THE OPEN UNIVERSITY OF TANZANIA
THE INSTITUTE OF CONTINUING EDUCATION
ODC: 063
GENERAL STUDIES
LWEKAZA JAMES KISOZA, RAHMA MOHAMED
AND
THE OPEN UNIVERSITYOF TANZANIA
2008
SAMWEL CHALE
INTRODUCTION
Dear Student,
You are most welcome to this course on General Studies. The purpose is to make you grasp
the concepts and major socio-economic issue you encountered in your daily life. This course
will revolve around socio-economic and political issues and challenges facing your own
society and the nation in general. It is expected that grasping and understanding issues and
concepts that will be provided by this course would help you to take part in finding strategies
and take action to meet those challenges for well-being of your own society.
GENERAL OBJECTIVES
By the end of this module, you should be able to:(i)
Understand concepts and issues related to socio-economic and political affairs.
(ii)
Equip with knowledge and skills on how to meet challenges arise from your respective
communities.
(iii)
Initiate strategies that aimed at improving your life standard and the national
development in general.
(i)
Define and employ correctly the terms in general studies.
(ii)
Discuss the essence and features of development in wider context.
(iv)
Explain features and stages of developing text, audio, video and computing resources.
(v)
Introduce you to intelligent reading, assimilation, critical judgment, analysis and
synthesis of information.
This unit is particularly useful to all students taking the Diploma in Primary Teachers
Education.
Good Luck.
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Methods of Assessment/Evaluation:
One Timed Test and Final examination. The timed test comprise 30%. The final examination
carries the remaining 70%.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.
Introduction
2.
Lecture 1: DEVELOPMENT CONCEPTS
3.
Lecture 2: EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT
4.
Lecture 3: GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
5.
Lecture 4: REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
6.
Lecture 5: DRUGS, SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES (STDS) and HIV/AIDS
7.
Lecture 6: PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
8.
Lecture 7: NATURAL RESOURCES
8.
Lecture 8:
9.
Lecture 9: ENVIRONMENT PROBLEMS
10.
Lecture 10: ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT
References
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LECTURE ONE
DEVELOPMENT CONCEPTS
The main aim of this lecture is to contextualize key terms within the ground of development.
Such terms include development, underdevelopment and the sustainable development.
By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:
1. Understand the concepts and issues related to development
2. Identify indicators of development
3. Explain causes of underdevelopment.
4. Define and discuss problems facing sustainable development.
1. Development
1.1
Meaning of the word Development
The concept of development is not easy to be defined; because the word signifies
different by different people. What one person takes to be development may be
underdevelopment to others. Definition of the term development depends on the time and
environment on which it is defined.
Development in the past has always meant the increase in the ability to guard the
independence of the social group and indeed to break upon freedom of other
(Walter.R. 1974).
Modern scholars defined the term development, as a rational gradual process for the integral
betterment of people’s life. (Buguma .A. et al……).
Walter. R (1974); Defined the term development as many sided process that has two
levels:
At level of individual – it implies increased skill and capacity; greater freedom,
creativity, self discipline, responsibility and material well being.
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
At the level of social group – Development implies an increasing capacity to
regulate both internal and external relationships.
Development therefore, should be a process that enables human beings to realize their
potentials, build self-confidence and lead lives of dignity and fulfillment. It should be
development of people and not roads, buildings, the increase in crop output and other
things of this nature. (Nyerere, J.K. 1974). Roads, buildings and others are tools for
development and not development in itself.
2. Aspects of Development
2.1 Political Development
Political development is taken to be political modernization in the sense that it is the politics
of industrialized states. This view is biased in favour of western countries with
liberal
democracy. Thus their practices are taken as universal standards of political behaviour and
performance to be copied by the less developed states. (Lucien Pye: 1965).
The
standards of such western states could be cited as:
Mass participation and multiparty politics. It is assume that the society would have various
political organizations and pressure groups that are independent and are capable of fighting
for the basic human rights of its members. There is also respect for merit rather than birth.
Thus selection to jobs and political office would be based on merit and not by sheer
appointment by the King or Chief. Regular elections that are free and fair secure for the
country its political leadership. The country is ruled according to law and there is separation
of
powers between the Legislative Body (Bunge), the Judiciary and the Executive, the
former being supreme. The main critique of these standards is that one fails to distinguish
between what is western standard and what is modern. In fact a close examination indicates
that
political development means the building of democracies - establishing its institutions
and
practices in the so called advance countries.
2.2 Economic Development
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Any society to exist it must produce enough food, clothing and decent shelter (the necessary
product). It must provide as well essential basic services such as medical care, education,
transport facilities cheap supply of water and energy and recreation. In order to develop a
society must produce a surplus over and above the necessary product. A surplus is vital for
development. It could be used as a reserve against future catastrophes. This reserve secures
against destruction of life and property. A surplus could be used as Savings (postponed
consumption).Savings allow the society to reinvest to ensure expanded reproduction
(production at higher levels than the previous years).
Therefore economic development
would mean economic growth. That is, the capacity for a country to produce a greater gross
national product (GNP) and a capability to save a considerable proportion of its GDP to allow
it to expand production. This allows the country to sustain faster rates of economic growth.
Economic Development therefore means regular progress and rising prosperity.
Economic Development pre-supposes industrialization and use of advanced science and
technology. It is the use of advanced technology which allows for the increased productivity
of labour, invention of time saving machines, uncovering of new useful products of nature
and discovery of new uses of byproducts.
Thus the production of a greater quantity of
commodities and services faster and more cheaply in the shortest possible time is ensured
and production of surplus guaranteed. Economic Development entails searching for ways
whereby the backward
agricultural countries beset by poverty, illiteracy, disease and
higher rate of mortality would
overcome such misery and enjoy prosperity (Eatwell,
Milgate and Newsman: 1987).
Once again it is assumed that industrialized states especially liberal democracies are pioneers
of economic development. The later comers like African countries must attempt to emulate
the pioneers. Some authors think that it could be easily done by the later comers if they just
obtain blue prints from pioneers.Such a strategy would put late comers on the modernization
footing it is argued (Eatwell et al. 1987).
This simplistic argument assumes that African
countries and industrialized states have similar characteristics. That the blue print and rights
laws is not all that easy to obtain them. One also wonders if such blue prints which started
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off Britain to an industrialization path in the 19th century were relevant to the existing
conditions of later comers in the dawn of 21st Century.
Whatever the case some economic growth is a necessary condition to social development.
Equal access is only possible where there is production of sufficient goods and services for
securing the necessary product and allowing people to postpone consumption of other goods
and so save.
2.3 Social Development
Simply this refers to equal access to all members of the society to the necessary product.
Civilized society must guarantee its people of decent clothing, food and shelter.
Social
development also includes equal access to essential basic services and opportunities such as
education, health, easy communications, recreation and a job.
A pre-requisite to
guaranteeing access to basic needs to all members of the nation state is the production of
sufficient goods and services (economic development).
Without well developed human
resources applying Science and Technology to efficient production, neither economic nor
social development would be guaranteed.
3. Indicators of Development
National Income and Per Capita National Product
National Income (NI) is a rather complex concept. However, National Income corresponds
basically to the income accruing to a nation by virtue of productive activities (Eatwell et
al.1987).The best approach to the concept of National Income is through the more widely
used concept of Gross National Product (GNP). GNP is the un-duplicated value of what a
nation
produces. Unduplicated, in the meaning, without doubling counting. For instance
in a simple
agricultural economy that produces wheat which is then turned into flour and
then into bread it
would be double counting (duplicating a count) if one adds the value of
wheat and the flour to the value of bread. Since bread already includes the value of wheat
