress including the effects of workload and control
Personality factors, including Type A and Type B behaviour, hardiness
Psychological and biological methods of stress management, including stress
inoculation training and drug therapy
What you need to do
Long questions (8, 10 or 12 marks)
1. Outline and evaluate research into stress-related illness and the immune system.
2. Outline and evaluate research into life events as a source of stress.
3. Discuss research into daily hassles.
4. Outline and evaluate research into workplace stress.
5. Outline and evaluate research into Type A behaviour.
6. Outline and evaluate the role of personality factors in stress.
7. Outline and evaluate psychological methods of stress management.
8. Outline and evaluate biological methods of stress management.
9. Discuss the use of drugs to manage the negative effects of stress.
3
Biological Psychology
Short questions (2, 3 or 6 marks)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
Outline two ways the body responds to stressors. (6)
Explain what is meant by the term immune system. (2)
Outline the impact that stress may have on the immune system. (6)
Outline one study that has investigated the relationship between stress and the
immune system. (4)
What is the difference between life events and daily hassles? (4)
Outline one study that has investigated the relationship between life events and
illness. (4)
Explain what research has shown about the stressful impact of life changes. (6)
Outline what research has shown about the stressful impact of daily hassles. (6)
Describe two workplace stressors. (3 + 3)
Outline one study that has investigated workplace stress. (4)
What is meant by Type A behaviour? (3)
Explain the difference between Type A and Type B behaviour. (4)
Explain why having Type A personality makes an individual more likely to suffer
the negative effects of stress. (3)
Outline one study that has investigated Type A behaviour. (4)
Describe two ways in which personality may modify the effects of stressors. (3 + 3)
Outline the use of drugs as a method of stress management. (6)
Explain two strengths of the use of drugs as a method of stress management. (2 + 2)
Explain two limitations of the use of drugs as a method of stress management. (2 + 2)
Outline one psychological method of stress management, e.g. stress inoculation
training. (3) or (6)
Explain two strengths of stress inoculation training (SIT). (2 + 2)
Explain two limitations of stress inoculation training (SIT). (2 + 2)
Questions that require knowledge of research methods
1. How have psychologists investigated the relationship between life events and
illness? (3)
2. Give one strength and one limitation of the above method. (2 + 2)
3. Outline a method used by psychologists to assess whether someone shows Type
A behaviour. (2)
4. What are two strengths of using the interview method for investigating stress? (2 + 2)
5. What are two limitations of using the interview method for investigating stress? (2 + 2)
6. What are two strengths of the questionnaire method for investigating stress? (2 + 2)
7. What are two limitations of the questionnaire method for investigating stress? (2 + 2)
8. What are two strengths of correlational analysis? (2 + 2)
9. What are two limitations of correlational analysis? (2 + 2)
Research studies
Questions may be asked about how particular topics have been investigated. Below are
suitable studies for the topics listed in the specification. Be familiar with the procedures
and findings of each study.
Kiecolt-Glaser et al. (1984)
Rahe et al. (1970)
Friedman & Rosenman (1974)
Marmot et al. (1997)
Stress and the immune system
Life changes
Personality factors: Type A behaviour
Workplace stress
4
Biological Psychology
12 mark question: Outline and evaluate research into stress-related illness
and the immune system.
DESCRIPTION OF RESEARCH
Cohen et al. (1991)
• Questionnaires were used to obtain stress index scores for 394 participants.
• The participants were then exposed to the common cold virus, and 82% became
infected with the virus.
• The findings were that the chance of developing a cold (thus, failing to fight off the
viral infection) was significantly correlated with the stress index score.
Kiecolt-Glaser et al. (1984)
• Blood samples were taken from 75 medical students one month before their final
exams (low-stress condition) and during the exam period (high-stress condition).
• NK (natural killer) cell activity was measured as an indication of immune function.
Participants also completed a questionnaire that assessed social isolation and
negative life events.
• It was found that NK cell activity was significantly reduced in the high stress
condition, and the levels were lowest for those participants who reported higher
levels of loneliness. Kiecolt-Glaser concluded that the examination stress reduced
immune function, and that this was exacerbated by social isolation.
EVALUATION
1. The participants were volunteer medical students, which limits generalisation of
the results. However, Kiecolt-Glaser et al. have had similar results with other
social groups (e.g. carers of Alzheimer patients).
2. Kiecolt-Glaser measured the natural killer cell activity as the index of immune
function. However, this is only one component of a highly complex and
sophisticated system.
3. The immune system may be affected by a whole range of variables, including a
person’s general health, lifestyle and personality. Therefore, it is simplistic to
see the relationship between stress and the immune system as a causal one.
4. HOWEVER, it is important to distinguish between short-term and long-term
stress. In a major meta-review of 293 studies, Segerstrom & Mills found that
acute short-lasting stressors lead to an increase in natural immunity, while chronic
(long-lasting) stressors produce a general reduction (down regulation) in immune
function (referred to as global immunosuppression).
You might like to know
The immune system is the body’s main defence against infection by foreign agents (referred to as
antigens). It is a complicated network of cells and chemicals that seek out and destroy invading
antigens. Antigens include bacteria and viruses. White blood cells (called leucocytes) are key
players in our immune system and are produced in the bone marrow. Leucocytes include T and B
cells, and natural killer cells.
5
Biological Psychology
12 mark question: Outline and evaluate research into life changes as a
source of stress.
Holmes and Rahe (1967)
Holmes and Rahe devised the social readjustment rating scale (SRRS) to assess the
impact of life events. 43 life events are assigned a number of life change units (LCUs),
from 100 (death of a spouse) to 11 (minor violations of the law). A person’s stress score is
the sum of all the LCUs they have experienced within a period of 12 months.
EVALUATION
1. A limitation of the SRRS scale is that it assumes that each life event listed has a
similar impact on different people. This is unlikely – e.g. redundancy may be
welcomed or dreaded.
2. The scale does not distinguish between negative and positive events. There is
evidence that changes perceived as negative produce more stress than changes
perceived as positive, and correlate more highly with illness.
3. De Longis criticised the life changes approach on the grounds that most people
experience life events fairly infrequently. He argued that the number of daily
hassles was a better measure of stress. De Longis et al. (1982) found that hassle
scores had a higher correlation with health problems than life events.
Rahe et al. (1970):
• Over 2,700 American male sailors aboard three navy cruisers were given the
SRRS questionnaire to complete just before they left for their tour of duty.
• When at sea, health records were kept for each participant, and an illness score
was calculated.
• Rahe et al. found a weak positive correlation of 0.118 between the LCU scores
and the illness scores.
• The researchers concluded that experiencing life changes/events increases the
likelihood of illness.
EVALUATION
1. The study used a correlational analysis and so it is not possible to conclude cause
and effect. Other variables might account for the relationship, e.g. people who
experience major life events may also drink and smoke more.
2. It is simplistic to see the relationship between life events and illness as a causal
one. Studies have found that personality is a mediating variable in the relationship
between life changes and illness (e.g. the hardy personality). Kobasa’s research
challenges Holmes and Rahe’s basic claim.
You might like to know
Holmes and Rahe proposed that a score of 150 or more increased the chances of stress-related
illness by 30%. A score of over 300 meant an 80% chance of developing a serious illness in the
following year.
Kobasa studied middle managers who had experienced a high number of life event stressors over
the previous three years. (She used the SRRS to select her sample.) She found that those who
were rarely ill had hardiness, a personality type that Kobasa claimed made people less vulnerable
to stresss. Kobasa’s research challenges Holmes and Rahe’s basic claim.
6
Biological Psychology
12 mark question: Discuss research into daily hassles.
KEY IDEAS
De Longis criticised the life changes approach on the grounds that most people
experience life events fairly infrequently. He argued that the number of daily hassles was
a better measure of stress. Daily hassles refer to the stresses of everyday life, for
example, concerns about physical appearance or weight, rising prices, misplacing or
losing things. Delongis et al. believed that life also contains positive events, known as
uplifts that could counteract the negative effects of daily hassles. DeLongis et al. devised
a combined hassles (117 items) and uplifts (135 items) scale.
EVIDENCE
Support for the role of daily hassles comes from De Longis et al. (1982). They gave the
Hassles and Uplifts Scale to 100 participants, between the ages of 45 and 64. For a
period of a year participants completed monthly measures of hassles and uplifts, life
events and health status. The researchers found that hassle scores had a stronger
correlation with health problems than life events. (Uplifts were unrelated to health
outcomes.)
In another study, De Longis et al. (1988) gave 75 married couples both a life events
questionnaire and the Hassles and Uplifts Scale. The couples were assessed 20 times
over a six months period. The researchers found no relationship between life events and
health, but found a significant positive correlation of .59 between hassles and next-day
health problems, such as flu, sore throats and headaches.
One explanation for the findings is that the stresses produced by daily hassles are
cumulative – the minor hassles build up and wear people down.
EVALUATION
1. The results of these studies are consistent with findings that suggest there is a
distinction between the effects of short-term and long-term stress – chronic stress
being more serious.
2. However, the rating of hassles is completed retrospectively. Memories may not
be reliable, because recollections are affected by a person’s current state of mind.
For example, when feeling depressed, people may over-report negative events
and under-report positive ones.
3. The relationship between daily hassles and illness is correlational, and so
causality cannot be assumed. There might be a third variable that accounts for
the relationship – such as personality.
You might like to know
Bouteyre et al. 2007) studied the relationship between daily hassles and mental health of 233
students during their first year at a French university. The results showed that 41% of the students
suffered from depressive symptoms, and that there was a positive correlation between scores on
the hassles scale and the incidence of depressive symptoms.
7
Biological Psychology
12 mark question: Outline and evaluate research into the workplace
stress.
LACK OF CONTROL
There is considerable evidence that people experience stress when they believe they
have little or no control over a situation (limited decision latitude).
Marmot et al. (1997) Over 7,000 male and female civil servants in London, aged 35-55,
completed a questionnaire on workload, job control and social support. All were free from
heart problems when the study began. Participants were followed up over five years.
Findings: Job control and illness were negatively correlated - the lower the job control,
the higher the rate of illness. Low-grade workers reported the lowest job control and had
1.5 times the rate of heart disease as high-grade workers, as well as other stress-related
illnesses, e.g. ulcers and cancer. (The study found no link between workload and illness.)
WORKLOAD
Responsibility (high job demand) is a crucial aspect of workload. There is evidence that a
high level of responsibility increases stress-related physiological arousal and stressrelated illness.
Johannson et al. (1978) compared 14 ‘finishers’ (high risk) with 10 cleaners (low risk) in
a Swedish sawmill. The finishers’ productivity determined the wage rates for the entire
factory. The 14 finishers (high risk group) had higher levels of: stress hormones
(adrenaline and noradrenaline), stress-related illnesses (e.g. stomach ulcers and
migraines) and absenteeism.
EVALUATION
1. However, it is difficult to separate the effect of individual differences. In Marmot’s
study, workers in lower grades may have some characteristics in common that make
them vulnerable to heart disease. Workers in the higher grades may be less prone
towards stress because they perceive the work as challenging (e.g. the hardy
personality).
2. However, correlations do not show causation. In Marmot’s study we can’t assume
that low job control caused stress-related illness. It is possible that the causality is in
the other direction – people with poor health are less likely to achieve career success.
3. In many studies it is difficult to separate the effects of different stressors. For example,
repetitive work is often low paid and that may be the crucial factor. On the whole,
research has supported the view that the most stressful jobs involve high demands
and low control (decision latitude).
You might like to know
There are limitations to the questionnaire method used in Marmot’s study. There may be social
desirability effects, e.g. participants may under-report their drinking and smoking. As a result the
effects of workplace stress might be exaggerated and effects of life style under-estimated.
An application of research into workplace stress is that now many employers take stress in the
workplace very seriously. Around one third of employers offer stress counselling to their
employees.
You may need to know
There are a range of sources of workplace stress, including level of noise, temperature, workload,
repetitive work.
8
Biological Psychology
12 mark question: Outline and evaluate research into Type A and Type B
behaviour.
TYPE A BEHAVIOUR
Friedman and Rosenman identified three dimensions of Type A behaviour:
• time urgency/impatience - always working to deadlines
• competitive – achievement oriented
• hostile – easily angered
According to Friedman and Rosenman, individuals who display Type A behaviour are
more vulnerable to CHD (coronary heart disease). Type B behaviour pattern is the
opposite of Type A - relaxed, not competitive and not aggressive.
EVIDENCE
Rosenman et al. (1976):
• 3524 California men, aged 39 to 59, were given questionnaires and structured
interviews, and identified as Type A, Type X (mixture of Type A and Type B) or
Type B. All were free from CHD at the start of the research.
• Lifestyle risk factors such as obesity and smoking were controlled for.
• They were studied over an 8½ year period.
• In that period, 7% of the sample (257) had developed some signs of CHD. Of this
group 70% were Type A individuals.
• Rosenman et al. concluded that the Type A behaviour pattern increases
vulnerability to heart disease
EVALUATION
1. However, subsequent research has found that TAB is not a strong predictor of
heart disease. One review (Matthews and Haines, 1986) found that only half of the
studies on TAB and CHD showed a significant link.
2. It is not clear which aspect of Type A is most strongly associated with CHD. There
is some evidence that hostility is the crucial variable and a better predictor of CHD
than the broad Type A pattern. Dembroski et al. (1989) found that hostility was
more linked to CHD than the overall TAB score.
3. The study is culturally and gender specific and findings should be generalised with
caution.
• The sample was all male, and research has found that females show smaller
increases in the typical physiological measures of stress than males.
• The definition of TAB is based on Western cultural concepts. Cohen and
Reed (1985) found that Type A behaviour is much less prevalent in
Japanese men compared to males in the United States (18.7% compared to
50%).
Note: If the question asks about ‘the role of personality’ (that is, a more general question) you
could reduce the above and include a brief description (A01) and some evaluative points (A02)
about hardiness. (See next page.)
You made need to know (for a short question)
Several mechanisms have been proposed to explain the link between Type A behaviour and an
increased risk of CHD. Compared to Type Bs, Type A individuals respond more quickly to
stressful situations. Stress activates the sympathetic branch of the ANS, which leads to a rise in
blood pressure, heart rate and constriction of the blood vessels. Chronic elevations of the
sympathetic nervous system lead to deterioration of the cardiovascular system. Secondly, the
release of stress hormones results in the increase of fatty acids in the bloodstream. Cholesterol
particles clump together, leading to clots in the blood and artery walls. This increases the risk of
CHD.
9
Biological Psychology
8 mark question: Outline and evaluate research into hardiness.
HARDINESS
Kobasa identified hardiness as a personality type that makes people less vulnerable to
stress. There are three dimensions to hardiness:
• control: hardy people have a sense of personal control over the events in their
lives
• commitment: hardy people have a strong sense of purpose and involvement in the
world
• challenge: hardy people view stressful situations as challenges to be overcome
rather than obstacles
EVIDENCE
Support for Kobasa comes from her study of American middle managers who had
experienced a high number of life events over the previous three years (as measured by
Holmes and Rahe’s SRRS). Kobasa found that those who were rarely ill scored high on all
three characteristics of the hardy personality.
EVALUATION
Strengths
1. Research into hardiness can account for studies that have not found a correlation
between Type A behaviour and CHD. It may be that some Type A personalities
are hardy – e.g. they have high levels of commitment and control.
2. There are real-life applications of research into hardiness. Hardiness training has
become more widespread, for example, in the military.
Limitations
1. However, although there has been considerable support for the hardy
personality, some argue that control might be the crucial dimension and that
challenge is the least relevant.
2. Most of the research has used the self-report questionnaires. One limitation of
questionnaires is the social desirability effect: people want to present themselves
in a favourable light – thus reducing the questionnaire’s reliability.
You might like to know
Another limitation of the hardy personality: Most of Kobasa’s research was carried out with male,
white-collar workers, and this limits generalising the findings. For example, research has shown
that there are important gender differences in the response to stress.
10
Biological Psychology
12 mark question: Outline and evaluate one psychological method of
stress management.
STRESS INOCULATION TRAINING (Meichenbaum):
There are three stages
1. Conceptualisation: the client works with the therapist to identify the sources of
stress in their lives. The client is encouraged to think more positively about their
problems.
2. Skills training and rehearsal: Learning of coping skills (e.g. communication
skills, coping self-statements) and relaxation techniques to use in stressful
situations. Includes both cognitive and behavioural elements. These skills are
rehearsed (sometimes using role play) in the therapeutic setting.
3. Application in the real world: The client is encouraged to apply their new skills
and relaxation techniques in the real world. The client and therapist remain in
contact and, if necessary, there are further training sessions.
EVALUATION
Strengths
1. The client develops skills that can be used in the current stressful situation as well
as in the future. Therefore its benefits are more long-term than biological
therapies.
2. There is research evidence that SIT is effective in a variety of situations, including
examination stress and sports performance. Meichenbaum (1977) compared SIT
with systematic desensitisation. He found that although both forms of therapy
reduced the phobia, SIT helped clients deal with a second, non-treated phobia.