and flour the total of all
goods and services that enter into final demand in a given year.
Final demand comprises of capital formation (capital goods plus public consumption (food,
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clothing, entertainment etc), public consumption (expenditure on schools, hospitals, defense
etc.) and the value of exports.
The GNP per capita represents the average obtained by dividing the GNP by total population
(Eatwell: 1987). Thus it has been used to compare the economic well being of nations.
Strictly, such an indicator may not reflect at time the real socio-economic and political
development of a country. In fact it favours those countries with a well established market
mechanism and a big formal sector. The least development countries with a large informal
sector suffer from underestimation of its private consumption supplied by the informal sector.
Some smaller countries with a small population but a single export product in high and
constant demand like petroleum and its products may show a very high GNP per capita
despite being a backward country. Take the United Arab Emirates whose GNP per capita was
US Dollars 22,180 in 1991.This was very close: To that of the GNP per capita for USA (Dollars
22,340) and the surpasses that of France (US Dollars 20,460) and that of United Kingdom
(US Dollars 16,000) (UNDP Report: 1994). However, in terms of political development and
economic and even social welfare the Sultanates of United Arab Emirates lag far, far behind
the USA, France and the United Kingdom.
Occupational Distribution
A high GNP per capita allows for higher savings which could be invested to expand
production in industry as well as be invested in new industries. In so doing a wide range of
employment opportunities in industry would be created. In such circumstances labour would
move from agriculture to industry and people would migrate from rural areas into towns and
cities seeking job opportunities. This process would make new towns to spring up and
existing ones to expand even further. Thus first there are occupational changes. A country
where percentage of labour force in industry is greater than that employed in agriculture is
taken to indicate some economic development. For instance in 1992 the percentage of the
labour force in agriculture in industrialized countries in the would on the average had
dwindled to 9 percent whereas that of least developed countries was on the average as high
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as 73 percent (UNDP: 1994). The labour force in industry in industrialized countries was on
the average 33 per cent but the least developed countries still lagged behind at 8 percent.
Urbanization is also taken as an indicator of some development.
Populations of least
developed countries live predominantly in rural areas. 79 percent of their populations lived in
rural areas in 1992. Only 27 per cent lived in rural areas on the average in industrialized
countries.
The Age Structure
Economic development produces considerable changes in the size and age structure of the
population. Urbanization depresses birthrates. (People in urban areas tend to have small
families). At the same time improved healthy delivery systems and sanitation generally
prolongs life expectations. Consequently the proportion of children and the young person is
reduced and that of the ages is prolonged. As older population may indicate in this request
some kind of development associated with urbanization.
Rate of Economic Growth
It is assumed that a country with a higher GNP per capita has a higher capacity to save a
considerable proportion of its gross national product. The higher the proportion saved, the
greater the ability to expand production and consequently sustain a faster rate of economic
growth.
Towards a Critique of Indicators of Development
The main indictors of development especially the GNP per capita had been found inadequate
as an indicator of development. There are countries with a very high gross national per
capital but that lack political and social development. We have cited above the obvious case
of the United Arab Emirates compared to some advanced western countries. A country may
have an export in relative high demand fetching so much per-dollar yet have smaller
population. This would give it a greater GNP per capita hides gross inequalities in the division
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of a country’s wealth among the population. Normally a country’s wealth is concentrated in
the hands of few rich individuals, with the majority of the population steeped up in poverty
and misery. All this because of misdistribution of wealth. It is therefore possible for a country
to have an extraordinary high GNP per capita that is not coupled with human development.
Such a country would require political development with serious violations of people’s
democratic human rights. In addition the country may be characterized by very poor
delivery systems of social services.
Most classical economists put a greater emphasis on economic growth per se and secondarily
on the improvement in human lives. The political economic approach to development puts a
greater emphasis on distribution.
growth
This should not be interpreted to mean that economic
does not matter in improving the quality of life. Simply it is not the level of income
alone that matters but also the use that is made of that income. What is decisive is not the
process of
wealth maximization but how the fruits of economic growth are shared. This
means how much the poor in the society gets and how much of the surplus is used to
support
public
services
especially
primary
health
care,
basic
education,
public
communications and recreation.
Urbanization and migration of labour from agriculture to industry could indicate a process of
development only if improved technological use in agriculture increases productivity of labour
and that of land and if there is genuine industrialization. Most African countries have shown
faster urban growth without industrialization nor improved productivity of labour in
agriculture. Normally a depressed mining industry or single cash crop export (mono culture)
is supported by an inefficient small import substitution industry. This has always been a
recipe for stagnation if not deterioration of standards of living in such countries, Tanzania not
excepted.
Summary
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In this lecture you studied development concepts and that there is no single definition of
development that will be acceptable to every one. However there are aspects that all of us
agree to it.
Activity
Explain what is meant by the term Development?
List the development indicators.
Write short notes on Economic development and social development.
References
.1. Tanzania Journal of Development students (2003), Vol. 4. No. 1, Institute of Development
studies, university of Dar es Salaam.
2. Kyambogo University, Revised Basic studies, 2, DEPE programme.
Walter.R. 1974
UNDP: 1994
UNDP Report: 1994
Eatwell: 1987
Nyerere, J.K. 1974
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LECTURE TWO
EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT
INTRODUCTION
In lecture one you were bought into general understanding of development concepts and
issues. Lecture two will take you further stage concerning development in education.
Changes that took place in education. The lecture therefore discusses concept of education,
role of education in development and education and development in Tanzania.
Objectives
At the end of this lecture you should be able to;
1. Define education as a concept
2. Identify systems of education and how does it differ.
3. Discuss importance of Education in Development Progress
4. Understand the idea of education for sustainable development.
5. Identify factors affecting Education sector in Tanzania.
Introduction
The philosophy of education is the study of the purpose, process, nature and ideals of
education. This can be within the context of education as a societal institution or more
broadly as the process of human existential growth, i.e. how it is that our understanding of
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the world is continually transformed via physical, emotional, cognitive and transcendental
experiences.
Education encompasses both the teaching and learning of knowledge, proper conduct, and
technical competency. It thus focuses on the cultivation of skills, trades or professions, as
well as mental, moral and aesthetic development.[1] Formal education consists of systematic
instruction, teaching and training by professional teachers. This consists of the application of
pedagogy and the development of curricula. In a liberal education tradition, teachers draw on
many different disciplines for their lessons, including psychology, philosophy, linguistics,
biology, and sociology. Teachers in specialized professions such as astrophysics, law, or
zoology may teach only in a narrow area, usually as professors at institutions of higher
learning. There is much specialist instruction in fields of trade for those who want specific
skills, such as required to be a pilot, for example. Finally, there is an array of educational
opportunity in the informal sphere- for this reason; society subsidizes institutions such as
museums and libraries. Informal education also includes knowledge and skills learned and
refined during the course of life, including education that comes from experience in practicing
a profession.
Systems of formal education
Educational systems are established to provide education and training, often for children and
the youth. A curriculum defines what students should know, understand and be able to do as
the result of education. A teaching profession delivers teaching which enables learning and a
system of policies, regulations, examinations, structures and funding enables teachers to
teach to the best of their abilities. Sometimes education systems can be used to promote
doctrines or ideals as well as knowledge, which is known as social engineering. This can lead
to political abuse of the system, particularly in totalitarian states and government.

Education is a broad concept, referring to all the experiences in which students can
learn something.
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
Instruction refers to the intentional facilitating of learning toward identified goals,
delivered either by an instructor or other forms.

Teaching refers to the actions of a real live instructor designed to impart learning to
the student.

Training refers to learning with a view toward preparing learners with specific
knowledge, skills, or abilities that can be applied immediately upon completion.
Primary education
Primary (or elementary) education consists of the first years of formal, structured education.
In general, primary education consists of six or seven years of schooling starting at the age
of 5 or 6, although this varies between, and sometimes within, countries. Globally, around
70% of primary-age children are enrolled in primary education, and this proportion is rising.
Under the Education for All programs driven by UNESCO, most countries have committed to
achieving universal enrollment in primary education by 2015, and in many countries, it is
compulsory for children to receive primary education. The division between primary and
secondary education is somewhat arbitrary, but it generally occurs at about eleven or twelve
years of age. Some education systems have separate middle schools, with the transition to
the final stage of secondary education taking place at around the age of fourteen. Schools
that provide primary education are mostly referred to as primary schools. Primary schools in
these countries are often subdivided into infant schools and junior schools.
Secondary education
In most contemporary educational systems of the world, secondary education consists of the
second years of formal education that occur during adolescence. It is characterized by
transition from the typically compulsory, comprehensive primary education for minors, to the
optional, selective tertiary, "post-secondary", or "higher" education (e.g., university,
vocational school) for adults. Depending on the system, schools for this period, or a part of it,
may be called secondary or high schools, middle schools, colleges, or vocational schools. The
exact meaning of any of these terms varies from one system to another. The exact boundary
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between primary and secondary education also varies from country to country and even
within them, but is generally around the seventh to the tenth year of schooling. Secondary
education occurs mainly during the teenage years. In the United States and Canada primary
and secondary education together are sometimes referred to as K-12 education, and in New
Zealand Year 1-13 is used. The purpose of secondary education can be to give common
knowledge, to prepare for higher education or to train directly in a profession.
Higher education
Higher education, also called tertiary, third stage, or post secondary education, is the noncompulsory educational level that follows the completion of a school providing a secondary
education, such as a high school and secondary school, Tertiary education is normally taken
to include undergraduate and postgraduate education, as well as vocational education and
training. Colleges and universities are the main institutions that provide tertiary education.
Collectively, these are sometimes known as tertiary institutions. Tertiary education generally
results in the receipt of certificates, diplomas, or academic degrees.
Higher education includes teaching, research and social services activities of universities, and
within the realm of teaching, it includes both the undergraduate level (sometimes referred to
as tertiary education) and the graduate (or postgraduate) level (sometimes referred to as
graduate school). Higher education in that country generally involves work towards a degreelevel or foundation degree qualification. In most developed countries a high proportion of the
population (up to 50%) now enters higher education at some time in their lives. Higher
education is therefore very important to national economies, both as a significant industry in
its own right, and as a source of trained and educated personnel for the rest of the economy.
Adult education
Adult education has become common in many countries. It takes on many forms, ranging
from formal class-based learning to self-directed learning.
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Alternative education
Alternative education, also known as non-traditional education or educational alternative, is a
broad term that may be used to refer to all forms of education outside of traditional
education (for all age groups and levels of education). This may include not only forms of
education designed for students with special needs (ranging from teenage pregnancy to
intellectual disability), but also forms of education designed for a general audience and
employing alternative educational philosophies and methods.
Alternatives of the latter type are often the result of education reform and are rooted in
various philosophies that are commonly fundamentally different from those of traditional
compulsory education. While some have strong political, scholarly, or philosophical
orientations, others are more informal associations of teachers and students dissatisfied with
certain aspects of traditional education. These alternatives, which include charter schools,
alternative schools, independent schools, and home-based learning vary widely, but often
emphasize the value of small class size, close relationships between students and teachers,
and a sense of community.
Indigenous education
Increasingly, the inclusion of indigenous models of education (methods and content) as an
alternative within the scope of formal and non-formal education systems has come to
represent a significant factor contributing to the success of those members of indigenous
communities who choose to access these systems, both as students/learners and as
teachers/instructors.As an educational method, the inclusion of indigenous ways of knowing,
learning, instructing, teaching and training, has been viewed by many critical and postmodern
scholars as important for ensuring that students/learners and teachers/instructors (whether
indigenous or non-indigenous) are able to benefit from education in a culturally sensitive
manner that draws upon, utilizes, promotes and enhances awareness of indigenous
traditions.
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For indigenous students/learners and teachers/instructors, the inclusion of these methods
often enhances educational effectiveness, success and learning outcomes by providing
education that adheres to their own inherent perspectives, experiences and worldview. For
non-indigenous students/learners and teachers/instructors, education using such methods
often has the effect of raising awareness of the individual traditions and collective experience
of surrounding indigenous communities and peoples, thereby promoting greater respect for
and appreciation of the cultural realities of these communities and peoples.
In terms of educational content, the inclusion of indigenous knowledge, traditions,
perspectives, worldviews and conceptions within curricula, instructional materials and
textbooks/course books has been shown to have largely the same effects as the inclusion of
indigenous methods in education. Indigenous students/learners and teachers/instructors
benefit from enhanced academic effectiveness, success and learning outcomes, while nonindigenous students/learners and teachers/instructors often have greater awareness, respect,
and appreciation for indigenous communities and peoples in consequence of the content that
is shared during the course of educational pursuits.
Economic implications of Education
It has been argued that high rates of education are essential for countries to be able to
achieve high levels of economic growth. In theory poor countries should grow faster than rich
countries because they can adopt cutting edge technologies already tried and tested by rich
countries. But economists argue that if the gap in education between a rich and a poor nation
is too large, as is the case between the poorest and the richest nations in the world, the
transfer of these technologies that drive economic growth becomes difficult, thus the
economies of the world's poorest nations stagnate.
Education in developing countries
In some developing countries, the number and seriousness of the problems faced are
naturally greater. People in more remote or agrarian areas are sometimes unaware of the
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importance of education. However, many countries have an active Ministry of Education, and
in many subjects, such as foreign language learning, the degree of education is actually much
higher than in industrialized countries; for example, it is not at all uncommon for students in
many developing countries to be reasonably fluent in multiple foreign languages, whereas
this is much more of a rarity in the supposedly "more educated" countries where much of the
population is in fact monolingual.