3. SIT avoids the undesirable side effects that are associated with drug therapies,
e.g. dizziness or tiredness, and risk of dependency.
4. The skills training (which contain both cognitive and behavioural elements) is
aimed at increasing the client’s coping mechanisms – and thus their feelings of
control.
Limitations HOWEVER...
1. SIT takes time, commitment and money. Therefore, this treatment is not
accessible for many social groups, such as the unemployed or low paid.
2. Some argue that SIT is unnecessarily complex, and it is difficult to know which
component is mainly responsible for reducing stress. It may be that the range of
activities could be reduced.
You might like to know...
Hardiness training developed from Kobasa’s research on the hardy personality. It also has three
stages:
1. Focusing: client is taught to recognise the physiological symptoms associated with stress,
such as muscle tension and increased heart rate.
2. Reconstructing stressful situations: how stressful situations could have turned out
better or worse
3. Self-improvement: the client is encouraged to take on manageable levels of stress, in
order to maintain feeling in control.
Other forms of a question on this topic:
“Outline and evaluate the use of stress inoculation training as a method of stress management.”
(8 marks)
4.
11
Biological Psychology
12 mark question: Outline and evaluate biological methods of stress
management.
DRUGS
1. Benzodiazepines (BZ’s) are anti-anxiety drugs. They work by reducing activity of
the neurotransmitter serotonin and reducing arousal of the central nervous system.
They do this by stimulating the activity of GABA, the body’s natural form of anxiety
relief. BZ’s are the most common drugs used to treat anxiety, and include Valium
and Librium.
2. Beta-blockers do not enter the brain but reduce activity of the sympathetic
nervous system in pathways around the body and block receptors on the heart
which are stimulated by noradrenaline. Thus, they slow the heart rate and reduce
blood pressure.
Strengths
1. Effectiveness: drugs are widely available, easy to take and can work very quickly.
2. Drugs can reduce disabling and potentially dangerous symptoms such as acute
anxiety and high blood pressure.
3. Drugs don’t require the time and commitment that is necessary with psychological
methods, such as stress inoculation training.
Limitations: however...
1. Drugs treat the symptoms, not the cause. Symptoms (e.g. anxiety, panic attacks,
insomnia) may return if drugs are stopped.
2. People can become psychologically and/or physically dependent on drug
treatments and as a result may experience marked withdrawal symptoms, e.g.
increased anxiety and tremors, when they stop taking them.
3. There can be undesirable side effects. For example, the side effects of BZ’s can
include dizziness, tiredness, and memory impairment. (Beta-blockers do not have
major side effects.)
BIOFEEDBACK
The aim of biofeedback is for the individual to learn how to gain control. The
individual is attached to a machine that records and gives feedback regarding
involuntary processes such as heart rate, blood pressure or muscle tension. Muscle
relaxation and meditation can be employed to reduce physiological reactions. These
strategies are then used in everyday situations.
Strengths
1. Biofeedback is non-invasive and avoids the disadvantages of drug treatments,
such as side effects or physical dependency.
2. There is evidence that biofeedback is effective in the treatment of migraine and for
controlling heart rate.
Limitation: however...
It may be the relaxation rather than biofeedback that produces positive results. If the
crucial feature is relaxation, then the cost of the equipment may not be necessary.
You might like to know
Lau et al. (2002) studied the findings from many studies in a meta-analysis. They found that beta
blockers reduced the risk of death by about 20% in patients suffering from heart disease.
Other forms of a question on this topic:
“Discuss the use of drugs to manage the negative effects of stress.” (10 marks)
12
Biological Psychology
Short questions
1. Outline two ways the body responds to stressors. (6)
If a stressful situation is identified by the higher centres of the brain, signals are
sent to the hypothalamus to activate two systems:
• The sympathomedullary pathway
When a stressor is experienced the sympathetic branch (SNS) of the
autonomic nervous system (ANS) is activated.
• The SNS stimulates the adrenal medulla to release the hormones adrenaline
and noradrenaline.
• The effects of adrenaline include increased heart and breathing rate, and the
slowing down of digestion.
The pituitary-adrenal system
• The hypothalamus stimulates the pituitary gland to secrete ACTH into the
blood stream.
• ACTH travels to the adrenal cortex (part of the adrenal gland) where it
stimulates the release of corticosteroids, for example, cortisol.
• Cortisol facilitates the conversion of stored fat and protein into energy and,
if sustained over a long period, suppresses the immune system.
2. Explain what is meant by the term immune system. (2)
The immune system is the body’s main defence against infection by foreign agents
(referred to as antigens). It is a complicated network of cells and chemicals that
seek out and destroy invading antigens. Antigens include bacteria and viruses.
3. Outline the impact that stress may have on the immune system. (4)
Under stressful conditions the pituitary gland secretes ACTH which acts on the
adrenal cortex, causing the release of corticosteroids. One effect is to suppress
the immunological responses. If the stress is short lived the effects on the immune
system are negligible. However, chronic (long-lasting) stressors produce a
general reduction (down regulation) in immune function (referred to as global
immunosuppression), leaving the individual vulnerable to stress-related illnesses
and infections.
(if the question is for 6 marks – add: “This is because high levels and prolonged
release of corticosteroids reduce production of T lymphocytes and can lead to
shrinkage of the thymus gland.”)
4. Outline one study that has investigated the relationship between stress and
the immune system. (4)
Kiecolt-Glaser et al. (1984): Blood samples were taken from 75 medical students
one month before their final exams (low-stress condition) and during the exam
period (high-stress condition). NK (natural killer) cell activity was measured as an
indication of immune function. Participants also completed a questionnaire that
assessed social isolation and negative life events.
Findings: NK cell activity was significantly reduced in the high stress condition,
and the levels were lowest for those participants who reported higher levels of
loneliness. Kiecolt-Glaser concluded that examination stress reduces immune
function, and that this is exacerbated by social isolation.
5. What is the difference between life events and daily hassles? (4)
Life events are significant changes in a person’s life that disrupt their normal
routines and require adjustment. They include marriage, death of a partner, new
job, moving house. Whereas daily hassles refers to the minor stresses of
everyday life, for example, concerns about physical appearance or weight, rising
prices, misplacing or losing things.
13
Biological Psychology
Most people experience life events fairly infrequently, whereas the stress
produced by daily hassles are cumulative – the minor hassles build up and wear
people down.
6. Outline one study that has investigated the relationship between life events
and illness. (4)
Rahe et al. (1970): Over 2,700 American male sailors aboard three navy cruisers
were given the SRRS questionnaire to complete just before they left for their tour
of duty.
When at sea, health records were kept for each participant, and an illness score
was calculated.
Findings: Rahe et al. found a weak positive correlation of 0.118 between the LCU
scores and the illness scores.
The researchers concluded that experiencing life changes/events increases the
likelihood of illness.
7. Explain what research has shown about the stressful impact of life changes.
(6)
Holmes and Rahe devised the social readjustment rating scale (SRRS) to assess
the impact of life events. 43 life events are assigned a number of life change units
(LCUs), from 100 (death of a spouse) to 11 (minor violations of the law). Holmes
and Rahe proposed that a score of 150 or more increased the chances of stressrelated illness by 30%. A score of over 300 meant an 80% chance of developing a
serious illness in the following year.
Rahe et al. (1970): Over 2,700 American male sailors aboard three navy cruisers
were given the SRRS questionnaire to complete just before they left for their tour
of duty. A score was calculated for each participant. When at sea, health records
were kept for each participant. Rahe et al. found a weak positive correlation of
0.118 between the LCU scores and the illness scores.
8. Describe what research has shown about the stressful impact of daily
hassles. (4 or 6)
De Longis et al. (1982) gave the Hassles and Uplifts Scale to 100 participants,
between the ages of 45 and 64. The researchers found that hassle scores had a
higher correlation with health problems than life events. (Uplifts were unrelated to
health outcomes.)
In another study, De Longis et al. (1988) gave 75 married couples both a life
events questionnaire and the Hassles and Uplifts Scale. The couples were
assessed 20 times over a six months period. The researchers found no
relationship between life events and health, but found a significant positive
correlation of .59 between hassles and next-day health problems, such as flu, sore
throats and headaches.
9. Describe two workplace stressors. (3 + 3)
Control: There is considerable evidence that people often experience stress when
they believe they have little or no control over a situation (limited decision latitude).
In his study involving over 7000 civil servants, Marmot found that job control and
stress/illness were negatively correlated, the lower the job control, the higher the
level of stress/illness.
Responsibility: Responsibility (high job demand) is a crucial aspect of workload.
There is evidence that a high level of responsibility increases stress-related
physiological arousal and stress-related illness. Johansson found that the
“finishers” whose work determined the wages of the entire sawmill, had more
stress hormones, stress related illnesses and absences than the cleaners.
14
Biological Psychology
10. Outline one study that has investigated workplace stress. (4)
Marmot et al. (1997): Over 7,000 male and female civil servants in London (aged
35-55) completed a questionnaire on workload, job control and social support.
Participants were followed up over five years.
Findings: Job control and illness were negatively correlated, the lower the job
control, the higher the rate of illness. Low-grade workers reported the lowest job
control and had 1.5 times the rate of heart disease as high-control workers, as
well as other stress-related illnesses, e.g. ulcers and cancer. These findings
support the view that low control is a workplace stressor.
11. What is meant by Type A behaviour? (3)
Friedman and Rosenman identified three dimensions of Type A behaviour:
• time urgency/impatience - always working to deadlines
• competitive – achievement oriented
• hostile – easily angered
According to Friedman and Rosenman, individuals who display Type A behaviour
are more vulnerable to CHD (coronary heart disease).
12. Explain the difference between Type A and Type B behaviour. (4)
Friedman and Rosenman identified three dimensions of Type A behaviour:
• time urgency/impatience - always working to deadlines
• competitive – achievement oriented
• hostile – easily angered
By contrast, Type B behaviour pattern is the opposite of Type A - relaxed, not
competitive and not aggressive.
13. Explain why having Type A personality makes an individual more likely to
suffer the negative effects of stress. (3)
Compared to Type Bs, Type A individuals respond more quickly to stressful
situations. Stress activates the sympathetic branch of the ANS, which leads to a rise
in blood pressure, heart rate and constriction of the blood vessels. Chronic
elevations of the sympathetic nervous system lead to deterioration of the
cardiovascular system.
14. Outline one study that has investigated Type A behaviour. (4)
Rosenman et al. (1976): 3524 California men, aged 39 to 59, were given
questionnaires and structured interviews, and identified as Type A, Type X
(mixture of Type A and Type B) or Type B.
• They were all free from CHD at the start of the research.
• Lifestyle risk factors such as obesity and smoking were controlled for.
• They were studied over an eight-and-a-half-year period.
Findings: At the end of the 8½ years, 7% of the sample (257) had developed
some signs of CHD. Of this group 70% were Type A individuals.
Rosenman et al. concluded that the Type A behaviour pattern increases
vulnerability to heart disease
15. Describe two ways in which personality may modify the effects of stressors.
(3 + 3)
1. According to Friedman and Rosenman a person with Type A behaviour pattern
is more vulnerable to stress. This is because the behaviour includes time
urgency, competitiveness and aggression - characteristics that are likely to
trigger physiological responses to stress.
2. According to Kobasa, the hardy personality experiences less stress because she/he
feels in control, is committed, and perceives events as challenges rather than
obstacles – characteristics that do not trigger physiological responses to stress.
15
Biological Psychology
16. Outline the use of drugs as a method of stress management. (6)
Benzodiazepines (BZ’s) are anti-anxiety drugs. They work by reducing activity of
the neurotransmitter serotonin and reducing arousal of the central nervous
system. They do this by stimulating the activity of GABA, the body’s natural form
of anxiety relief. BZ’s are the most common drugs used to treat anxiety, and
include Valium and Librium.
Beta-blockers do not enter the brain but reduce activity of the sympathetic
nervous system in pathways around the body and block receptors on the heart
which are stimulated by noradrenaline. Thus, they slow the heart rate and reduce
blood pressure.
17. Explain two strengths of the use of drugs as a method of stress management.
(2 + 2)
1. They can reduce disabling and potentially dangerous symptoms such as
acute anxiety and high blood pressure.
2. Effectiveness: drugs are widely available, easy to take and can work very
quickly.
18. Explain two limitations of the use of drugs as a method of stress management.
(2 + 2)
1. Drugs treat the symptoms, not the cause. Symptoms (e.g. anxiety, panic
attacks, insomnia) may return if drugs are stopped.
2. There can be undesirable side effects. For example, the side effects of BZ’s
can include dizziness, dry mouth, and memory impairment.
19. Outline one psychological method of stress management, stress inoculation
training. (3) or (6)
Stress inoculation training (SIT): There are three stages
1. Conceptualisation: the client works with the therapist to identify the
sources of stress in their lives. The client is encouraged to think more
positively about their problems.
2. Skills training and rehearsal: Learning of coping skills (e.g. communication
skills, coping self-statements) and relaxation techniques to use in stressful
situations. Includes both cognitive and behavioural elements. These skills
are rehearsed (sometimes using role play) in the therapeutic setting.
3. Application in the real world: The client is encouraged to apply their new
skills and relaxation techniques in the real world. The client and therapist
remain in contact and, if necessary, there are further training sessions.
20. Explain two strengths of stress inoculation training (SIT). (2 + 2)
1. The client develops skills that can be used in the current stressful situation
as well as in the future. Therefore its benefits are more long-term than
biological therapies.
2. SIT avoids the undesirable side effects that are associated with drug
therapies, e.g. dizziness or tiredness, and risk of dependency.
21. Explain two limitations of stress inoculation training (SIT). (2 + 2)
1. SIT takes time, commitment and money. Therefore this treatment is not
accessible for many social groups, e.g. the unemployed or low paid.
2. Some argue that SIT is unnecessarily complex, and that the range of
activities and time involved could be reduced.
16
Biological Psychology
Questions that require knowledge of research methods
1. How have psychologists investigated the relationship between life events
and illness? (3)
One way has been through the use of questionnaires. Holmes and Rahe devised
the social readjustment rating scale (SRRS) to assess the impact of life events. 43
life events were ranked and assigned a number of life change units (LCUs), from
100 (death of a spouse) to 11 (minor violations of the law). A person’s stress score
is the sum of all the LCUs they have experienced within a period of 12 months.
2. Give one strength and one limitation of the above method. (2 + 2)
Limitation: Retrospective self-report of life events can be unreliable. People may
underestimate or exaggerate the number of life events.
Strength: The scale generates quantitative data (the LCU’s are simply added up)
- this makes it easy to analyse and compare.
3. Outline a method used by psychologists to assess whether someone shows
Type A behaviour. (2)
A structured interview method was used to assess Type A behaviour in Rosenman
et al. study. The interviewer also noted behavioural signs, e.g. finger tapping,
interrupting when the interviewer talked very slowly.
4. What are two strengths of using the interview method for investigating stress?
(2 + 2)
Qualitative information can be obtained in a semi-structured interview. This allows
the participant to freely express themselves.
Interviews can consider sensitive issues that might be personal and which a
participant might not wish to divulge if more impersonal methods are used.
5. What are two limitations of using the interview method for investigating stress?
(2 + 2)
Increased risk of investigator effects affecting the responses, for example,
conveying approval of certain types of answers to questions about life-style.
Participants may be influenced by social desirability. They may want to present a
favourable impression, and so may distort their answers, for example, they may
underestimate their alcohol consumption.
6. What are two strengths of the questionnaire method for investigating stress?
(2 + 2)
If the questionnaire provides quantitative data, it is generally easy to analyse and
compare. For example, the SRRS - the LCU’s (life change units) are simply added
up to produce a score.
Questionnaires can be carried out by people who do not require much training,
as many questionnaires are self-explanatory (e.g. if questions are fixed choice).
7. What are two limitations of the questionnaire method for investigating stress?
(2 + 2)
Even if confidentiality is assured, respondents may answer in a socially desirable
way (give answers that present them in a positive light). For example, respondents
may underestimate their alcohol consumption. This undermines the validity of the
data.
If questions are ambiguous (unclear) respondents may interpret them differently –
which undermines the questionnaire’s validity.
17
Biological Psychology
8. What are two strengths of correlational analysis? (2 + 2)
Correlations allow researchers to statistically analyse situations that would be
difficult to manipulate experimentally for ethical or practical reasons, e.g. life
events or illness.
Correlation can establish a relationship between two variables, which could be
the basis for further research using the experimental method.
9. What are two limitations of correlational analysis? (2 + 2)
Correlation does not identify cause and effect; it only identifies a relationship
between two variables (e.g. stress and illness). There may be a third variable
(such as lifestyle, alcohol consumption, personality) that accounts for the
relationship.
Non-linear relationships may be hidden by correlation coefficients (e.g. job demand
and stress). For example, stress may occur when there is either too little or too much
job demand. Thus, the relationship is curvilinear.
18
Biological Psychology
Application of knowledge: Thinking on the spot!