There is also economic pressure from those parents who prefer their children making money
in the short term over any long-term benefits of education. Recent studies on child labor and
poverty have suggested that when poor families reach a certain economic threshold where
families are able to provide for their basic needs, parents return their children to school. This
has been found to be true, once the threshold has been breached, even if the potential
economic value of the children's work has increased since their return to school. Teachers are
often paid less than other similar professions. A lack of good universities, and a low
acceptance rate for good universities, is evident in countries with a relatively high population
density.
In some countries, there are uniform, over structured, inflexible centralized
programs from a central agency that regulates all aspects of education.
India is now developing technologies that will skip land based phone and internet lines.
Instead, India launched EDUSAT, an education satellite that can reach more of the country at
a greatly reduced cost. There is also an initiative started by a group out of MIT and
supported by several major corporations to develop a $100 laptop. The laptops should be
available by late 2006 or 2007. The laptops, sold at cost, will enable developing countries to
give their children a digital education, and to close the digital divide across the world.
In Africa, NEPAD has launched an "e-school programme" to provide all 600,000 primary and
high schools with computer equipment, learning materials and internet access within 10
years. Private groups, like The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, are working to
give more individuals opportunities to receive education in developing countries through such
programs as the Perpetual Education Fund. An International Development Agency project
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called nabuur.com, started with the support of American President Bill Clinton, uses the
Internet to allow co-operation by individuals on issues of social development.
Internationalization
Education is becoming increasingly international. Not only are the materials becoming more
influenced by the rich international environment, but exchanges among students at all levels
are also playing an increasingly important role. In Europe, for example, the Socrates-Erasmus
Programme stimulates exchanges across European universities. Also, the Soros Foundation
provides many opportunities for students from central Asia and Eastern Europe. Some
scholars argue that, regardless of whether one system is considered better or worse than
another, experiencing a different way of education can often be considered to be the most
important, enriching element of an international learning experience.
In this study of education in the development of Tanzania from the time it became a British
mandate until today (1919-90), the function of education is related in important ways to the
wider social, economic and political development of the territory. The focus of the analysis is
the congruence or lack of it between the formulated educational purposes, goals and policies
and their degree of implementation, and, again, their relationship to changing purposes,
goals and policies of the overall development process in Tanzania. In order to achieve
maximum understanding of the role of education, the analysis is undertaken both at the
macro (national) level related to the creation and development of the national educational
system,and at the micro (institutional) level related to the function of selected educational
programmes in specific local contexts in the territory.
Underlying Understandings and Methods
Underlying the analysis is an understanding of Tanzanian society during the entire period as a
predominantly non-capitalist agricultural country existing at the periphery of the world
economic system. While national and sub-national agents, factors and circumstances have
always been important in the direction of the Tanzanian development process, the
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international environment has intervened to a substantial extent in national policy
formulation and implementation and the general development since the pre-colonial period.
The relative power, influence and impact of the international environment, the state and civil
society and impact of the international environment, the state and civil society have been
expressed in fundamental tensions between the three. These tensions resulted partly from
conflicting goals for and expectations of the
Education for Self-Government, Capitalist Development & Citizenship 1947-61
The focus on Western modernization for the British colonies after the Second World War
implied an attempt to establish a development process similar to that of Britain, by which
industrialization based on capitalist agriculture and the expansion of a modern urban sector
were given priority over the development of the traditional rural sector. This economic
development process was to be supported in the colonies by a socialization into Western
political traditions and the introduction of Western political institutions, with the aim of
establishing political self-government in due time. While policy statements indicated a strong
emphasis on the priority of self-government, it was, in reality, economic aims which were
heavily pursued. This was reflected in the adopted educational policies, as modernization
competed with and, in certain areas, took prominence over adaptation in order to secure the
transfer of the full range of skills and norms for the envisaged development process.
Education in the Development of Tanzania Conclusions & Perspectives
Looked at in Braudel's multi-layered time perspective, there has probably been more
continuity than change in the long term development of Tanzania and in the function of
education in this regard. Both the British administration and the independent Tanzanian
government designed specific educational policies to fulfill goals for the economic and political
development of the country. In both cases, there were wide discrepancies between stated
goals and implemented reality.
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As appears from the British administration the important dividing line was the Second World
War when the adaptation philosophy was replaced by a more vigorous modernization
strategy. Both before and after the Second World War, short-term sub-periods can be
identified when there were alterations to the implemented economic policies. This same
pattern was repeated after independence, when the year 1967 represented a clear break with
the past in terms of the underlying ideology of the formulated strategy of Socialism and SelfReliance. From the beginning of the 1980s, the goals of the strategy were redirected under
the impact of the structural adjust ment policies. As before independence, there were
different emphases on specific economic policies in sub-intervals of the medium-term period.
The relative importance of the educational sector changed with the alterations in the overall
development strategies. This was, furthermore, reflected in changing priorities on different
sub-sectors of education and in the intended relative importance of the use of education to
implement economic, political and socio-cultural purposes.
Education in the Context of Structural Adjustment 1982-90
During the 1980s, the strategy of Socialism and Self-Reliance, though still officially defended
by government leaders, was abandoned under the impact of the structural adjustment
programmes, which were implemented in virtually all sub-Saharan countries in the context of
the world-wide recession. These programmes introduced new goals for the development
process in Tanzania and redirected the functions of education. In contrast to the former
emphasis on equality and participation, economic recovery through the establishment of a
market economy and political pluralism were the new central notions. In education, the
previous key reform areas of access and equity were replaced by a concern with the
academic quality of education, its cost and its training role. While there were some positive
indications with respect to economic recovery during the 1980s, the impact of the recession
and the structural adjustment programmes on the social sectors and social equality, including
equity in education, was negative. This situation led to renewed discussions at the end of the
1980s and in the early 1990s on the relative balance between the different sectors of the
21
economy, and the balance between and content of the sub-sectors of education in the
context of the new declared international strategy of Education for All.
Societal Innovation through Education the Community School Movement 1971-82
The particular purposes of the community school as defined in the Education for Self-Reliance
document in 1967 were to contribute to village development by breaking down the barrier
between the school and the surrounding society and between academic and manual skills, in
other words to 'integrate' the school with village life and theoretical learning with practical
work. Through the cooperation or 'participation' of village members in school life and school
members in village life, the community school was seen as an important means of forming
the 'relevant' skills and attitudes which were needed to further socialist and self-reliant
development.
2
Being regarded as an educational and economic unit in the context of the
village society, the school was to be a centre for basic educational activities for the young
and for adults, whereas the village economy was to provide subsequent opportunities for
young people in order that they would remain in the village after having finished school.
Compared with the innovative agricultural centre of Nyakato before independence, the
community school idea was far-reaching. It went beyond the immediate technical and
economic aim of Nyakato, i.e. to improve peasant agricultural production through the
teaching of specific agricultural skills, to focus on a number of socio-cultural, political and
economic purposes. Furthermore, in contrast to the orientation of Nyakato towards
individuals, the guiding principle for the community school was the high degree of
involvement of the local communities in the management of school affairs and the desire to
incorporate students and school leavers in village life.
Importance of education for development
Education is the great hope for the survival of humankind and for the forward progress of
civilization." The French revolutionary Danton said more than two centuries ago, "After bread,
education." Education is the most basic necessity after those that are vital to life itself--food,
22
clothing, and shelter. It is education that lifts people out of the state of chronic poverty in
which they are constantly struggling to fulfill basic needs such as these. The truth is that all
people have a right to have these basic needs fulfilled, and they also have a right to
education. In this regard, the world is not doing very well.
More than 836 million adults in the developing world are illiterate, according to surveys by
UNESCO. Around the world, one of every eight children is not enrolled in primary school, and
more than one third of adolescents are not in high school. It is no coincidence that the vast
majority of these unschooled youngsters and illiterate adults can be found in the poorest
countries on earth. The direct link between poverty and lack of educational opportunities has
been demonstrated many times over. As Lyndon Johnson said during the War on Poverty in
the 1960s, "Poverty has many roots, but the tap root is ignorance." While everyone has a
contribution to make in furthering our educational progress, basic education is a fundamental
right, and it is the responsibility of governments to provide it. The huge gaps in opportunity
that we witness in our world are just one form of injustice, and states are bound by duty and
by law to strive for justice. Quite simply, we are not investing enough in education.
These adjustments are vital for the well-being of the whole society. Our children deserve no
less from their leaders. Many leaders of poor countries will tell you that the cost of providing
decent educational opportunities is prohibitive. Saddled with debt, lacking infrastructure, and
short of trained personnel, many nations in sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America, South Asia,
and elsewhere simply cannot afford to provide basic schooling for all of their children.
However, this is not a problem of lack of resources, but rather a problem of resource
allocation, both within developing countries and on the part of the wealthier countries. The
United Nations estimates that it would only take an additional six billion dollars per year to
make basic educational opportunities available to the entire population of the developing
world. To put that figure into perspective, consider that Americans spend 8 billion dollars per
year on cosmetics, and Europeans spend 11 billion dollars annually on ice cream. Or consider
the fact the world spends 780 billion dollars per year on weapons and soldiers. Obviously, the
resources necessary to provide educational services exist; it is just a matter of changing our
23
priorities and redirecting them so that they benefit the needy children of the world.
Making this happen will require a serious commitment on the part of poor and rich countries
alike. In the developing world, those leaders who complain for lack of resources must begin
by checking their arms procurement budgets. Tanzania’s president Julius Nyerere asked in
legitimate despair, 'must we starve our children to pay our debts?' It is at least as pertinent
to ask, must we starve our children to increase our defense expenditure? . . . When our
children cry for milk in the middle of the night, shall we give them guns instead?" I believe
that every leader of a developing country must re-examine the priorities of their national
budget and redirect resources from the military to the fulfillment of basic human needs.
In many countries, however, this will still not be enough. The wealthy countries, too, have a
commitment
to
make
when
it
comes
to
educating
the
world's
poor.
Education is not only essential to the creation of democracies, it is essential to development,
and in particular to what we today call "sustainable development." Sustainable development
implies a balance between meeting immediate needs and looking to the future with a longterm vision. Everyone knows by now that the hierarchy of human needs dictates that
someone who is hungry and has a family to feed is not going to think of protecting the
environment first. Because of this, much environmental destruction has been caused by the
subsistence farming of poor families throughout the developing world. To reverse this
phenomenon, concerted efforts to meet the basic needs of poor families, as well as strong
programs of education that are capable of instilling a long-term vision and teaching the
responsible
use
of
resources,
will
be
indispensable.
Education benefits a woman in life-altering ways. An educated woman gains higher status
and an enhanced sense of efficacy. She tends to marry later and have greater bargaining
power and success in the "marriage market." She also has greater bargaining power in the
household after marriage. An educated woman tends to desire a smaller family size and seek
24
the health care necessary to do so. She has fewer and healthier children. An educated
woman has high educational and career expectations of her children, both boys and girls. For
females, education profoundly changes their lives, how they interact with society, and their
economic status. Educating women creates more equitable lives for women and their families
and increases their ability to participate in community decision making and work toward
achieving local sustainability goals.
Another educational threshold is primary education for women. At least a primary education
is required before birthrate drops and infant health and children's education improve. Nine to
12 years of education are required for increased industrial productivity. This level of
education also increases the probability of employment in a changing economy. Few studies
have been carried out on how education affects environmental stewardship, but one study
suggests that a lower-secondary education (or approximately nine years) is necessary to
intensify use of existing land and to provide alternative off-farm employment and migration
from rural areas. Finally, a subtle combination of higher education, research, and life-long
learning is necessary for a nation to shift to an information or knowledge-based economy,
which is fueled less by imported technology and more by local innovation and creativity
(UNESCO-ACEID, 1997).
Education is an essential tool for achieving sustainability. People around the world recognize
that current economic development trends are not sustainable and that public awareness,
education, and training are key to moving society toward sustainability. Beyond that, there is
little agreement. People argue about the meaning of sustainable development and whether or
not it is attainable. They have different visions of what sustainable societies will look like and
how they will function. These same people wonder why educators have not moved more
quickly to develop education for sustainability (EfS) programs. The lack of agreement and
definition have foiled efforts to move education for sustainable development (ESD) forward.
The relationship between education and sustainable development is complex. Generally,
25
research shows that basic education is key to a nation's ability to develop and achieve
sustainability targets. Research has shown that education can improve agricultural
productivity, enhance the status of women, reduce population growth rates, enhance
environmental protection, and generally raise the standard of living. But the relationship is
not linear. For example, four to six years of education is the minimum threshold for
increasing agricultural productivity. Literacy and numeracy allow farmers to adapt to new
agricultural methods, cope with risk, and respond to market signals. Literacy also helps
farmers mix and apply chemicals (e.g., fertilizers and pesticides) according to manufacturers'