For some questions you need to apply your knowledge and understanding of psychology
to a novel situation – what I term the “Thinking on the spot!” questions. You can’t predict
these questions but you can develop your ability to answer them.
Tips for answering:
1. Read the question two times. Write down the areas of knowledge that you
could include in the answer, e.g. workplace stress: the importance of control
and responsibility.
2. For each item of knowledge, refer to the scenario (the description of a person
or situation described in the question). Take two or three aspects of the
scenario and relate these to your knowledge.
3. If appropriate give findings from a study that demonstrates what you have
written.
The most important advice of all: It is essential that you explicitly relate your
knowledge to the situation or person described in the question.
The following examples might help. I have included some suggestions of relevant
psychological knowledge and how you can relate this knowledge to the novel situation
described in the question. The answers are longer than you would have time for in the
exam – but hopefully give you ideas of how to tackle the questions.
LIFE CHANGES, STRESS AND THE IMMUNE SYSTEM
Jag lost his job as an electrician at the start of the year and decided to move south where
there are better employment prospects and where he could live temporarily with his aunt
and uncle. A few months later, he broke up with his girlfriend after a disappointing holiday
together. He wants to join a local running group but he has had a series of colds as well
as a knee strain that doesn’t seem to get better.
Use your knowledge of psychology to explain why Jag is experiencing health problems.
(4 or 6)
For this question you could include research into life changes and research into the
immune system.
1. Identify area of knowledge: Life changes. According to Holmes and Rahe (1967),
life changes are a source of stress, and because stress is linked to illness, there
will be a relationship between life events and illness.
2. Give examples from the scenario. Jag has experienced several life events over
the past several months: redundancy, change of living conditions, holiday, end of
a relationship. According to Holmes and Rahe, these experience will be linked to
an increase in illness, for example Jag’s colds.
3. Stress and the immune system: Research has shown that stress affects the
functioning of the immune system. Jag’s colds and knee injury suggest that his
immune system may be affected by the stress. Cohen’s cold study found a
positive correlation between colds and stress scores.
19
Biological Psychology
WORKPLACE STRESS
Ahmed and Calem plan to launch a new magazine aimed at young people. They know its
success depends to a large extent on the six people they employ to work for it. They
want to create a working environment where the employees don’t experience too much
stress and feel motivated.
What advice would you give Ahmed and Calem? (Make use of your knowledge of
research in this area.) (6)
For this question, you could identify two sources of workplace stress: lack of control and
responsibility.
CONTROL
1. Identify area of knowledge: Workplace stress: A great deal of research has
identified a lack of control as a major source of workplace stress.
2. Give examples from the scenario: Ahmed and Calem could increase job control by:
• giving workers some say in important aspects of the magazine, for example,
monthly columns, ideas for articles
• introducing flexi hours so that employees can maintain work/life balance
• involving employees in decision making – for example, price of subscription
3. Give findings from relevant research: In his study involving over 7000 civil
servants, Marmot found that job control and stress/illness were negatively
correlated: the lower the job control, the higher the level of stress/illness.
RESPONSIBILITY
1. Identify area of knowledge: There is evidence that a high level of responsibility
increases stress-related illness.
2. Give examples from the scenario: Ahmed and Calem should try to share
responsibilities between the employees, rather than giving too much responsibility
to one person. They could
• encourage delegation, for example, from copy editor to assistant
• share responsibility for increasing magazine sales
• rotate some tasks, e.g. contacting advertisers
3. Give findings from relevant research: Johansson, in his study of Swedish sawmill
workers, found that the 14 “finishers” whose work determined the wages of the
entire sawmill, had more stress hormones, stress related illnesses and absences
than the cleaners.
PERSONALITY FACTORS AND STRESS
Michael and Natasha are both science teachers in a large comprehensive school. Michael
seems to be constantly rushing around, often snapping at students when they get
muddled when answering a question in class. He finds it difficult to sleep the night before
exam results are released.
Natasha works the same hours as Michael, but she is quite positive about teaching and
doesn’t moan about the students. Despite a lot of after school marking, she finds time to
meet friends and play badminton. She takes the exam results in her stride.
With reference to the scenario above, outline the role of personality in the response to
stress. (6)
For this question you could include Type A behaviour, and the hardy personality.
Type A behaviour pattern
1. Identify area of knowledge: Type A individuals respond more quickly to stressful
situations. Type B people are the opposite.
2. Give examples from the scenario. Michael is showing Type A behaviour: he has
time urgency (always rushing about), he is impatient and easily angered (snapping
at students), and competitive (e.g. he worries about exam results).
20
Biological Psychology
Natasha is showing Type B behaviour – she is more relaxed and easy going
(doesn’t moan about the students, takes the exam results in her stride).
3. Give findings from relevant research: Rosenman and Friedman, in their study of
over 3000 Californian men, found that compared to Type Bs, Type A individuals
respond more quickly to stressful situations (and that makes them more
vulnerable to CHD) .
The hardy personality
1. Identify area of knowledge: According to Kobasa, people with hardiness are
less likely to experience stress.
2. Give examples from the scenario. Natasha shows signs of the hardy
personality. She seems in control of the situation, e.g. has time to see her
friends, and is more likely to see teaching as a challenge e.g. she feels
positive about her work.
3. Give findings from relevant research: Kobasa found that people with hardiness
(commitment, challenge and control) were less likely to experience the
negative effects of stress.
STRESS MANAGEMENT: STRESS INOCULATION TRAINING
Nadine is in her first term at university. Although she was really looking forward to it, she
feels stressed nearly all the time, worries about writing essays and is dreading the end of
term exam. Her tutor has been very encouraging but she thinks that is how he talks to all
the students.
Outline what is involved in Stress Inoculation Training and how it could be used to help
Nadine. (6)
For this question a good strategy would be to briefly outline the three stages of SIT.
Include the name of each stage. For each stage, refer to the scenarios.
Stress inoculation training (SIT): There are three stages
1. Conceptualisation: the client works with the therapist to identify the
sources of stress in their lives. Nadine would talk about her difficulties of
writing and her dread of the exam.
2. Skills training and rehearsal: Learning coping skills (e.g. communication
skills, coping self-statements) and relaxation techniques. Nadine could
rehearse statements like, “I am well prepared the exam.” “I’m really pleased
with that essay.” Her therapist may suggest that Nadine does relaxation
exercises before each revision session. Nadine and her therapist might use
role play to tackle Nadine’s difficulties in accepting praise. (Nadine could
play the role of her tutor and give praise to her therapist.)
3. Application in the real world: Nadine will be encouraged to apply her new
skills, e.g. arrange to see her tutor and to use relaxation exercises before
writing essays. Nadine and therapist will remain in contact and, if necessary,
there will be further training sessions, perhaps before the summer exams.
21
Biological Psychology
Research Methods
What does the graph below tell you about the relationship between stress and the
frequency of colds? (2)
The graph shows a strong positive correlation between stress scores and number of
colds. As the stress scores increase, so do the number of colds.
22
Biological Psychology
Revision strategies
Hard work pays
Over a hundred years ago Ebbinghaus proposed the total time hypothesis. Put simply it
means the more time you spend on learning, the more you will learn. Not exactly rocket
science, is it? Baddeley, a psychologist who has carried out a lot of research on the
subject of memory, refers to this as “you get what you pay for”. There is no substitute for
hard work.
Index cards – for short questions
Make a set of cards for the short questions in each section – that is, one set for Biological,
one for Social and one for Individual Differences.. You can either buy index cards from a
stationery shop, or cut up cards of different colours.
For short questions, write the question on one side, the answer on the other. Simple and
old-fashioned, but it works. On the answer side, include images (remember research has
found visual imagery is a powerful aid to memory). You may need to reduce the answers
given in this Guide.
Put a rubber band around the cards – and take them around with you. For the boys, it is
a great chat-up line, “Will you test me on my cards?” For you girls, ask a friend, or bribe
your brother. Give yourself a reward – “If I go through my cards, I’ll eat a bag of
Maltesers.” Put the cards on a table next to your bed – and go through them last thing at
night.
Outline a
biological
biological method
of stress
management.. (6)
Cards for 12 mark questions
Use four or five different coloured cards for a 12 mark question essay. For example,
“Outline and evaluate the cognitive approach to abnormality.”
• Use two cards to describe the key ideas of the cognitive approach to abnormality
• One card to outline a study that supports the cognitive approach
• One card to explain strengths
• One card to explain limitations
You will need to condense the information (you can use some of the abbreviations and
symbols you use for sending texts). Include images and different colour pens. Punch a
hole in the left corner of the cards, and hold them together with a treasury tag. This is very
effective for organising information.
23
Biological Psychology
Method of loci
This is an effective way to learn your research studies – makes it easy to retrieve them in
the exam. Use a building you know well – either where you live or another place you
are familiar with.
Make a list of 10 studies that would be useful in the exam for Biological Psychology, e.g.
Cohen’s cold study, Marmot et al. workplace study, Friedman and Rosenman’s study of
Type A personality. Mentally take a journey around your house, and put a study in each
room – at the same time create a unusual or bizarre image for the study, e.g. for Cohen’s
cold study, a boy lying on a settee in the living room, holding a tissue to his nose, wearing
a tee-shirt with the name ‘Cohen’ written on it. Once you have located the images for the
studies, go over them once a day, it only takes a couple of minutes. In the exam, you
think of your house....and whiz through the rooms!
Record your questions and answers
Record your answers on a MP3 player and play it when you go for a walk or before you
go to sleep. It may be hard to listen to your own voice – but you will soon get used to it.
This is a good strategy for both short and long questions. For short questions, you could
leave a gap (30- 60 seconds) in between the question and answer. When you listen to it,
try and say the answer before you hear it. Instant positive reinforcement.
Last word
The best bit of advice I can give you is to make your revision active. Don’t just read
through your notes or a textbook. Spend as much time as you can recalling – not fun, but
it works. Some students write their answers out (again and again!) – seems tedious, but if
it works...Try talking to the mirror – tell a friend or your mum.
24
Social Psychology
What you need to know
•
•
•
•
•
•
Conformity (majority influence) and explanations of why people conform,
including informational social influence and normative social influence
Types of conformity, including internalisation and compliance
Obedience to authority, including Milgram’s work and explanations of why
people obey
Explanations of independent behaviour, including locus of control, how people
resist pressures to conform and pressures to obey authority
How social influence research helps us to understand social change
The role of minority influence in social change
What you need to do
Long questions (8, 10, 12 marks)
1. Outline and evaluate explanations of conformity.
2. Outline and evaluate Milgram’s studies of obedience.
3. Discuss ethical issues in Milgram’s research.
4. Outline and evaluate two explanations of why people obey.
5. Explanations of independent behaviour: Outline and evaluate research into
locus of control
6. Explanations of independent behaviour: Discuss how people resist pressures
to conform.
7. Explanations of independent behaviour: Discuss how people resist pressures
to obey authority.
8. Discuss how social influence research helps us to understand social change.
9. Discuss the role of minority influence in social change.
1
Social Psychology
Short questions (2, 3 or 6 marks)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
What is meant by the term conformity (majority influence)? (2)
Outline two explanations of why people conform. (3 + 3)
Explain the difference between normative and informational social influence. (4)
What is meant by the term compliance? (2)
What is meant by the term internalisation? (2)
Describe two types of conformity. (2 + 2)
Outline one study that has investigated conformity. (4)
Outline two explanations of why people obey. (3 + 3)
Outline one study that has investigated obedience. (4)
Explain two ethical issues raised by Milgram’s research. (2 + 2)
Explain why it is sometimes necessary to deceive participants in social influence
research. (2)
Explain two ways of dealing with ethical issues raised in Milgram’s research.
(2 + 2)
What are two explanations of how people resist pressure to conform? (3 + 3)
What are two explanations of why people might resist pressures to obey
authority? (3 + 3)
Explain what is meant by the term locus of control. (4)
Explain how locus of control influences independent behaviour. (4)
Outline how social influence research helps us to understand social change.
(6)
Explain what is meant by the term minority influence. (2)
Outline research into minority influence. (6)
Explain the difference between minority and majority influence. (4)
Questions that require knowledge of research methods
1. Outline one method that psychologists have used to study conformity. (2)
2. Explain two limitations of lab-based studies of conformity. (2 + 2)
3. Suggest one way of overcoming a limitation of lab studies of conformity. (2)
4. What are two strengths of lab studies of conformity? (2 + 2)
5. Explain one advantage of conducting obedience research outside a
laboratory setting. (2)
6. What is one limitation of conducting obedience research outside a lab? (2)
7. Apart from ethical issues, give one strength and one limitation of Milgram’s
methodology. (2 +2)
8. Explain one way locus of control has been investigated. (3)
Research studies
Questions may be asked about how particular topics have been investigated. Below
are suitable studies for the topics listed in the specification. Be familiar with the
procedures and findings of each study.
Conformity
Obedience
Asch (1951)
Milgram (1963)
2
Social Psychology
Terms you may need to know
1. compliance: the person conforms publicly to the views and behaviours
expressed by others in the group but continues privately to disagree. Compliance
was demonstrated in Asch’s study.
2. conformity (majority influence): occurs when people adopt the behaviour,
attitudes or values of the majority. Conformity involves yielding to real or imagined
group pressure. Conformity can lead to internalisation or to compliance.
3. deception: misleading research participants about the true purpose of a research
study. This can be done by telling participants that the study is concerned with one
thing, when it’s really about something else. Participants can also be deceived if
certain information is withheld.
4. ethical guidelines: a written code that sets out standards of what is and is not
acceptable in psychological research. The BPS publishes guidelines concerning
deception, informed consent and protection of participants.
5. ethical issues: considerations that relate to the welfare and well-being of
participants in psychological research. Major issues include deception, informed
consent and protection of participants from psychological harm.
6. informational social influence: the desire to be right, to have an accurate
perception of reality. In an ambiguous situation, we look to others and make a
social comparison in order to reduce uncertainty. Can lead to internalisation - a
true change of private views to match those of the group. Informational social
influence was demonstrated in Sherif’s study.
7. informed consent: an ethical guideline that participants should have full
knowledge of the nature and purpose of the research study in order to make an
informed decision on whether or not to take part. If participants have been
deceived to any degree they can’t give informed consent.
8.
internalisation: the individual changes both their public and private view. The
change is likely to be permanent. Has been demonstrated in research into both
majority and minority influence.
9.
locus of control: refers to the sense of control people have over the successes,
failures and events in their lives. Locus of control is measured on a scale. Those
with a high internal locus of control largely feel that their actions are their own
choice and responsibility. Those with a high external locus of control see their
actions as resulting largely from factors outside their control such as luck or fate.
10. minority influence: a form of social influence where people reject the established
norm of the majority of group members and move to the position of the minority.
Minority influence was demonstrated in Moscovici’s study in which participants
moved to the position of the minority in 8.42% of the trials.
11. normative social influence: the desire to be liked, to be accepted, and to
avoid rejection. Can lead to compliance - publicly conforming, but privately
maintaining own views. Normative social influence was demonstrated in Asch’s
study.
12. protection of participants: an ethical requirement that research participants
should be protected during an investigation. The participant’s psychological wellbeing, health, and dignity must not be threatened in any way, for example, by
humiliation or embarrassment.
3
Social Psychology
12 mark question: Outline and evaluate explanations of conformity.
THE DUAL-PROCESS DEPENDENCY MODEL
According to this model, there are two reasons for conformity:
Normative social influence: the desire to be liked, to be accepted, and to
avoid rejection. Can lead to compliance - publicly conforming, but privately
maintaining own views
Informational social influence: the desire to be right, to have an accurate
perception of reality. In an ambiguous situation, we look to others and make a
social comparison in order to reduce uncertainty. Can lead to internalisation - a
true change of private views to match those of the group.
EVIDENCE
Normative social influence was supported by Asch’s study (1951). Asch found that
participants agreed with the incorrect majority (confederates) on 37% of the trials.
When questioned by Asch after the study, some participants said they knew the
answers were wrong, but conformed because they feared disapproval.
Support for informational social influence comes from Sherif’s study in which
participants were asked how far a light appeared to be moving (the autokinetic effect).
Sherif found that there were wide variations between individuals when asked to form
a judgement in isolation, but when in groups answers converged and a group norm
emerged.
EVALUATION
1. However, the dual-process dependency model has been criticised because it
does not acknowledge the importance of a sense of belonging to a group.
2. A further weakness is the model’s view that NSI and ISI are separate
explanations. Some argue that the two work together and influence conformity –
that is, we may look to others for information, but fear rejection at the same time.
SOCIAL IDENTITY THEORY
People define themselves by the social groups they belong to. These groups serve as
reference groups for us and have powerful influence on our behaviour. Groups provide
norms that are internalised by the group members. People conform to group norms
because they identify with the group.
EVIDENCE
Support for social identity comes from research that has found conformity increases
in groups in which people feel they belong. In Abrams et al. (1990) version of Asch’s
line study, the level of conformity was higher than Asch’s original study when
participants believed the group contained fellow psychology students.
Note: Another way to answer this question is to give informational and normative social
influences as two different explanations, and leave out social identity theory. If you do, add the
two evaluative points described below.
You might like to know
Perrin and Spencer (1981) argued that Asch’s classic studies reflected the social and historical
aspect of 1950’s America where pressures to conform were very high – which limits the
ecological validity. In their study carried out in 1981, Perrin and Spencer found no evidence of
conformity.
However, in Asch’s study, 13 participants (26%) never conformed – a finding that
demonstrates important individual differences in conformity.
4
Social Psychology
12 mark question: Outline and evaluate Milgram’s studies of
obedience.
DESCRIPTION OF RESEARCH
Procedure
1. Milgram obtained 40 male volunteers via a newspaper advertisement to take
part in a learning experiment at Yale University.
2. The participant was always assigned the role of “teacher”. Mr Wallace, a
confederate, played the role of “learner”.
3. The participant was instructed to punish the learner (who was in another room)
each time he gave a wrong answer by administering an electric shock that
increased in intensity by 15 volt increments, up to a maximum of 450 volts.
4. The participant did not know until the end of the experiment that the shocks
were not real, and the screams were pre-recorded.
Findings
1. All participants continued to at least 300 volts.
2. 65% of participants (26 out of 40) went up to the maximum 450 volts.
3. Most participants complained and said they didn’t want to continue.
4. Many became very anxious and distressed (trembling, shaking etc.).
5. Only five participants (12%) stopped at 300 volts.
EVALUATION
1. Experimental validity (internal validity)
Orne and Holland (1968) claimed that Milgram’s study lacked experimental
validity. Participants did not believe they were delivering shocks, and were thus
responding to demand characteristics.
However, Milgram rejected these claims, arguing that only 2.4% did not believe
the shocks were real. Participants interviewed after the experiment gave every
indication that their distress was real.
2. Ecological validity (mundane realism)
Orne and Holland also claimed the study lacked mundane realism – the
research setting was not like real life. The experimenter/participant
relationship is unique, unlike relationships in the outside world.
However, Milgram argued that the same processes are at work in a lab
setting as in a naturally occurring setting: the participants view the
experimenter as responsible. When Milgram transferred his study to a
rundown office building the obedience rate was 47% (lower than at Yale but
still fairly high), demonstrating that although the lab setting played a part, it
was not the crucial factor. This variation supports Milgram’s arguments that
the study had ecological validity.
Note:
ecological validity: the degree to which findings from a study can be generalised beyond the
particular setting in which they are collected (also referred to as mundane realism).
experimental validity: the belief of participants in an experiment that the experimental
situation is real. Any threat to experimental validity reduces the extent to which findings can
be generalised to real life settings (also referred to as experimental realism).
5
Social Psychology
You might like to know
Variations to Milgram’s original study:
Obedience rates decrease
Obedience rates increase
Venue moved to seedy offices in
nearby town
47.5%
Teacher and learner in the same
room
40%
Teacher paired with an assistant
confederate who threw the switches
Teacher instructed to force learner’s hand
down on to plate to receive shock
30%
Experimenter gave instructions by
telephone
20%
“Two peers rebel”: the teacher was paired
with two other teachers (confederates)
who refuse to obey
10%
6
92.5%
Social Psychology
12 mark question: Discuss ethical issues in Milgram’s research.
Ethical issues in Milgram’s research include deception, protection of participants and right to
withdraw. However, note that these guidelines were not in place when Milgram carried out his
research. So don’t write that Milgram broke ethical guidelines.
DECEPTION
Milgram deceived participants about the aim of the study: he told them the study was
about the effect of punishment on learning. The participants did not know
• Mr Wallace was a confederate
• the screams were pre-recorded
• the shocks were not real
Thus participants were unable to give informed consent.
However, after the study, Milgram sent out a questionnaire to over 1,000 people
who had taken part in his studies. 92% of his participants responded. Of these:
• 84% of the participants said they were glad to have taken part
• 80% said they felt more experiments of this kind should be carried out
• 1.3% said they were sorry to have taken part
According to Milgram: “The central moral justification for allowing a procedure of the sort
used in my experiment is that it is judged acceptable by those who have taken part…the
participant, rather than the external critic, must be the ultimate source of judgement.”
(Milgram, 1974)*
PROTECTION OF PARTICPANTS
Baumrind (1964) criticised Milgram for not protecting his participants. Many
experienced considerable distress during the experiment - stuttering, sweating and
digging their fingernails into their own flesh. One participant experienced a seizure.
However,
•
•
•
Milgram attempted to gain presumptive consent before the study by asking
other psychologists to predict the findings. Most suggested that only one or
two in a hundred would go to 450v.
Milgram argued that his participants were provided with a thorough debriefing
at the end of the experiment, when he attempted to make all participants feel
all right about their actions.
The participants were visited and interviewed by a psychiatrist one year after
the experiment, and there was no evidence of psychological harm.
RIGHT TO WITHDRAW
Although Milgram gave his participants the right to withdraw at the start of the
experiment, he made it extremely difficult for them to do so throughout the study.
When they showed reluctance to continue they were given prods by the researcher,
e.g. “The experiment requires that you continue.”
However, Milgram claimed that participants knew they were free to leave, as
demonstrated by the fact that some people (35%) did leave.
*Note: this quote is for you – I doubt you would have time to use it in the exam. Maybe you
could remember part of it.
You might like to think about
The central dilemma in research is that the ethical responsibility to society comes into conflict
with the more specific responsibility to each individual research participant. According to
Aronson (1999), a cost-benefit analysis is appropriate: the weighing up of how much good will
result from the study (in terms of knowledge) compared to how much distress the research
participant experiences.
7
Social Psychology
12 mark question: Outline and evaluate two explanations of why
people obey.
PERCEPTION OF AUTHORITY AS LEGITIMATE
• Most societies are ordered in a hierarchical way, with some members having
legitimate social power.
• This power is held by authority figures whose role is defined by society.
• It is extremely difficult to deviate from social roles which are learned
throughout childhood.
EVIDENCE/EVALUATION
1. This explanation is supported by a variation of Milgram’s research. When the
setting was changed from Yale University to a run-down office block, obedience
rates dropped to 47%, presumably because the experimenter’s legitimate
authority was diminished.
2. Further support comes from Bickman’s (1974) field experiment in New York.
92% of pedestrians obeyed an order to give a stranger money for a parking
meter when the researcher was dressed as a guard, compared to only 49%
when he was dressed in civilian clothing.
THE AGENCY THEORY
1. According to Milgram, people operate on two levels:
• as autonomous individuals - aware of consequences
• the agentic level - seeing themselves as agents of others
2. The obedient person sees him/herself as an agent of external authority - the
agentic state. As a result, legitimate authority replaces the individual’s own selfregulation and is seen as responsible
3. The agency theory was demonstrated in Milgram’s study. Many of the
participants had reservations about continuing to administer shocks and
required reassurance that they were not personally responsible for the shocks.
EVIDENCE/EVALUATION
1. Support for the agency theory comes from Hofling’s field study that found that
21 out of 22 nurses were prepared to break hospital rules and administer a
dangerous dose of a drug when ordered to do so by an unknown doctor.
However, other studies have challenged these findings.
2. Further support comes from Milgram. In one variation the participant was paired
with another teacher (confederate) and had only to read out the word-pairs (the
shocks were delivered by the confederate). In this variation, obedience rose to
92% - presumably because the participant was able to shift responsibility (the
agentic shift).
You might like to know
Other explanations of why people obey:
• Gradual commitment (known as the ‘foot in the door’ technique.): This was
demonstrated in Milgram’s obedience studies. The participants became locked into
obedience in small stages (increasing the shocks in 15V increments) – each action
was a small step beyond the previous action. The deeper you are in, the harder it is to
escape.
• Buffers: aspects of the situation that protect people from seeing the consequences
of their actions. For example, in Milgram’s original study, the teacher and learner were
in different rooms.
• Authoritarian personality: Milgram found that participants who were authoritarian
tended to give stronger shocks than those who were less authoritarian.
8
Social Psychology
8 mark question: Explanations of independent behaviour: Discuss
research into locus of control.
LOCUS OF CONTROL
People with high internal LOC feel they are in control of the events in their lives and
are responsible for their actions. People with high external locus of control feel the
events in their lives are controlled by external forces.
Evidence generally shows that those with high internal locus of control are more likely
to be independent than those with high external LOC. This may be because they
have more self-confidence to resist social influence. They are also more likely to be
leaders. Those with high external LOC have lower self-esteem and need more social
approval, making independent behaviour less likely to occur.
• Elms and Milgram found that disobedient participants in Milgram’s studies had
scores demonstrating high internal LOC.
• Avtgis (1998) carried out a meta-analysis of studies and found that those who
scored higher on external LOC were more likely to conform than those with
high internal LOC. The average correlation was 0.37.
EVALUATION OF RESEARCH
1. HOWEVER, research into the relationship into locus of control and conformity is
not consistent: LOC is not always related to conformity. One study found that
participants who conformed the most in an Asch type task were less assertive, but
did not score differently on the LOC scale.
2. Measuring locus of control is difficult. Questionnaires (e.g. Rotter, 1966) have the
limitation of social desirability effects – answering in a way that makes the
respondent look good, which would undermine the questionnaire’s reliability and
validity. For example, the person may not really agree with the statement,
“Becoming a success is a matter of hard work, luck has little or nothing to do with
it”, but ticks it anyway.
You might like to know
Research has found that self-esteem has also been associated with independent behaviour.
However, individuals high in self-esteem also tend to have high internal locus of control
(Sterbin & Rakow, 1996). Hence it is difficult to know whether the crucial factor is self-esteem
or internal locus of control.
9
Social Psychology
12 mark question: Explanations of independent behaviour: Discuss
how people resist pressures to conform.
A question on independent behaviour could be general, in which case you could include both
conformity and obedience and would need to reduce the essay below. Or it could specify
either conformity or obedience.
SITUATIONAL FACTORS: DISSENT
Research has shown that conformity will be significantly reduced if the majority is not
seen to be unanimous in its opinion. As soon as the unanimity of the majority group is
weakened, non-conformity is more likely to be seen as an appropriate response. The
dissenter represents a form of social support and liberates others from the need to
conform to the majority.
Support for the role of dissent comes from a variation in Asch’s study. The presence
of a dissenter was a crucial variable for increasing independent behaviour. When one
of the confederates agreed with the naive participant, conformity dropped to 5.5%.
Even if the dissenter (another confederate) gives a different wrong answer,
conformity decreased to 12%. Asch concluded that it is the unanimity of the group
that is crucial.
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES: LOCUS OF CONTROL
People with high internal LOC feel they are in control of the events in their lives and
are responsible for their actions. People with high external locus of control feel the
events in their lives are controlled by external forces.
Evidence generally shows that those with high internal locus of control are less likely
to conform than those with high external LOC. This may be because they have more
self-confidence to resist social influence. They are also more likely to be leaders.
Those with high external LOC have lower self-esteem and need more social
approval, making independent behaviour less likely to occur.
Support for the role of LOC comes from Avtgis (1998) who carried out a metaanalysis of studies and found that those who scored higher on external LOC were
more likely to conform than those with a low score. The average correlation between
LOC and conformity was 0.37.
EVALUATION
HOWEVER, research into the relationship between locus of control and conformity is
not consistent: LOC is not always related to conformity. One study found that
participants who conformed the most in an Asch type task were less assertive, but did
not score differently on the LOC scale.
You might like to know
Another situational variable: Reactance is when we change our views to a position opposite to that
expected. It is more likely to occur if we think a view is being forced on us. This may make us ‘react’
against it, changing our viewpoint away from the majority.
In Asch’s original study, conformity occurred in 37% of the trials. In nearly two thirds of the trials, the
participants stuck to their original opinion despite being faced by an overwhelming majority expressing a
totally different view. Thus, one interpretation of Asch’s study is that the majority of people do not
conform.
10
Social Psychology
12 mark question: Explanations of independent behaviour: Discuss
how people resist pressures to obey authority.
A question on independent behaviour could be general, in which case you could include both
conformity and obedience and would need to reduce the essay below. Or it could specify
either conformity or obedience.
Milgram’s variations on his original study suggest that anything that detracts from
seeing the person giving orders as a legitimate authority, and/or increases our feeling
of personal responsibility (that is decreases the agentic state) will make obedience
less likely to occur.
FEELING RESPONSIBLE FOR ACTIONS
According to Milgram’s agency theory, people are more likely to resist authority when
they feel autonomous, that is, when they feel responsible for the consequences of
their behaviour.
EVIDENCE
Milgram’s agency is supported by findings from two variations of his study of
obedience:
1. When the learner was in the same room as the teacher, the obedience level
dropped to 40% - the teacher could see the consequences of the shocks.
2. When the teacher held the learner’s hand down obedience levels decreased
to 30% – presumably because the participant felt more responsible.
DISOBEDIENT MODELS
There is evidence that when a person is provided with role models for resisting
authority, they are more likely to disobey. Seeing others people disobey shows that
it’s possible to resist pressures to obey, as well as how to disobey.
EVIDENCE
This explanation is supported by one of Milgram’s variations: the participant was
paired with two other teachers (confederates). The two confederates refused to
continue after 150v and 210v. In this variation obedience decreased to 10%.
THE IMPORTANCE OF A GROUP
A group of people who share a similar view can be used against an authority figure to
present an alternative consensus of the correct way to behave. This can be seen in
strikes, demonstrations and revolutions. Groups provide greater opportunity for
dissent to be expressed as well as social support to justify and implement rebellion.
EVIDENCE
1. The importance of the group is supported by Gamson et al. (1982), in which the
‘co-ordinator’ (the researcher) asked participants to go against their own views and
sign statements that could be used in court proceedings. The participants had
ample time for group discussion to resist authority – 32 out of the 33 in the group
rebelled in some way.
2. Rank and Jacobsen (1997) found that only 11% of nurses obeyed a doctor’s
instructions to give too high a dose of medication to patients when they had the
chance to talk to other nurses beforehand.
11
Social Psychology
12 mark question: Discuss how social influence research helps us to
understand social change.
MINORITY INFLUENCE
Minority influence is important for the introduction and acceptance of new ideas and
ways of doing things. A minority can challenge the beliefs and values of the majority,
causing them to re-think their beliefs. Minority influence is most effective when it shows
both consistency and flexibility.
For Moscovici, consistency is crucial because it
• presents the minority as committed and confident
• disrupts the comfortable feeling of the majority viewpoint and produces a
degree of uncertainty
Support for the role of consistency in minority influence comes from Moscovici. A
group of six people were asked to name the colour of slides that were various shades
of blue. Two of the six were confederates. Moscovici found that the naive participants
named the slides as ‘green’ in 8.42% of the trials when two confederates answered
green on every trial.
However, Nemeth (1987) argued that flexibility is more crucial than consistency. He
found that when the consistent minority (a confederate) moved some way towards the
majority position, he had more influence than when he remained consistent and refused to
change his position.
SNOWBALL EFFECT
Once a few members of the majority start to move towards the minority position then
the influence of the minority begins to gather momentum. Clark’s (1998) mock jury
study of the film 12 Angry Men showed how people begin to change their minds when
they see others defecting and adopting the minority viewpoint.
THE ROLE OF DISOBEDIENT MODELS
Independent behaviour can also bring about social change. The role of disobedient
models has been shown in many movements for social change, including the Civil
Rights movement in the US and the Anti-Apartheid movement in Africa.
There is evidence that when a person is provided with role models for resisting
authority, they are more likely to disobey. Seeing other people disobey shows that it’s
possible to disobey, as well as how to disobey.
Support for the role of disobedient models comes from one of Milgram’s variations: the
participant was paired with two other teachers (confederates). The two confederates
refused to continue after 150v and 210v. In this variation obedience decreased to 10%.
You might like to know
Hogg and Vaughn (1998) claimed that minorities are more likely to be influential if they are seen
to be acting from principle (not out of self-interest) and have made sacrifices in order to
maintain their position.
Social cryptoamnesia: Minority ideas are often rejected because people find it difficult to
identify with those who put them forward, who might be perceived as a negative out group.
According to the process of social cryptoamnesia people tend to forget those who put forward
new ideas but nevertheless remember the ideas themselves. This allows people to take on the
minority views without identifying with the minority.
12
Social Psychology
8 or 12 mark question: Discuss the role of minority influence in social
change.
MINORITY INFLUENCE
Minority influence is important for the introduction and acceptance of new ideas and
ways of doing things. A minority can challenge the beliefs and values of the majority,
causing them to re-think their beliefs. Minority influence is most effective when it shows
both consistency and flexibility.
For Moscovici, consistency is crucial because it
• presents the minority as committed and confident
• disrupts the comfortable feeling of the majority viewpoint and produces a
degree of uncertainty
Support for the role of consistency in minority influence comes from Moscovici. A
group of six people were asked to name the colour of slides that were various shades
of blue. Two of the six were confederates. Moscovici found that the naive participants
named the slides as ‘green’ in 8.42% of the trials when two confederates answered
green on every trial.