directions, thereby reducing the risks to the environment and human health. A basic
education also helps farmers gain title to their land and apply for credit at banks and other
lending institutions. Effects of education on agriculture are greatest when the proportion of
females educated to threshold level equals that of males.
Education directly affects sustainability plans in the following three areas:
Implementation. An educated citizenry is vital to implementing informed and sustainable
development. In fact, a national sustainability plan can be enhanced or limited by the level of
education attained by the nation's citizens. Nations with high illiteracy rates and unskilled
workforces have fewer development options. For the most part, these nations are forced to
buy energy and manufactured goods on the international market with hard currency. To
acquire hard currency, these countries need international trade; usually this leads to
exploitation of natural resources or conversion of lands from self-sufficient family-based
farming to cash-crop agriculture. An educated workforce is key to moving beyond an
extractive and agricultural economy.
Decision making. Good community-based decisions - which will affect social, economic, and
environmental well-being - also depend on educated citizens. Development options, especially
"greener" development options, expand as education increases. For example, a community
with an abundance of skilled labor and technically trained people can persuade a corporation
to locate a new information-technology and software-development facility nearby. Citizens
26
can also act to protect their communities by analyzing reports and data that address
community issues and helping shape a community response. For example, citizens who were
concerned about water pollution reported in a nearby watershed started monitoring the water
quality of local streams. Based on their data and information found on the World Wide Web,
they fought against the development of a new golf-course, which would have used large
amounts of fertilizer and herbicide in maintenance of the grounds.
Quality of life. Education is also central to improving quality of life. Education raises the
economic status of families; it improves life conditions, lowers infant mortality, and improves
the educational attainment of the next generation, thereby raising the next generation's
chances for economic and social well-being. Improved education holds both individual and
national implications.
Education for sustainable development (ESD)
Education is held to be central to sustainability. Indeed, education and sustainability are
inextricably linked, but the distinction between education as we know it and education for
sustainability is enigmatic for many. The following section describes the components of
education for sustainability.
ESD carries with it the inherent idea of implementing programs that are locally relevant and
culturally appropriate. All sustainable development programs including ESD must take into
consideration the local environmental, economic, and societal conditions. As a result, ESD will
take many forms around the world and it identified four major thrusts to begin the work of
ESD: (1) improve basic education, (2) reorient existing education to address sustainable
development, (3) develop public understanding, awareness, and (4) training. Let's look at
each of the four components.
Improving Basic Education - The First Priority
27
The first priority of ESD is the promotion of basic education. The content and years of basic
education differ greatly around the world. In some countries, for instance, primary school is
considered basic education. In others eight or 12 years is mandatory. In many countries,
basic education focuses on reading, writing, and ciphering. Pupils learn to read the
newspaper, write letters, figure accounts, and develop skills necessary to fulfill their expected
roles in their households and community. Girls, for example, may learn about nutrition and
nursing. Pupils also learn how their government functions and about the world beyond their
community.
Simply increasing basic literacy, as it is currently taught in most countries, will not advance
sustainable societies. Indeed, if communities and nations hope to identify sustainability goals
and work toward them, they must focus on skills, values, and perspectives that encourage
and support public participation and community decision making. To achieve this, basic
education must be reoriented to address sustainability and expanded to include criticalthinking skills, skills to organize and interpret data and information, skills to formulate
questions, and the ability to analyze issues that confront communities.
In many countries, the current level of basic education is too low, severely hindering national
plans for a sustainable future. In Latin America and the Caribbean, many countries have six
to eight years of compulsory education with approximately five to 15 percent of the students
repeating one or more years. In parts of Asia, especially Bangladesh, Pakistan, and India,
many children only attend school for an average of five years. A complicating factor in this
region is that many girls receive fewer years of schooling to create that average. In parts of
Africa, where life is disturbed by drought or war, the average attendance in public education
is measured in months, not years. Unfortunately, the lowest quality of education is often
found in the poorest regions or communities. The impact of little and/or poor-quality
education severely limits the options available to a nation for developing its short- and longterm sustainability plans.
28
As nations turned their attention to education in the 1990s and the new millennium, they
have made much progress in basic education. In fact, enrollment rates in primary education
are rising in most regions of the world. Also, enrollment of girls has increased faster than that
of boys, which is helping to close the gender gap evident in so many countries. At the global
level, the gender gap in both primary and secondary school is narrowing. Despite all of this
progress, too many female children remain out of school, and the gender gap will not close
prior to the "Education For All" target date of 2005.
The recognition of the need for quality basic education sets ESD apart from other educational
efforts, such as environmental education or population education.
Reorienting Existing Education - The Second Priority
The term "reorienting education" has become a powerful descriptor that helps administrators
and educators at every level (i.e., nursery school through university) to understand the
changes required for ESD. An appropriately reoriented basic education includes more
principles, skills, perspectives, and values related to sustainability than are currently included
in most education systems. Hence, it is not only a question of quantity of education, but also
one of appropriateness and relevance. ESD encompasses a vision that integrates
environment, economy, and society. Reorienting education also requires teaching and
learning knowledge, skills, perspectives, and values that will guide and motivate people to
pursue sustainable livelihoods, to participate in a democratic society, and to live in a
sustainable manner.
The need to reorient basic and secondary education to address sustainability has grabbed
international attention, but the need at the university level is just as great. Society's future
leaders and decision makers are educated there. If these young people are expected to lead
all sectors of society (e.g., government, medicine, agriculture, forestry, law, business,
industry, engineering, education, communications, architecture, and arts) in a world striving
toward sustainability, then the current administration and faculty members must reorient
university curriculums to include the many and complex facets of sustainability.
29
In reorienting education to address sustainability, program developers need to balance
looking forward to a more sustainable society with looking back to traditional ecological
knowledge. Indigenous traditions often carry with them the values and practices that embody
sustainable resource use. While returning to indigenous lifestyles is not an option for the
millions of urban dwellers, the values and major tenets of indigenous traditions can be
adapted to life in the 21st century.
Reorienting education to address sustainability is something that should occur throughout the
formal education system - that includes universities, professional schools (e.g., law and
medicine), and technical schools in addition to primary and secondary education.
Public Understanding and Awareness - The Third Priority
Sustainability requires a population that is aware of the goals of a sustainable society and has
the knowledge and skills to contribute to those goals. The need for an informed voting
citizenry becomes ever more important with the increase in the number of democratic
governments. An informed voting citizenry, which lends support to enlightened policies and
government initiatives, can help governments enact sustainable measures. Citizens also need