However, Nemeth (1987) argued that flexibility is more crucial than consistency. He
found that when the consistent minority (a confederate) moved some way towards the
majority position, he had more influence than when he remained consistent and refused to
change his position.
Social cryptoamnesia: Minority ideas are often rejected because people find it difficult
to identify with those who put them forward, who might be perceived as a negative out
group. According to the process of social cryptoamnesia people tend to forget those
who put forward new ideas but nevertheless remember the ideas themselves. This
allows people to take on the minority views without identifying with the minority.
However, it is difficult to assess this explanation experimentally.
EVALUATION OF MINORITY INFLUENCE RESEARCH
Limitations
1. The participants in lab experiments are usually students. They are very
different from minority groups in the wider society who seek to change
majority opinion and have something at stake. This limits the extent to which
findings can be generalised to real-life settings.
3. It is simplistic to assume that minority influence is demonstrated openly and
immediately. The influence exerted by a minority may be hidden, invisible to
simplistic behavioural measures, but nonetheless be present.
Note:
For an 8 mark question on the role of minority influence in social change, it should be enough to
write what you have included on minority change for the previous 12 mark question: Discuss
how social influence research helps us to understand social change. If the question is for 12
marks you could add what is written here – a description of social cryptoamnesia and two
further evaluative points.
You might like to know:
Hogg and Vaughn (1998) claimed that minorities are more likely to be influential if they are seen
to be acting from principle (not out of self-interest) and have made sacrifices in order to
maintain their position.
13
Social Psychology
HELPFUL NOTES: ETHICS
HOW DO PSYCHOLOGISTS DEAL WITH ETHICAL ISSUES?
1. Ethical guidelines
The BPS (British Psychological Society) has published a set of written
guidelines on how psychologists should conduct their research. Guidelines
cover a range of ethical issues, including deception, informed consent,
protection of participants, right to withdraw and confidentiality.
2. Ethical committees
Ethical committees scrutinise research proposals in order to judge whether
ethical issues have been adequately dealt with, and whether the value of the
research justifies any cost to the participant. They either approve or reject
the proposed research. There are ethical committees at most institutions
(psychology departments in universities, hospitals) where research takes place.
3. Presumptive consent
One way of dealing with the issue of consent is to obtain the views from a
number of people regarding the acceptability of a proposed research procedure
or study. These people would not participate in the study, but their views could
be taken as evidence of how people in general would respond to participating in
the research study.
14
Social Psychology
KEY STUDIES: CONFORMITY
SHERIF (1935)
PROCEDURE
1. Sherif used the autokinetic effect: This is an optical illusion in which a
stationary spot of light in a darkened room appears to move.
2. Sherif asked individual participants to judge how far the light appeared to
move in a number of trials.
3. Later, the participants worked in groups of three people, giving their
responses out loud.
FINDINGS
1. Each individual’s estimates varied widely at first, but then became relatively
stable. But between participants there was considerable variation.
2. When the same participants then worked in groups of three, their
judgements converged until a group norm emerged.
CONCLUSIONS
One conclusion to be drawn is that when faced with an ambiguous situation, the
participants looked to others in the group for guidance, that is, they experienced
informational social influence.
ASCH (1951)
PROCEDURE
1. Asch devised a simple perceptual task that involved participants deciding
which of three comparison lines of different lengths matched a standard
line. The answer was always obvious.
2. Seven to nine confederates were seated around a table. The naïve
participant was always the last or last but one to say the answer out loud.
3. The confederates were told to give unanimous wrong answers in 12
critical trials when Asch gave a secret signal. (There were 18 trials in all.)
4. 50 naïve male students were tested.
FINDINGS
1. There was a mean conformity rate of 37%,
2. There were also wide individual differences:
• 13 people (26 %) never conformed
• 74% conformed at least once
CONCLUSIONS
Given that the task was unambiguous the findings clearly show the impact of a
unanimous group on the behaviour of an individual. The reasons given to
explain wrong answers after debriefing show that many of the naive
participants felt under pressure to conform to the answers given by the
majority. They publicly complied even though they privately believed the
answers were wrong.
15
Social Psychology
Short questions
1. What is meant by the term conformity (majority influence)? (2)
Occurs when people adopt the behaviour, attitudes or values of the majority.
Conformity involves yielding to real or imagined group pressure. Conformity can
lead to internalisation or to compliance.
2. Outline two explanations of why people conform. (3 + 3)
informational social influence: the desire to be right, to have an accurate
perception of reality. In an ambiguous situation, we look to others and make a
social comparison in order to reduce uncertainty. Can lead to internalisation - a
true change of private views to match those of the group.
normative social influence: the desire to be liked, to be accepted, and to
avoid rejection. Can lead to compliance - publicly conforming, but privately
maintaining own views. Normative social influence was demonstrated in Asch’s
study.
3. Explain the difference between normative and informational social influence. (4)
Differences between normative and information social influence include:
Need to be accepted by others (normative), whereas informational is the need to be
right/have an accurate perception of reality (informational).
Normative social influence is associated with compliance, whereas informational
social influence is associated with internalisation.
4. What is meant by the term compliance? (2)
The person conforms publicly to the views and behaviours expressed by others in
the group but continues privately to disagree. Compliance was demonstrated in
Asch’s study.
5. What is meant by the term internalisation? (2)
The individual changes both their public and private view. The change is likely to
be permanent. Internalisation has been demonstrated in research into both
majority and minority influence.
6. Describe two types of conformity. (2 + 2)
Compliance: the person conforms publicly to the views and behaviours expressed
by others in the group but continues privately to disagree. Compliance was
demonstrated in Asch’s study.
internalisation: the individual changes both their public and private view. The
change is likely to be permanent.
7. Outline one study that has investigated conformity. (4)
Procedure
Asch devised a simple perceptual task that involved participants deciding which of
three comparison lines of different lengths matched a standard line. The answer
was always obvious.
Seven to nine confederates were seated around a table. The naïve participant was
always the last or last but one to say the answer out loud.
The confederates were told to give unanimous wrong answers on 12 critical trials
when Asch gave a secret signal. (There were 18 trials in all.)
50 naïve male students were tested.
Findings
There was a mean conformity rate of 36%,
There were also wide individual differences:
13 people (26 %) never conformed
74% conformed at least once
16
Social Psychology
8. Outline two explanations of why people obey. (3 + 3)
PERCEPTION OF AUTHORITY AS LEGITIMATE
Most societies are ordered in a hierarchical way, with some members having
legitimate social power.
This power is held by authority figures whose role is defined by society.
It is extremely difficult to deviate from social roles which are learned throughout
childhood.
AGENCY THEORY
According to Milgram, people operate on two levels
• as autonomous individuals - aware of consequences
• the agentic level - seeing themselves as agents of others
The obedient person sees him/herself as an agent of external authority - the
agentic state. As a result, legitimate authority replaces the individual’s own selfregulation.
9. Outline one study that has investigated obedience. (4)
Procedure
Milgram obtained 40 male volunteers via a newspaper advertisement to take part
in a learning experiment at Yale University.
The participant was always assigned the role of “teacher”. Mr Wallace, a
confederate, played the role of “learner”.
The participant was instructed to punish the learner (who was in another room)
each time he made a mistake by administering an electric shock that increased in
intensity by 15 volt increments up to a maximum of 450 volts.
The participant did not know until the end of the experiment that the shocks were
not real, and the screams were pre-recorded.
Findings
All participants continued to at least 300 volts.
65% of participants (26 out of 40) went up to the maximum 450 volts.
Most participants complained and said they didn’t want to continue.
Many became very anxious and distressed (trembling, shaking etc.).
Only five participants (12%) stopped at 300 volts.
10. Explain two ethical issues raised by Milgram’s research. (2 + 2)
Informed consent:
Because participants were deceived (e.g. told the study was about memory) they
could not give their fully informed consent.
Protection of participants:
Milgram was criticised for not protecting his participants. Many experienced
considerable distress during the experiment - stuttering, sweating and digging their
fingernails into their own flesh. One participant experienced a seizure.
11. Explain why it is sometimes necessary to deceive participants in social influence
research. (2)
It may be necessary because if participants new the aim, they might change their
behaviour, which would undermine the study’s validity, e.g. telling participants the
study was about conformity.
12. Explain two ways of dealing with ethical issues raised in Milgram’s research.
(2 +2)
Thoroughly debriefing participants: telling them about the aims of the study and
giving them the option to withdraw their results from the study once they have this
information (a form of retrospective informed consent).
Presumptive consent: obtain the views from a number of people regarding the
acceptability of a proposed research procedure or study. Their views could be
taken as evidence of how people in general would respond to participating in the
research study.
17
Social Psychology
13. What are two explanations of why people resist pressure to conform? (3 + 3)
4
Dissent: Research has shown that conformity will be significantly reduced if the
majority is not seen to be unanimous in its opinion. As soon as the unanimity of
the majority group is weakened, non-conformity is more likely to be seen as an
appropriate response. The dissenter represents a form of social support and
liberates others from the need to conform to the majority.
Individual differences: Evidence generally shows that those with high internal
locus of control are less likely to conform than those with high external LOC. This
may be because they have more self-confidence to resist social influence. They
are also more likely to be leaders.
14. What are two explanations of why people might resist pressures to obey
authority? (3 + 3)
FEELING RESPONSIBLE FOR ACTIONS
According to Milgram’s agency theory, people are more likely to resist authority
when they feel autonomous, that is, when they feel responsible for the
consequences of their behaviour. For example, obedience levels decreased to
30% when the participant held the learner’s hand down. presumably because the
participant felt more responsible.
DISOBEDIENT MODELS
There is evidence that when a person is provided with role models for resisting
authority, they are more likely to disobey. Seeing other people disobey shows that
it’s possible to disobey, as well as how to disobey. For example, Milgram found
obedience rates decreased to 10% when ‘the teacher’ (participant) was paired with
two other teachers (confederates) who refused to continue after 150v and 210v.)
15. Explain what is meant by the term locus of control. (4)
Locus of control refers to the sense of control people have over their lives. Locus
of control is usually measured on a scale. Those with a high internal locus of
control largely believe that their actions are their own choice and responsibility.
Those with a high external locus of control see their actions as resulting largely
from factors outside their control such as luck or fate.
16. Explain how locus of control influences independent behaviour. (4)
People with high internal LOC feel they are in control of the events in their lives
and are responsible for their actions. People with high external locus of control feel
the events in their lives are controlled by external forces.
Evidence generally shows that those with high internal LOC show more
independent behaviour than those with high external LOC. This may be because
they have more self-confidence to resist social influence. They are also more likely
to be leaders. Those with high external LOC have lower self-esteem and need
more social approval, making independent behaviour less likely to occur.
17. Outline how social influence research helps us to understand social change.
(6)
Minority influence is important for the introduction and acceptance of new ideas
and ways of doing things. A minority can challenge the beliefs and values of those
initially in the majority, causing them to revise their beliefs. Minority influence is
most effective when it shows both consistency (Moscovici) and flexibility (Nemeth).
Once a few members of the majority start to move towards the minority position
there is a ‘snowball effect’ and the influence of the minority begins to gather
momentum (Clark 1998).
When a person is provided with role models for resisting authority, they are more
likely to disobey. Seeing other people disobey shows that it’s possible to disobey,
as well as how to disobey.
18
Social Psychology
18. Explain what is meant by the term minority influence. (2)
A form of social influence where people reject the established norm of the majority
of group members and move to the position of the minority. Minority influence was
demonstrated in Moscovici’s study in which participants moved to the position of
the minority in 8.42% of the trials.
19. Outline research into minority influence. (6)
Moscovici et al. (1969: A group of six people were asked to name the colour of
slides that were various shades of blue. Two of the six were confederates.
Moscovici found that the naive participants named the slides as ‘green’ in 8.42% of
the trials when two confederates answered green on every trial.
However, Nemeth (1987) argued that flexibility is more crucial than consistency. He
found that when the consistent minority (a confederate) moved some way towards the
majority position, he had more influence than when he remained consistent and
refused to change his position.
20. Explain the difference between minority and majority influence. (4)
1. One difference between the two is the size of the group causing the influence.
• Majority influence occurs when people adopt the behaviour, attitudes or
values of the larger group.
• Minority influence occurs when people reject the established norms of the
majority of group members and move to the position of the few.
2. Majority influence often involves public compliance, rather than private
acceptance.
Whereas minority influence involves internalisation or conversion.
19
Social Psychology
Questions that require knowledge of research methods
1. Outline one method that psychologists have used to study conformity. (2)
Laboratory experiments, where confederates deliberately give the wrong answer to
see if the naive participant conforms, e.g. Asch’s study.
2. Explain two limitations of lab-based studies into conformity. (2 +2)
Lab experiments of conformity often involve trivial tasks and artificially created
groups, which limit their ecological validity. Hence findings cannot be generalised
to the real world.
Because of the artificiality of the situation, demand characteristics are more likely.
Thus, participants may respond in the way they think the experimenter expects.
3. Suggest one way of overcoming a limitation of lab studies of conformity. (2)
To overcome lack of ecological validity the researcher could conduct the
experiment in the real world, by setting up a field experiment so people behave as
they normally would.
4. What are two strengths of lab studies of conformity? (2)
High levels of control make it easier for the researcher to show the effect of the
independent variable on the dependent variable, i.e. to show cause and effect.
Because laboratory experiments of conformity are conducted under controlled
conditions, they can be replicated. Therefore their reliability can be assessed.
5. Explain one advantage of conducting obedience research outside a
laboratory setting. (2)
The research may be high in ecological validity, because people behave as they
normally would. This means the results can be generalised beyond the research
setting.
6. Explain one limitation of conducting obedience research outside a lab. (2)
Lack of control. Other factors (extraneous variables) may have influenced the
outcome.
7. Apart from ethical issues, give one strength and one limitation of Milgram’s
methodology. (2 +2)
Strength: Because his study was conducted under controlled conditions, it can
easily be replicated. Therefore reliability can be assessed.
Limitation: Critics claim the study lacked ecological validity– the research
situation was not like real life. The experimenter/participant relationship is unique,
unlike relationships in the outside world - thus limiting generalisation of the
findings.
8. Explain one way locus of control has been investigated. (3)
Rotter devised a questionnaire of 23 forced choice items that measured an
individual’s sense of personal control over events in their life. At one end of the
scale are those with a high internal LOC, and at the other end, are those with
high external LOC. (For example, “Who gets to be the boss depends on who was
lucky enough to be in the right place.”)
20
Social Psychology
Application of knowledge: Thinking on the spot!
For some questions you need to apply your knowledge and understanding of
psychology to a novel situation – what I term the “Thinking on the spot!” questions.
You can’t predict these questions but you can develop your ability to answer them.
Tips for answering:
1. Read the question two times. Write down the areas of knowledge that you
could include in the answer.
2. For each item of knowledge, refer to the scenario (the description of a
person or situation described in the question). Take two or three aspects of
the scenario and relate these to your knowledge.
3. If appropriate give findings from a study that demonstrates what you have
written.
The most important advice of all: It is essential that you explicitly relate your
knowledge to the situation or person described in the question.
The following examples might help. I have included some suggestions of relevant
psychological knowledge and how you can relate this knowledge to the novel
situation described in the question. The answers are longer than you would have time
for in the exam – but hopefully give you ideas of how to tackle the questions.
TYPES OF CONFORMITY
If you are asked to explain the type of social influence that is shown in a novel
situation you should say whether it is normative or informational. Briefly outline either
normative or informational social influence. Justify your choice with examples from
the scenario, and then say whether the type of conformity is likely to result in
compliance or internalisation.
1. Maya is part of a close-knit group of girls in the sixth form at her college.
It is great to know she always has friends to sit next to during class, lunch breaks
and free periods. After college she usually walks home with two of the girls.
When they get together one of their favourite pastimes is gossiping about other
girls in the college, and sometimes they can be quite cruel. Maya feels
uncomfortable with this kind of conversation, and is usually quiet but sometimes
she joins in, commenting on and perhaps laughing at another girl’s clothes or hair
style.
Identify the type of social influence illustrated in the situation described above.
Refer to features of the situation to justify your answer. (3)
Normative social influence – conforming in order to be liked and to avoid rejection.
Maya clearly wants to be part of the group (‘it is great to know she always has
friends to sit next to.’) Although she feels uncomfortable she does join in the
gossip. This kind of conformity usually leads to compliance – public conforming to
the behaviours of the group but privately disagreeing.
2. Gideon is invited to his friend David’s house for an evening meal. David’s mother
serves him a first course of prawns cooked in their shells. Gideon is keen to try
them, but is worried about how to take off the shells because the only fish he ever
has at home is fish fingers. He discretely observes how others at the dinner table
tackle their food before starting the dish himself.
Identify the type of social influence illustrated in the situation described above.