to be knowledgeable consumers who can see beyond the "green wash" (i.e., public-relations
efforts that highlight the activities of corporations that are more environmentally responsible
while ignoring or hiding the major activities that are not). In today's world, people are
surrounded by media (e.g., television, radio, newspapers, magazines) and advertisements
(e.g., bill boards, banners on World Wide Web sites, and logos on clothing). As a result,
people must become media literate and able to analyze the messages of corporate
advertisers.
Years of resource management has shown that a public that is aware of and informed about
resource-management decisions and programs can help achieve program goals. In contrast,
an uninformed public can undermine resource-management programs. Education has also
been essential in many other types of programs, such as public-health efforts to stop the
spread of specific diseases.
30
31
Training - The Fourth Priority
Training was also stressed in Chapter 36. The world needs a literate and environmentally
aware citizenry and work force to help guide nations in implementing their sustainability
plans.
All
sectors
-
including
business,
industry,
higher
education,
governments,
nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), and community organization - are encouraged to
train their leaders in environmental management and to provide training to their workers.
Training is distinct from education in that training is often specific to a particular job or class
of jobs. Training teaches workers how to use equipment safely, be more efficient, and comply
with regulations (e.g., environmental, health, or safety). For instance, a training program
might teach workers to avoid changing the waste stream without notifying their supervisor.
Further, if an employee is involved in a nonroutine activity, such as cleaning a new piece of
equipment, she or he is instructed not to dispose of the cleaning solvent by pouring it down a
storm sewer drain that leads to the river. Some training, such as training women to use solar
cookers rather than cooking on open, wood-fueled fires, involves tremendous change in
social dynamics and practices. In this case, women must not only learn the mechanics of
solar cookers, but they must also change daily routines of meal preparation to cook while the
sun is high in the sky, rather than in the evening.
Training informs people of accepted practices and procedures and gives them skills to
perform specific tasks. In contrast, education is a socially transforming process that gives
people knowledge, skills, perspectives, and values through which they can participate in and
contribute to their own well-being and that of their community and nation.
Formal, Nonformal, and Informal Education
For a community or a nation, implementing ESD is a huge task. Fortunately, formal education
does not carry this educational responsibility alone. The nonformal educational sector (e.g.,
nature centers, nongovernmental organizations, public health educators, and agricultural
extension agents) and the informal educational sector (e.g., local television, newspaper, and
32
radio) of the educational community must work cooperatively with the formal educational
sector for the education of people in all generations and walks of life.
Because ESD is a lifelong process, the formal, nonformal, and informal educational sectors
should work together to accomplish local sustainability goals. In an ideal world, the three
sectors would divide the enormous task of ESD for the entire population by identifying target
audiences from the general public as well as themes of sustainability. They would then work
within their mutually agreed upon realms. This division of effort would reach a broader
spectrum of people and prevent redundant efforts.
Activity
References
1. UNESCO, Education for All Monitoring Report 2008, Net Enrollment Rate in primary
education
2. Merriam et al. Learning in Adulthood: A Comprehensive Guide (San Francisco: JosseyBass, 2007).
3. Human Development Report (2007/2008). World map indicating Education Index
4. Dubois, H.F.W., Padovano, G., & Stew, G. (2006) Improving international nurse
training: an American–Italian case study. International Nursing Review, 53(2): 110–
116
5. UNESCO. 1997. Educating for a Sustainable Future: A Transdisciplinary Vision for
Concerted Action. EPD-97/Conf.401/CLD.1.
33
LECTURE THREE
GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
This lecture GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT discusses the gender concepts and the factors that
cause women discrimination in Tanzania. In doing so we will also discuss the strategies to
combat women discrimination and women empowerment nationally and internationally.
By the end of this topic, you should be able to;
1.
Define important terms in the subject area.
2.
Identify factors for gender discrimination in Tanzania
3.
Explain strategies for Women Empowerment nationally and internationally
1. Definition of Concepts
Gender
: Latin word – means kind type or sort. In common usage refers to difference
between men and women.
Refers to the culturally/socially attributes/roles/functions of male
and female.
It is the interpretation of biology by our culture, how we ought to behave as male
(masculine) or female (feminine). For example in some societies there is belief that women
are two weak and men are strong. Feminine and masculine are terms that refers to a set of
characteristics and behaviour that prescribed for particular sex by society.
Gender is acquired through interaction in the social world and change over time. i.e. gender
acquired through socialization process and determined by culture.
Sex: Is the sum of characteristics that distinguish organisms on the basis of their
reproductive functions.
Sex is determined by biological characteristics, which define a person as male or a female. It
is determined by sex organs which happen naturally. Example of sex characteristics includes:
34
Menstruation, Change in body size, Growth of hair, Change in voice tones, Growth of breasts
and Sex does not change at all.
Gender stereotypes: Is a generalization of characteristics that may or may not be true.
i.e. a set of behaviours and qualities expected from a male or a female by their society. It
refers to the characteristics of masculine or feminine as determined by culture.
Gender stereotypes vary on four dimensions. Traits, role behaviours, physical characteristics
and occupations.
Examples:
Men (Masculine)
Women (Feminine)
Active
Passive
Leaders
Followers
Independent
dependent
Tough
Tender
Rational (reason)
Irrational/emotional
Strong
weak
Conscientization categorized into three aspects namely:
(i) Intra-personal empowerment: Intra-personal conscientatization is a process of a personal
empowerment that addresses individualistic behaviours, through reading, writing, counting,
thinking, questioning, counseling and seminars.
It entails helping an individual to gain
knowledge about themselves; their needs, their environment and culture.
(ii) Interpersonal Empowerment: Is a process of building bargaining skills to the women so
that they can sensitize and negotiate with their parents and their partners about their
controlled
rights. Interpersonal empowerment enables women to stand for their rights to
participation in
decision-making and have access and control of resources of the society.
Interpersonal empowerment done lobbying and advocacy i.e. logical presentation of facts and
data as well as patience and tolerance virtues (SADC, 1997).
35
(iii) Interactional Empowerment: Helping women to form International organizations. Women
groups encouraged to form organizations with their fellow women groups in other countries
for the purpose of reaching and utilizing various resources such as political participation and
contestation.
2. Formation of Women Organizations
Women’s organizations is an important tool for empowerment; formation of various
organizations help women to gain power, and capacity to overcome their problems. For
example, women’s organizations have power to support women in elections if women
candidates present good strong personalities and agenda that cater for their needs and
interests.
3. Formation of Political Agencies
Empowerment process calls for formation of political agencies (NGO’s) that can help them to
focus on women’s particular needs.
Those agencies may include: Women Leaders
Association; (Parliamentarians and Councilors).
These political agencies provide civic
education, do training, articulate the women’s political agenda, conduct research and secure
financial support for election process.
4. Disabling Patriarchy
Empowerment process must articulate the enabling forces that should disable the opposing
forces. Patriarchs should be taken as partners in the process of women empowerment they
should be liberated first so that they can identify gaps that exist between them and their
partners and hence accepting to participate in solving the problem
5. Planning
Re-conceptualizing various women’s vision on political participation, representation and
influence in the political arena.
Also locating women’s various economic interest groups,
organizing training and research is crucial for empowerment.