Refer to features of the situation to justify your answer. (3)
Informational social influence – conforming because of the need to be right in an
ambiguous situation. Gideon doesn’t know how to eat the prawns and looks to
others for the right way to peel them. Informational social influence usually leads to
internalisation – both public and private agreement. It is likely that Gideon will
adopt this behaviour in the future.
21
Social Psychology
OBEDIENCE
Josie has just started a new job in a local cafe. One of its specialties is afternoon tea,
which consists of two scones and two very small pots of clotted cream and jam. On
her second day, Josie clears a table and empties the remaining cream and jam from
the two pots into the used food bin. Her boss tells her that she mustn’t waste the
cream and jam, and that she is to put any remaining into clean pots and top them up
ready for the next customer. Josie thinks this is not a very hygienic thing to do, and
also wonders what the customers would think. But she doesn’t say anything, and
instead does as she is told.
Using your knowledge of why people obey, explain Josie’s behaviour. (4)
Josie obeys her boss’s instructions because she perceives his authority as legitimate
and she has been socialised since childhood to obey authority. She may also be in
the agentic state: she sees herself as an agent of authority. As a result she does not
feel responsible for her actions – even though she thinks the practice is unhygienic.
Under what circumstances might Josie refuse to obey? (4)
If another employee disobeyed the boss (e.g. refused to re-use the jam and cream),
Josie might refuse to obey. This is because we are more likely to disobey when we
have seen others resist authority. Seeing other people (our peers) disobey shows
that it’s possible to disobey. Milgram found that when the participant was paired with
two other teachers (confederates) who refused to continue after 150v and 210v,
obedience decreased to 10%.
If she talked to other employees about the practice. When people have time to
discuss an issue they are more likely to resist pressure to obey.
RESISTING PRESSURES TO CONFORM
It is the morning of Samir’s mock exam for A-level History. The group of nine
students are in the class early, well before the lesson begins. Their teacher is at the
daily morning staff briefing and isn’t due for 20 minutes. One of the students notices
that the mock exam papers are on the teacher’s desk, and jokingly asks if anyone
wants a look. After a few seconds everyone in the group except for Samir takes a
copy. A couple of the students try and coax him, but he refuses.
Using your knowledge of psychology, suggest why Samir doesn’t conform. (5)
Samir might have high internal locus of control. People with high internal LOC feel
responsible for their actions and are usually more independent: they are confident
and have high self-esteem. This means that Samir is less likely to go along with the
group – he isn’t reliant on the group’s approval. Another reason may be that he
thinks it is morally wrong to cheat – and studies have found people with a high level
of moral development show independent behaviour.
SOCIAL CHANGE
The popularity of cycling has greatly increased over the past few years – with more
adults using bikes to get to work and more young people using them for school.
Twenty years ago very few cyclists wore helmets. By 2009 the figures had risen to
50% people wearing helmets most of the time and 35% reporting that they wear them
for all trips. Although at the present time there is no legislation concerning the
wearing of helmets, surveys report that 62% of people say they would support the
introduction of helmet laws.
Using your knowledge of psychology, explain the change in attitudes and behaviour
towards the wearing of cycling helmets. (5)
The change in attitudes and behaviour towards wearing helmets started with minority
influence. A few people believed that the wearing of helmets would decrease road
deaths. The minority was consistent and flexible in the beliefs – and were clearly not
22
Social Psychology
acting out of self-interest. Moscovici found that a consistent minority convinced
participants that blue slides were green on 8.4% of trials. Due to the snowball effect,
once a few members of the majority start to move towards the minority position then
the influence of the minority begins to gather momentum.
At some stage people were influenced by peers who wore helmets – it made them
feel part of a group (social identity theory). There was also informational social
influence: people thought people who wore helmets had more information about road
accidents. In this case, the safety arguments were internalised, and likely to be
permanent.
23
Individual Differences
What you need to know
•
•
•
•
•
Definitions of abnormality, including deviation from social norms, failure to function
adequately and deviation from ideal mental health. Limitations of these definitions of
psychological abnormality
The biological approach to psychopathology
Psychological approaches to psychopathology including the psychodynamic,
behavioural and cognitive approaches
Biological therapies, including drugs and ECT
Psychological therapies, including psychoanalysis, systematic desensitisation and
Cognitive Behavioural Therapy
What you need to do
Long questions (8, 10 or 12 marks)
1. Outline and evaluate two or more definitions of psychological abnormality.
2. Outline and evaluate the biological approach to psychopathology.
3. Outline and evaluate the psychodynamic approach to abnormality.
4. Outline and evaluate the behavioural approach to explaining psychological
abnormality.
5. Outline and evaluate the cognitive approach to psychopathology.
6. Discuss the use of drugs to treat psychological disorders.
7. Discuss the use of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) to treat psychological disorders.
8. Discuss the use of systematic desensitisation in treating abnormality.
9. Discuss the use of psychoanalysis to treat psychological disorders.
10. Discuss the use of Cognitive Behavioural Therapy in treating abnormality.
1
Individual Differences
Short questions
1. Explain each of the following definitions of abnormality:
• deviation from social norms (3)
• failure to function adequately (3)
• deviation from ideal mental health (3)
2. Give two limitations for each of the above definitions. (2+ 2)
3. Outline three assumptions of each of the approaches to psychopathology listed below:
• biological (6)
• psychodynamic (6)
• behavioural (6)
• cognitive (6)
4. Outline one strength and one limitation for each of the four approaches listed above.
(2 + 2)
5. Explain one way in which psychologists have investigated the genetic basis of
abnormality. (3)
6. Explain one way in which psychologists have investigated the psychodynamic approach
to abnormality. (3)
7. Explain one way in which psychologists have investigated the behavioural approach to
abnormality. (3)
8. Explain one way in which psychologists have investigated the cognitive approach to
abnormality. (3)
9. Outline the use of drugs in treating abnormality. (4 or 6)
10. What is one strength and one limitation of the use of drugs in treating abnormality?
(2 + 2)
11. Describe the use of ECT (electro-convulsive therapy) in treating abnormality. (4 or 6)
12. What is a one strength and one limitation of ECT (electro-convulsive therapy)? (2 + 2)
13. Outline techniques used in psychoanalysis. (4 or 6)
14. What is one strength and one limitation of psychoanalysis? (2 + 2))
15. Describe the use of systematic desensitisation in treating abnormality. (4 or 6)
16. What is one strength and one limitation of systematic desensitisation? (2 + 2)
17. Outline what is involved in Cognitive Behavioural Therapy. (4 or 6)
18. What is one strength and one limitation of Cognitive Behavioural therapy? (2 + 2)?
19. Some patients, especially children and those with mental impairments, may not be
able to give informed consent for treatment of their mental disorders. Explain how
informed consent could be gained in an ethical manner for these types of patients.
(4)
2
Individual Differences
12 mark question: Outline and evaluate two or more definitions of
psychological abnormality.
Three definitions are given in the specification. For a 12 mark question you could either write in
detail about two definitions or in less detail about three definitions.
DEVIATION FROM SOCIAL NORMS
This definition views abnormality in terms of the breaking of society’s standards or norms.
Abnormal behaviour can be seen as behaviour that deviates from or violates society’s implicit
or explicit rules and moral standards, e.g. standing too close to people when you are talking to
them, wearing clothes inappropriate to the situation.
However, two limitations of this definition are:
1. Social norms are era dependent (vary over time) as attitudes change. For example,
homosexuality was viewed as a psychiatric disorder until the 1960’s. Since then
attitudes have changed, and homosexuality is no longer seen as a mental disorder.
2. The deviation from social norms definition is bound by culture. Social norms vary
between cultures. Behaviour seen as a deviation in one society may appear quite
acceptable in another, e.g. the expression of grief in response to the death of a
loved one.
FAILURE TO FUNCTION ADEQUATELY
This definition views abnormality as the failure to experience the normal range of emotions
or to engage in the normal range of behaviour. Indicators of the failure to function
adequately, as identified by Rosenhan & Seligman, include:
1. dysfunctional (maladaptive) behaviour – prevents an individual from achieving life
goals
2. observer discomfort – where another’s behaviour causes discomfort and distress to
the observer, e.g. talking very loudly to oneself on a bus
3. unpredictable behaviour – variable and uncontrolled
4. irrational behaviour – behaviours that are difficult to understand, e.g. laughing wildly
at a funeral
However, two limitations of this definition are:
1. It ignores the social context of the behaviour. Behaviour must be seen within specific
situational contexts. Some apparently dysfunctional behaviour might be adaptive and
functional for the individual, e.g. going on a hunger strike for a just cause.
2. Some psychological disorders do not prevent a person from functioning adequately.
Personality disorders related to psychopathy can appear normal most of the time,
e.g. Dr. Harold Shipman who killed over 200 patients.
DEVIATION FROM IDEAL MENTAL HEALTH
This definition identifies characteristics people should possess in order to be considered
normal. Jahoda identified six criteria by which mental health might be defined:
1. positive view of self – high self-esteem and strong sense of identity
2. personal growth and self-actualisation
3. autonomy – being independent and self-regulating
4. accurate perception of reality
5. resistance to stress
6. mastery of the environment
Abnormality is seen as the deviation from these ideals.
However, two limitations of this definition are:
1. Jahoda’s view of mental health is culture-bound, largely based on and limited to
individualist cultures, in particular North American culture. Collectivist societies that
emphasise cooperation amongst their members would reject the importance of selfactualisation as a criterion for mental health. If we apply Jahoda’s criteria to other
3
Individual Differences
cultures or sub-cultures it would result in a higher incidence of abnormality than is
actually the case.
2. Few people would match all the criteria laid down by Jahoda – thus the majority of
the population would be classified as abnormal.
You might want to know
Might be a good idea to be familiar with other limitations of deviation from social norms, for a short
question where you are asked to apply your understanding.
• This definition has allowed serious abuse of human rights to occur. For example, in the
Soviet Union after the Second World War, political dissenters were frequently classified as
mentally ill and sent to mental hospitals.
• Social deviancy is not necessarily a bad thing. Some people are socially deviant because
they have chosen a non-conformist lifestyle and others because their behaviour is motivated
by high principles, e.g. deviants in Nazi Germany who spoke out against atrocities or risked
their lives.
• This definition ignores the context of behaviour.
• This definition doesn’t sufficiently distinguish between eccentric and abnormal behaviour.
4
Individual Differences
12 mark question: Outline and evaluate the biological approach to
psychopathology.
KEY ASSUMPTIONS
Brain dysfunction: Psychological disorders may result from damage to the brain. For
example, some patients with schizophrenia have enlarged ventricles in their brains, indicating
shrinkage of brain tissue.
Genetic inheritance: Most behaviours, whether normal or disordered, involve a
component inherited from the biological parents. The presence of certain genes can make
people more vulnerable to disorders. For example, some people are genetically
predisposed to develop depression or schizophrenia.
Biochemistry: Psychological disorders may be due to an imbalance of chemicals - there
may be too much or too little of certain neurotransmitters and hormones. For example, low
levels of serotonin have been linked to depression. An excess of the neurotransmitter
dopamine has been associated with schizophrenia.
1. Evidence used to support the biological model includes twin studies.
For example, Gottesman (1991) reported a concordance rate of
48% between identical twins (MZ) for schizophrenia, compared to
I7% for fraternal (DZ) twins.
2. However, the concordance rate is never 100% - therefore
environmental factors are always involved.
EVALUATION
Strengths
1. The biological approach has led to a range of drug treatments that alter the body’s
biochemistry. For example, Prozac, an antidepressant drug, increases the level of
the neurotransmitter serotonin. Antidepressant drugs appear to be effective in 6575% of cases. These treatments can relieve distressing and at times life-threatening
symptoms.
2. The biological approach is testable. It is backed up by an enormous amount of
research (including the recent use of brain scans) and this has increased
understanding of the possible contribution of biological factors to mental disorders.
Limitations... however
1. The biological approach is reductionist: complex mental and emotional processes are
unlikely to be caused solely by genes and neurotransmitters. At most, biological
factors predispose people to developing psychological disorders which are triggered
by environmental factors (the diathesis-stress model).
2. Cause or consequence: It is difficult to determine whether chemical imbalances are a
cause or a consequence of a mental disorder, e.g. low levels of serotonin may be a
consequence of depression rather than the cause.
You might need to know
Twin studies compare identical twins (MZ’s: monozygotic) who have the same genes with fraternal
twins (DZ’s: dizygotic) who share only 50% of their genes. If genetic factors are important, the
concordance rate should be higher in identical than in fraternal twins.
You might like to think about
A further limitation of the biological approach: the biological approach may lead to the labelling of
patients – it is more likely to identify the whole person – a ‘schizophrenic’, rather than a person with
schizophrenia.
5
Individual Differences
12 mark question: Outline and evaluate the psychodynamic approach to
psychopathology.
KEY ASSUMPTIONS
1. Abnormal behaviour is the result of unconscious and repressed conflicts from
childhood. Mental disorders may result from experiences during the oral, anal
and phallic stages. For example, depression may be linked to the loss of a parent
(especially the mother) before the age of five years. Fixation during the anal stage may
lead to an obsession with cleanliness, e.g. obsessive-compulsive disorder.
2. The personality consists of the id, ego and superego. Mental disorders occur when
the ego fails to reconcile the opposing forces of the id and the super ego. An
unchecked id may result in conduct disorders in childhood and psychopathic
behaviour in adulthood. An overly powerful superego can lead to neurosis, such as
phobias and obsessional behaviour.
3. Anxiety is controlled by defence mechanisms such as repression, denial, projection
and displacement. Mental disorders often represent an exaggerated use of defence
mechanisms, e.g. projection can lead to paranoia.
EVIDENCE
1. Freud supported his theories with case studies – e.g. Anna O and Little
Hans.
2. However, although case studies provide in-depth qualitative data, they
rely heavily on the researcher’s interpretations and thus are open to
bias. The accuracy of childhood memories is also open to question.
Thus, case studies may not be reliable.
EVALUATION
Strengths
1. The concept of the unconscious has had an enormous impact on psychology in
general and the study of abnormality in particular. Many psychologists agree that
unconscious processes influence behaviour.
2. The importance of childhood experiences in the development of mental disorders is
supported by evidence. Bifulco et al. (1992) found evidence that children whose
mothers died in childhood were more likely than other children to experience
depression later in life.
Limitations...however
1. Many argue that the psychodynamic approach is not scientific. The assumptions
refer to variables that must be inferred, rather than observed directly (e.g. the
unconscious, defence mechanisms). Therefore, it is difficult to test this theory - it is
nonfalsifiable.
2. Freud did not study children directly. He worked with neurotic adults and then
explained their problems in terms of their early experiences.
3. The assumption that abnormal behaviour is the result of unconscious and repressed
conflicts from childhood has been criticised for being deterministic.
You might like to know
According to the psychodynamic approach, in childhood the ego is not developed enough to
deal with very distressing or painful experiences, and therefore they are repressed. In adulthood,
previously unexpressed anger is directed towards the self, causing depression.
6
Individual Differences
12 mark question: Outline and evaluate the behavioural approach to
psychopathology.
KEY ASSUMPTIONS
1. Abnormal behaviour is learned in the same way as normal behaviour. All disorders
are maladaptive behaviours, arising from conditioning, either classical or operant.
2. Classical conditioning involves learning an association between a neutral stimulus
(e.g. a dentist) and an unconditioned stimulus (e.g. pain). The fear response
generalises to the previously neutral stimulus (now a conditioned stimulus). Thus,
phobias may be learned through classical conditioning.
3. Operant conditioning: ‘Behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences’
(Skinner). Consequences may be positive or negative reinforcement, or
punishment. Thus, depression results from a lack of positive reinforcements (e.g.
approval, friendships) or an excess of negative experiences (punishments).
EVIDENCE
1. According to the behavioural approach, the same laws of
learning apply to human and non-human animals; therefore a
lot of research is carried out on non-human animals (e.g. rats
and pigeons).
2. However, it is questionable whether findings from rats can
be generalised to humans. Humans differ from animals in
important ways, e.g. the role of cognitive factors such as
language. Research with humans has not always supported
behaviourist claims. Only 2% of water-phobic children
claimed to have had a direct conditioning experience
involving water (Menzies & Clarke, 1993).
EVALUATION
Strengths
1. The behavioural approach has led to therapies that have been successful in treating
mental disorders, such as the use of systematic desensitisation for phobias. The
success of the treatments provides support for the model.
2. The behavioural model recognises the importance of the environment. Thus, it can
account for cultural differences, e.g. eating disorders are more common in Western
cultures, where slimness is presented as the ‘ideal’.
Limitations…however
The behavioural approach is reductionist:
1. It minimises the role played by internal processes, such as thoughts and feelings.
There is a great deal of evidence that individuals who suffer from depression or
panic attacks have distorted thinking patterns – these would be difficult to explain by
the behavioural approach.
2. It ignores biological factors. For example, there is evidence that genetics make
individuals more vulnerable to developing schizophrenia. Other evidence implicates
the role of neurotransmitters, e.g. the role of serotonin in depression.
You might like to know
The behavioural approach has been extended to include social learning theory. The key idea of SLT
is that people learn maladaptive behaviour through observation and imitation of others (models),
especially if they observe the behaviour being rewarded (vicarious reinforcement). For example, a
child may learn a phobic response from observing a parent’s fear of blood.
7
Individual Differences
12 mark question: Outline and evaluate the cognitive approach to
psychopathology.
KEY ASSUMPTIONS
1. The cognitive approach assumes that people’s thoughts direct their emotions and
behaviour. Mental disorders result from irrational and negative cognitions. For
example, a person believes she/he is worthless and this thinking leads to feelings of
depression.
2. Thinking can be distorted in many ways, leading to cognitive biases:
• magnification of difficulties and failures
• minimisation of successes and achievements
• over-generalisation – drawing a sweeping conclusion on the basis of a single
event
3. Beck used the term cognitive triad to refer to three main forms of negative thinking,
about (1) the self (2) the world (3) the future. According to Beck these automatic and
maladaptive thought patterns can lead to depression.
EVIDENCE
1. The questionnaire method is often used to assess people’s
thinking patterns, e.g. the Beck Depression Inventory.
Lewinsohn et al. (2001) found that students who had
negative thoughts 12 months earlier were significantly more
likely to become clinically depressed than those whose
thoughts had been realistic.
2. However, a limitation of questionnaires is that people may
not answer truthfully – they may either under-report or
exaggerate their negative thinking.
EVALUATION
Strengths
1. Successful treatment: Research indicates that Beck’s cognitive therapy is as
successful as antidepressant drugs in treating depression. This, in itself, provides
support for the cognitive model.
2. Many would argue that the emphasis on the present rather than the past is a
strength of the cognitive approach (compared to the psychodynamic approach).
Limitations...however
1. The cognitive approach has been criticised for viewing negative and irrational
cognitions as the cause of mental disorders, when they may the consequence of
having a mental disorder. Thus, negative emotion may cause the negative thinking.
2. The cognitive approach overlooks the role of biological factors such as chemical
imbalances. For example, depression has been linked with low levels of serotonin
and higher than average levels of cortisol.
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Individual Differences
10 or 12 mark question: Discuss the use of drugs to treat psychological
disorders.
DESCRIPTION
1. Antipsychotics: Drugs used in the treatment of schizophrenia. They reduce
symptoms such as hallucinations, delusions and thought disorders. Antipsychotics
act by reducing dopamine activity in the brain. Examples include chloropromazine
and clozapine.
2. Anti-depressants: Drugs used in the treatment of depression. These drugs raise
serotonin levels in the brain, either by reducing the rate of re-absorption of
serotonin, or by blocking the enzyme that breaks down serotonin. Examples include
monoamine-oxidase inhibitors (MAOI’s) and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors
(SSRI’s, for example, Prozac).
3. Lithium: Used for bipolar depression. (A disorder where the person has periods of
clinical depression followed by periods of mania). Lithium can stabilise the
condition.
EVALUATION
Strengths
1. Drugs can be effective in suppressing disabling and life-threatening symptoms of
schizophrenia and severe depression, and many people are able to live normal lives
because of drug therapy. (however, many patients do not respond to drug
therapy.)
2. Drug therapy confirms the view of the person as a patient, and takes away
individual responsibility and/or blame for the disorder (however, being labelled as
schizophrenic or depressive can lead to stigmatising.)
Limitations
1. However, drugs only treat the symptoms of a disorder, through their effects on the
biological changes in the brain. They are therefore a reductionist treatment that
ignores any cognitive, emotional or environmental influences. In the case of
schizophrenia, symptoms return in about 80% of patients who come off the drugs.
2. Most drugs have problems of side effects and dependence, which need to be
carefully managed. For example, SSRIs (e.g. Prozac) have been associated with
outbursts of violence and suicides.
3. Ethical issues in drug therapy include the problem of side effects and the ability (or
not) of people with serious conditions such as severe depression or schizophrenia
to give fully informed consent to treatment.
Note: For a 6 mark question “Discuss the use of drugs to treat psychological disorders” – leave out
the description, and just include the evaluation (strengths and limitations).
You may need to know
Drugs that are used to treat anxiety disorders are described in Biological Psychology and include:
Benzodiazepines (BZ’s) work by reducing activity of the neurotransmitter serotonin and reducing
arousal of the central nervous system. BZ’s are the most common drugs used to treat anxiety,
and include Valium and Librium.
Beta-blockers do not enter the brain but reduce activity of the sympathetic nervous system in
pathways around the body and block receptors on the heart which are stimulated by
noradrenaline. Thus, they slow the heart rate and reduce blood pressure. Beta-blockers have
been found to be effective for performance anxiety, e.g. musicians and certain snooker players.
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Individual Differences
8 mark question: Discuss the use of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) to
treat psychological disorders.
DESCRIPTION
1. The patient is on a bed. An electrode is placed above the temple of the non-dominant
side of the brain (unilateral ECT).
2. The patient is injected with a short-acting anaesthetic (so they are not conscious
during the treatment) and given a strong muscle relaxant.
3. A small amount of electric current (between 70 and 130 volts), lasting about half a
second is passed through the brain.
4. The electric current produces convulsions – lasting up to one minute, which affect the
entire brain. (The spasms are barely perceptible to onlookers.)
5. Repeated 3 times per week for up to 4 weeks
EVALUATION
Strengths
ECT can be an effective antidepressant treatment for patients unresponsive to other
therapies (and especially when suicide is an issue). Around 60-70% of ECT patients
improve after treatment (although there is a high percentage of relapse within six months of
treatment).
Limitations...however
1. ECT can have side effects. ECT can lead to long-term memory impairment, anxiety
and headaches.
2. There are serious ethical issues with ECT. Individuals with severe depression may
not fully grasp the nature and consequences of ECT, and so cannot give fully
informed consent.
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Individual Differences
12 mark question: Discuss the use of psychoanalysis to treat psychological
disorders.
DESCRIPTION OF TREATMENT
The aim of psychoanalysis is to make “the unconscious conscious” – to uncover material
repressed into the unconscious. Techniques include free association and dream analysis.
Free association:
• The client is encouraged to express anything that comes into their mind, no
matter how trivial
• Talking freely allows ego defences to be lowered and repressed material
accessed
• The therapist intervenes on occasions – to encourage further reflection, or to
make interpretations
Dream analysis:
• Dreams are the “royal road to the unconscious”. The therapist analyses and
interprets the manifest content (the content as reported by the dreamer), in order
to uncover the latent content (the actual meaning of the dream)
• The therapist hopes to identify significant repressed conflicts and unconscious
wishes (often sexual or aggressive)
EVALUATION
Strengths
1. Many therapies, for both children and adults, have been influenced by
psychoanalysis, and its emphasis on the importance of childhood experiences and
the unconscious.
2. Evidence suggests that psychoanalysis is as effective as other psychological
therapies, especially for depression and anxiety disorders. Dossman et al. (1997) in
a study of 666 patients found that therapy decreased medical visits by 30%, and
reduced lost work days by 40% and days in hospital by 66%. (Deciding the
effectiveness of any therapy is fraught with difficulties, e.g. people have different
ideas of what constitutes successful therapy.)
Limitations
1. however, psychoanalysis is usually very long lasting (months or years) and is
expensive, therefore is not accessible for many social groups (for example, the lowpaid, and unemployed).
2. Psychoanalysis requires clients to be articulate and insightful – thus, it may not be
suitable for all personality types.
3. Psychoanalysis is unlikely to be effective with some disorders – for example,
schizophrenia, where the individual usually does not have insight into their
condition.
4. The original model over-emphasised childhood influences and ignored the everyday
problems faced by the adult patients. however, current psychodynamic therapy
recognises this.
You might like to know
Transference is an important part of psychoanalysis. This involves the patient projecting conflicts
and feelings from the past (often to do with the patient’s parents) onto the analyst. This process
reveals to both the analyst and the patient the childhood origins of some of their anxieties and fears.
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Individual Differences
10 mark question: Discuss the use of systematic desensitisation to treat
psychological disorders.
DESCRIPTION
Systematic desensitisation is used in the treatment of phobias, and is based on classical
conditioning. The aim is to extinguish the conditioned association between fear and the
situation or object (a form of counter-conditioning). The fear response is replaced by the
alternative response of relaxation.
In the case of a phobia:
1. The therapist teaches the client deep relaxation techniques.
2. The therapist and client construct a desensitisation hierarchy – a series of imagined
scenes, each one causing a little more anxiety that the previous one.
3. The therapist asks the client to visualise the least feared situation. Simultaneously
the client performs the deep relaxation procedure.
4. Once the client feels comfortable at that level, they are asked to imagine the next
situation in the hierarchy. The same procedure is repeated. (If the client becomes
upset, they can return to an earlier stage and regain their relaxed state.)
5. Over a series of sessions, the client will cope with every level of the hierarchy.
EVALUATION
Strengths
1. Systematic desensitisation can be extremely effective in the treatment of simple
phobias. Success rates of between 60 and 90% have been reported for spider
phobics and injection phobics (Barlow et al., 2003)
2. The therapy involves the client in an active manner (e.g. creating their own anxiety
hierarchy), and this should help him/her feel in control.
Limitations
1. However, like all behavioural therapies, systematic desensitisation focuses on
symptoms rather than any deeper underlying causes. However, there is little
evidence that the symptoms reappear in another form (symptom substitution), and
the symptoms are the problem after all (e.g. the fear of dogs).
2. SD relies on the client’s ability to be able to imagine the fearful situation. If a client
has difficulty in creating a vivid image, SD is not effective.
You might like to know
Critics argue that although SD may be effective in the therapeutic situation, it may not work in the
real world. However, there is evidence that the ability to tolerate imagined stress situations is
followed by a reduction in anxiety in real-life situations (Emmelkamp, 1994).
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Individual Differences
12 mark question: Discuss the use of Cognitive Behavioural Therapy to
treat psychological disorders.
DESCRIPTION
CBT assumes that problems in thinking underlie psychological disorders. The aim of Beck’s
therapy is to challenge irrational and dysfunctional thought processes (about the self, the
world and the future), and to replace them with more realistic and optimistic ones:
1. The therapist helps the client identify negative thoughts, e.g. “No one finds me
attractive and they never will.”
2. The therapist challenges the dysfunctional cognitions by drawing attention to
positive examples that contradict the client’s negative assumptions – this is referred
to as reality testing.
3. The therapist may use behavioural techniques to encourage more positive thinking.
For example, the client is set a list of small goals to be achieved – e.g. to ask
someone to meet for coffee or a drink during the following week. These
achievements increase the client’s self-efficacy.
EVALUATION
Strengths
1. CBT is effective as a treatment for depression and anxiety. There is evidence that
the beneficial effects of CBT on depression last longer than those of antidepressant
drugs (Butler et al. 2006).
2. CBT is recognised as being effective enough to be made available through the
NHS.
3. Courses of CBT are generally limited to a number of sessions over a few weeks. It
is therefore less time consuming and more cost effective than psychoanalytic
therapies.
4. There are no side effects or dependency issues with CBT as there are with drug
therapies.
Limitations however....
1. CBT is not suitable for all conditions, e.g. schizophrenia, and CBT is less effective
than behavioural therapies for treating phobias.
2. Depression may be based on an accurate perception of reality (depressive realism)
– it is important that the therapist does not give the impression that depression is
always unjustified.
You might like to know
In a review of the overall benefits of CBT, Kopelowicz & Liberman (1998) found that CBT moderately
improved the symptoms of schizophrenia in 50% to 60% of sufferers, but only when it was used in
conjunction with drug therapy.
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Individual Differences
Short questions
Definitions of abnormality
1. Explain the deviation from social norms definition of abnormality. (3)
This definition views abnormality in terms of the breaking of society’s standards or
norms. Abnormal behaviour can be seen as behaviour that deviates from or violates
society’s implicit or explicit rules and moral standards, e.g. standing too close to people
when you are talking to them, wearing clothes inappropriate to the situation.
2. What are two limitations of the deviation from social norms definition of
abnormality? (2 + 2)
1. Social norms are era dependent (vary over time as attitudes change). For
example, homosexuality was viewed as a psychiatric disorder until the 1960’s.
Since then attitudes have changed, and homosexuality is no longer seen as a
disorder.
2. Deviation from social norms is bound by culture. Behaviour seen as a deviation in
one society may appear quite acceptable in another, e.g. the expression of grief in
response to the death of a loved one.
1.
3. Explain the failure to function adequately definition of abnormality. (3)
This definition views abnormality as the failure to experience the normal range of
emotions or to engage in the normal range of behaviour. Indicators of the failure to
function adequately, as identified by Rosenhan & Seligman, include:
1. maladaptive (dysfunctional) behaviour – prevents an individual from
achieving life goals
2. observer discomfort – where another’s behaviour causes discomfort and
distress to the observer, e.g. talking very loudly to oneself on a bus
3. unpredictable behaviour – variable and uncontrolled
4. irrational behaviour – behaviours that are difficult to understand, e.g.
laughing wildly at a funeral
4. What are two limitations of the failure to function adequately definition of
abnormality? (2 + 2)
1. It ignores the social context of the behaviour. Behaviour must be seen within
specific situational contexts. Some apparently dysfunctional behaviour might be
adaptive and functional for the individual, for example, going on a hunger strike
for a just cause.
2. Some psychological disorders do not prevent a person from functioning adequately.
Personality disorders related to psychopathy can appear normal most of the time,
e.g. Dr. Harold Shipman, who killed over 200 patients.
5. Explain the deviation from ideal mental health definition of abnormality. (3)
This definition identifies characteristics people should possess in order to be considered
normal. Jahoda identified criteria by which mental health might be defined, including:
1. positive view of self – high self-esteem and strong sense of identity
2. personal growth and self-actualisation
3. autonomy – being independent and self-regulating
4. accurate perception of reality
5. resistance to stress
6. mastery of the environment
Abnormality is seen as the deviation from these ideals.
6. What are two limitations of the deviation from ideal mental health definition of
abnormality? (2 + 2)
1. Jahoda’s view of mental health is culture-bound, largely based on and limited to
individualist cultures, in particular North American culture. Collectivist societies
that emphasise cooperation amongst their members would reject the importance
of self-actualisation as a criterion for mental health. If we apply Jahoda’s criteria
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Individual Differences
to other cultures or sub-cultures it would result in a higher incidence of
abnormality than is actually the case.
2. Few people would match all the criteria laid down by Jahoda – thus the majority
of the population would be classified as abnormal.
Approaches to psychopathology
1. Outline assumptions of the biological approach to psychopathology. (6)
Brain dysfunction: Psychological disorders may result from damage to the brain. For
example, some patients with schizophrenia have enlarged ventricles in their brains,
indicating shrinkage of brain tissue.
Genetic inheritance: Most behaviours, normal and disordered, involve a
component inherited from the biological parents. The presence of certain genes can
make people more vulnerable to disorders. For example, some people are
genetically predisposed to develop depression or schizophrenia.
Biochemistry: Psychological disorders may be due to an imbalance of chemicals there may be too much or too little of certain neurotransmitters and hormones. For
example, low levels of serotonin have been linked to depression. An excess of the
neurotransmitter dopamine has been associated with schizophrenia.
2. What is one strength and one limitation of the biological approach to
psychopathology? (3 + 3)
Strength: The biological approach has led to a range of drug treatments that alter the
body’s biochemistry. For example, Prozac, an antidepressant drug, increases the level
of the neurotransmitter serotonin. Antidepressant drugs appear to be effective in 65-75%
of cases.
Limitation: The biological approach is reductionist: complex mental and
emotional processes are unlikely to be caused solely by genes and
neurotransmitters. At most, biological factors predispose people to developing
psychological disorders which are triggered by environmental factors (the diathesisstress model).
3. Outline assumptions of the psychodynamic approach to psychopathology. (6)
1. Abnormal behaviour is the result of unconscious and repressed conflicts from
childhood. Mental disorders may result from experiences during the oral, anal
and phallic stages. For example, depression may be linked to the loss of a parent
(especially the mother) before the age of five years. Fixation during the anal stage
may lead to an obsession with cleanliness, e.g. obsessive-compulsive disorder.
2. The personality consists of the id, ego and superego. Mental disorders occur
when the ego fails to reconcile the opposing forces of the id and the super ego.
An unchecked id may result in conduct disorders in childhood and psychopathic
behaviour in adulthood. An overly powerful superego can lead to neurosis, such
as phobias and obsessional behaviour.
3. Anxiety is controlled by defence mechanisms such as repression, denial,
projection and displacement. Mental disorders often represent an exaggerated
use of defence mechanisms, e.g. projection can lead to paranoia.
4. What is one strength and one limitation of the psychodynamic approach to
psychopathology? (2 + 2)
Strength: The importance of childhood experiences in the development of mental
disorders is supported by evidence. Bifulco et al. (1992) found evidence that
children whose mothers died in childhood were more likely than other children to
experience depression later in life.
.
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Individual Differences
Limitation: Many argue that the psychodynamic approach is not scientific. The
assumptions refer to variables that must be inferred, rather than observed directly
(e.g. the unconscious, defence mechanisms). Therefore, it is difficult to test this
theory - it is nonfalsifiable.
5. Outline assumptions of the behavioural approach to psychopathology. (6)
1. Abnormal behaviour is learned in the same way as normal behaviour. All mental
disorders are maladaptive behaviours, arising from conditioning, either classical or
operant.
2. Classical conditioning: involves learning an association between a neutral
stimulus (e.g. a dentist) and an unconditioned stimulus (e.g. pain). The fear
response generalises to the previously neutral stimulus (now a conditioned
stimulus). Thus, phobias may be learned through classical conditioning.
3. Operant conditioning: ‘Behaviour is shaped and maintained by its
consequences’’ (Skinner). Consequences may be positive or negative
reinforcement or punishment. Thus, depression results from a lack of positive
reinforcements (e.g. approval, friendships) or an excess of negative experiences
(punishments).
6. What is one strength and one limitation of the behavioural approach to
psychopathology? (2 + 2)
Strength
The behavioural approach has led to therapies that have been successful in treating
mental disorders, such as the use of systematic desensitisation for phobias. The
success of the treatments provides support for the model.
Limitation
The behavioural approach ignores biological factors. For example, there is
evidence that genetics make individuals more vulnerable to developing
schizophrenia. Other evidence implicates the role of neurotransmitters, e.g. the role
of serotonin in depression.
7. Outline assumptions of the cognitive approach to psychopathology. (6)
1. The cognitive approach assumes that people’s thoughts direct their emotions and
behaviour. Mental disorders result from irrational and negative cognitions. For
example, a person believes she/he is worthless and this thinking leads to feelings
of depression.
2. Thinking can be distorted in many ways, leading to cognitive biases:
• magnification of difficulties and failures
• minimisation of successes and achievements
• over-generalisation – drawing a sweeping conclusion on the basis of a single
event
3. Beck used the term cognitive triad to refer to three main forms of negative
thinking, about (1) the self (2) the world (3) the future. According to Beck these
automatic and maladaptive thought patterns can lead to depression.
8. What is one strength and one limitation of the cognitive approach to
psychopathology? (2 + 2)
Strength
Successful treatment: Research indicates that Beck’s cognitive therapy is as
successful as antidepressant drugs in treating depression This, in itself, provides
support for the cognitive model.
Limitation
The cognitive approach has been criticised for viewing negative and irrational
cognitions as the cause of mental disorders, when they may the consequence of
having a mental disorder. Thus, negative emotion may cause the negative thinking.
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Individual Differences
9. Explain one way in which psychologists have investigated the biological basis of
abnormality. (3)
One way is to compare identical twins (MZ’s: monozygotic) who have the same
genes with fraternal twins (DZ’s: dizygotic twins) who have around 50% shared
genes. For example, there is evidence of a higher concordance rate for
schizophrenia between MZ twins than DZ twins - seen as support for the biological
model.
10. Explain one way in which psychologists have investigated the
psychodynamic approach to abnormality. (3)
Evidence supporting the psychodynamic model comes from clinical case studies, an indepth study of an individual or group of people. Freud supported his theories with case
studies, e.g. Anna O and Little Hans.
11. Explain one way in which psychologists have investigated the behavioural
approach to abnormality. (3)
According to the behavioural approach, the same laws of learning apply to human
and non-human animals. Therefore, a lot of research is carried out on non-human
animals, under controlled lab conditions (e.g. pigeons and rats), using the
experimental method. For example, Skinner’s research into operant conditioning.
12. Explain one way in which psychologists have investigated the cognitive
approach to abnormality. (3)
The questionnaire method is often used to assess people’s thinking patterns, e.g.
the Beck Depression Inventory. There is a great deal of evidence that compared to
non-depressed people, depressed individuals are more negative in terms of
themselves, the world, and the future.
Treatments
1.
Outline the use of drugs in treating abnormality. (4 or 6)
Antipsychotics: Drugs used in the treatment of schizophrenia. They reduce
symptoms such as hallucinations, delusions and thought disorders. Antipsychotics
act by reducing dopamine activity in the brain. Examples include chloropromazine
and clozapine.
Anti-depressants: Drugs used in the treatment of depression. These drugs raise
serotonin levels in the brain, either by reducing the rate of re-absorption of
serotonin, or by blocking the enzyme that breaks down serotonin. Examples include
monoamine-oxidase inhibitors (MAOI’s) and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors
(SSRI’s, for example, Prozac).
Lithium: Used for bipolar depression. (A disorder where the person has periods of
clinical depression followed by periods of mania) Lithium can stabilise the condition.
2.
What is one strength and one limitation of the use of drugs in treating
abnormality? (2 + 2)
Strength
Drugs can be effective in suppressing disabling and life-threatening symptoms of
schizophrenia and severe depression, and many people are able to live normal lives
because of drug therapy. (however, many patients do not respond to drug
therapy.)
Limitation
Most drugs have problems of side effects and dependence, which need to be
carefully managed. For example, SSRIs (e.g. Prozac) have been associated with
outbursts of violence and suicides.
17
Individual Differences
3.
Describe the use of ECT (electro-convulsive therapy) in treating abnormality.
(4 or 6)
1. The patient is on a bed. An electrode is placed above the temple of the nondominant side of the brain (unilateral ECT).
2. The patient is injected with a short-acting anaesthetic (so they are not
conscious during the treatment) and given a strong muscle relaxant.
3. A small amount of electric current (between 70 and 130 volts), lasting about
half a second is passed through the brain.
4. The electric current produces convulsions – lasting up to one minute, which
affect the entire brain. (The spasms are barely perceptible to onlookers.)
5. Repeated 3 times per week for up to 4 weeks
4.
What is one one strength and one limitation of ECT (electro-convulsive therapy)?
(2 + 2)
Strength
ECT can be an effective antidepressant treatment for patients unresponsive to other
therapies (and especially when suicide is an issue). 60-70% of ECT patients
improve after treatment (although a high percentage relapses within six months of
treatment).
Limitation
ECT can have side effects. ECT can lead to long-term memory impairment, anxiety
and headaches.
5.
Outline techniques used in psychoanalysis. (4 or 6)
The aim of psychoanalysis is to make “the unconscious conscious” – to uncover
material repressed into the unconscious.
Free association:
• The client is encouraged to express anything that comes into their mind
• Talking freely allows ego defences to be lowered and repressed material accessed
• The therapist intervenes on occasions – to encourage further reflection, or to
make interpretations
Dream analysis:
• Dreams are the “royal road to the unconscious”. The therapist analyses and
interprets the manifest content (the content as reported by the dreamer), in
order to uncover the latent content (the actual meaning of the dream)
• The therapist hopes to identify significant repressed conflicts and
unconscious wishes (often sexual or aggressive)
6.
What is one strength and one limitation of psychoanalysis? (2 + 2)
Strength
Many therapies, for both children and adults, have been influenced by psychoanalysis,
and its emphasis on the importance of childhood experiences and the unconscious.
Limitation
Psychoanalysis is usually very long lasting (months or years) and is expensive,
therefore is not accessible for many social groups (e.g. the low-paid, unemployed).
7.
Describe the use of systematic desensitisation in treating abnormality. (4 or 6)
In the case of a phobia:
1. The therapist teaches the client deep relaxation techniques.
2. The therapist and client construct a desensitisation hierarchy – a series of
imagined scenes, each one causing a little more anxiety that the previous one.
3. The therapist asks the client to visualise the least feared situation.
Simultaneously the client performs the deep relaxation procedure.
4. Once the client feels comfortable at that level, they are asked to imagine the
next situation in the hierarchy. The same procedure is repeated.
5. Over a series of sessions, the client will cope with every level of the
hierarchy.
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Individual Differences
8.
What is one strength and one limitation of systematic desensitisation? (2 + 2)
Strength
Systematic desensitisation can be extremely effective in the treatment of simple
phobias. Success rates of between 60 and 90% have been reported for spider
phobics and injection phobics.
Limitation
Like all behavioural therapies, systematic desensitisation focuses on symptoms
(that is, the phobic response) rather than any deeper underlying causes (why has
the phobia developed?).
9.
Outline what is involved in Cognitive Behavioural Therapy. (4 or 6)
CBT assumes that problems in thinking underlie psychological disorders. The aim of
Beck’s therapy is to challenge irrational and dysfunctional thought processes (about
the self, the world and the future), and to replace them with more realistic and
optimistic ones:
1. The therapist helps the client identify negative thoughts, e.g. “No one finds me
attractive and they never will.”
2. The therapist challenges the dysfunctional cognitions by drawing attention to
positive examples that contradict the client’s negative assumptions – this is
referred to as reality testing.
3. The therapist uses behavioural techniques to encourage more positive
thinking. The client may be set a list of small goals to be achieved – e.g. to
ask someone to meet for coffee or a drink during the next week. These
achievements increase the client’s self-efficacy.
10.
What is one strength and one limitation of Cognitive Behavioural Therapy?
(2 + 2)?
Strength
Courses of CBT are generally limited to a number of sessions over a few weeks. It
is therefore less time consuming and more cost effective than psychoanalytic
therapies.
Limitation
CBT is not suitable for all conditions, e.g. schizophrenia, and CBT is less effective
than behavioural therapies for treating phobias.
11.
Some patients, especially children and those with mental impairments, may not
be able to give informed consent for treatment of their mental disorders. Explain
how informed consent could be gained in an ethical manner for these types of
patients. (4)
Consult with a family member or recent provider of care, who could appreciate the
potential reactions of clients, and help decide what is in their best interests.
If the above is not possible, specific approval should be obtained from an
appropriate institutional ethical committee.
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Individual Differences
Application of knowledge: Thinking on the spot!
For some questions you need to apply your knowledge and understanding of psychology to
a novel situation – what I term the “Thinking on the spot!” questions. You can’t predict these
questions but you can develop your ability to answer them. The most important point to
remember is: It is essential that you explicitly relate your knowledge to the situation or
person described in the question.
The two areas where it is most likely you would get a question asking you to apply your
knowledge to a novel situation are definitions of abnormality and treatments. The following
examples might help. The answers are longer than you would have time for in the exam –
but hopefully give you ideas of how you might tackle the questions.
DEFINITIONS OF ABNORMALITY
1. Daisy is a middle aged unemployed woman who lives in a large city. When she is out she
can often be heard talking loudly to herself, sometimes repeating the same thing over and
over again (e.g. “I can’t find my treasures.”) Sometimes people approach her and offer help
but she carries on talking. When she is on a bus people often move to avoid being too
close.
(a) Identify two definitions of abnormality. (2)
(b) Use the definitions identified above to explain why Daisy’s behaviour might be
viewed as abnormal. (2)
(a) Deviation from social norms and the failure to function adequately.
(b) (i) According to the deviation of social norms definition, behaviour that goes against the
implicit and explicit norms of society is considered abnormal. Daisy’s behaviour, talking
loudly to herself, goes against the (implicit) social norm of not talking to oneself in public
places, and would be considered abnormal. (Many people talk to themselves when
alone, of course),
(ii) According to the failure to function adequately definition, there are seven indicators
of abnormality (as identified by Rosenhan and Selgiman) including observer discomfort,
and maladaptive behaviour. Daisy’s behaviour would probably make many people feel
uncomfortable. It would also be considered maladaptive/dysfunctional.
2.
Sam becomes verbally aggressive with the least provocation and loses his temper on most
days – usually because he thinks people are trying to get at him. He raises his voice and
threatens strangers in supermarkets and when he uses public transport. He has lost three
jobs in the last six months because he is sometimes abusive to his boss and other
employees although he is very skilled at car mechanics.
Explain Sam’s behaviour in terms of the following definitions of abnormality
a. Deviation from social norms
b. Failure to function adequately
c. Deviation from ideal mental health
a. Deviation from social norms- according to this definition, behaviour that goes against
the implicit and explicit norms of society is considered abnormal. Sam’s hostility to
strangers and his displays of verbal aggression at work are both contrary to implicit and
explicit norms about how someone should behave in public.
b. Failure to function adequately – according to this definition, there are seven indicators of
abnormality, (as identified by Rosenman and Selgiman) including unpredictable and
irrational behaviour. Sam’s behaviour is clearly unpredictable and irrational. (It is also
maladaptive.)
c. Deviation from ideal mental health – according to this definition, abnormality is the
absence of certain criteria identified by Jahoda, including environmental mastery – how
well-adapted a person is. Sam’s behaviour is not adaptive – he has difficulties in
interpersonal relations. He also shows signs of a distorted perception of reality, e.g. he
thinks people are getting at him.
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Individual Differences
TREATMENTS
A question on treatments may ask you to apply your knowledge and understanding of a
treatment to a novel person or situation. One strategy is to list the stages or features of a
treatment and then provide examples from the scenario. It is essential that you relate your
answer to the scenario.
SYSTEMATIC DESENSITISATION
Anna avoids eating in front of anyone except at home with family members. She becomes
intensely anxious even at the thought of it. This means she can’t go out with her friends for
a bite to eat, or accept invitations to have tea in their houses. Anna attends a sixth form
college and it is quite difficult to find an empty room to eat her packed lunch. Often she
skips meals.
In order to overcome her fear, Anna sees a behavioural psychologist who feels that she
may benefit from systematic desensitisation.
Explain how a therapist might use systematic desensitisation to help Anna overcome her
fear. (6)
1. The therapist would teach Anna deep relaxation techniques.
2. The therapist and Anna would construct a desensitisation hierarchy – a series of
imagined scenes, each one causing a little more anxiety that the previous one. For
example, the first scene could be a photograph of people eating in a restaurant. The
final stage might be Anna imagining eating in the sixth form canteen.
3. The therapist would ask Anna to visualise the least feared situation (the photo of the
restaurant) while simultaneously performing the deep relaxation procedure.
4. Once Anna feels comfortable, she would imagine the next situation in the hierarchy.
(for example, eating in the same room as another person, but some distance away.)
5. Over a series of sessions, Anna will learn to cope with every level of the hierarchy.
COGNITIVE BEHAVIOUR THERAPY/ DRUG THERAPY
Miriam had been one of the best actors in her year when she studied performance arts.
She often had the lead roles in the end of year plays. Recently however she has dreaded
auditions and on three occasions has told her agent she doesn’t want the part. Before her
last audition, she didn’t sleep the night before and she couldn’t stop her hands’ trembling.
(a) Outline how drugs could be used to treat Miriam. (4)
Beta-blockers could help Miriam because they tackle the physiological effects of
stress, such as trembling hands. They do not enter the brain but reduce activity of the
sympathetic nervous system in pathways around the body and block receptors on the
heart which are stimulated by noradrenaline, and do not have side effects. Betablockers have been found to be effective for performance anxiety, e.g. musicians and
certain snooker players, so might be appropriate for Miriam.
(b) Outline how CBT would be used to treat Miriam. (4, 6))
The aim of CBT would be to challenge Miriam’s irrational and dysfunctional thought
processes, and to replace them with more realistic and optimistic ones.
1. The therapist would help Miriam to identify negative thoughts – “I won’t be able to
say the lines properly.” “I’ll never get another part.”
2. The therapist would challenge Miriam’s dysfunctional cognitions, by drawing
attention to positive examples that contradict her negative assumptions – this is
referred to as reality testing. “Why do you think you got all those parts while at
college?” “What kind of reviews did you get?” “When did you forget your lines?”
3. The therapist may use behavioural techniques to encourage more positive
behaviour. Miriam would be set a list of small goals to be achieved, e.g. reading a
part in front of a close friend or phoning her agent. These achievements will
increase Miriam’s self-efficacy.
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Individual Differences
PSYCHOANALYSIS
Yanuk has become more and more withdrawn since starting university. He stays in his
room a lot of the time, and has stopped going to lectures. He sometimes talks to his flat
mates in the communal kitchen but doesn’t join them when they go out. He thinks he is on
the wrong course and wants to leave university at the end of term but feels he would be
letting his parents down.
Yanuk has been referred to a therapist for psychoanalysis.
Outline how psychoanalysis might be used to treat Yanuk. (6)
The aim of psychoanalysis would be to help Yanuk uncover unconscious reasons for why
he is finding university so difficult. Techniques include free association and dream analysis.
Free association:
• Yanuk would be encouraged to express anything that comes into his mind, no
matter how trivial.
• Talking freely allows ego defences to be lowered and repressed material accessed.
e.g. Yanuk might remember times when he was dropped off and left by himself in
the playground when he was in nursery and felt frightened.
• The therapist intervenes on occasions – to encourage further reflection, or to make
interpretations, e.g. Yanuk’s fears of separation.
Dream analysis:
Dreams are the “royal road to the unconscious”. The therapist would encourage Yanuk
to recall his dreams. The therapist seeks to identify themes that emerge from these, for
example, being abandoned or fear of his parents dying.
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