Defining concepts (Gender, sex, roles, stereotype)
36

Gender awareness

Gender discrimination and Empowerment

Strategies to combat gender discrimination

Strategies for Women Empowerment in Tanzania.
Summary
Activity
References
37
LECTURE FOUR
4.0 REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
At the end of this topic, you should be able to;
1. Explain various methods of contraception\discuss factors contributing to unsafe
abortion.
2. Discuss factors contributing to unsafe abortion
3. Distinguish between safe and unsafe abortion\explain why unsafe abortion is a silent
problem.
4. Explain why unsafe abortion is a silent problem.
4.1 REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
There are many ways to define reproductive health. Different definitions and priorities are
being proposed by women's health advocates and family planning. Within the framework of
WHO's definition of health as a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being, and
not merely the absence of disease or infirmity, reproductive health addresses the
reproductive processes, functions and system at all stages of life. Reproductive health,
therefore, implies that people are able to have a responsible, satisfying and safe sex life and
that they have the capability to reproduce and the freedom to decide if, when and how often
to do so.
Implicit in this are the right of men and women to be informed of and to have access to safe,
effective, affordable and acceptable methods of fertility regulation of their choice, and the
right of access to appropriate health care services that will enable women to go safely
through pregnancy and childbirth and provide couples with the best chance of having a
healthy infant.
This broad definition of reproductive health suggests that individuals or couples have right to:
38

Regulate their fertility without risk to their health.

Have safe pregnancies and births when they choose to have children.

Have sex safely, without the fear of sexuality transmitted disease (STD).
Reproductive health covers a broad area and includes ethical and philosophical questions
about reproductive rights, across all relevant areas. The main areas those are relevant to the
health of people.

Contraception

Abortion

Sexual transmitted diseases

HIV/AIDS.
The reproductive health needs of young people, who in most countries comprise the largest
segment of the population, are not adequately addressed. Furthermore, young people are
usually not involved in the planning, design and implementation of reproductive health
programmes for youths.
4.1.1 CONTRACEPTION
Contraception is the practice of one or more actions, devices, sexual practices, or medications
followed in order to deliberately prevent or reduce the likelihood of pregnancy or childbirth[1].
There are three main routes to preventing or ending pregnancy: the prevention of fertilization
of the ovum by sperm cells ("contraception"), the prevention of implantation of the blastocyst
("contragestion"), and the chemical or surgical induction or abortion of the developing
embryo or, later, fetus. In common usage, term "contraception" is often used for both
contraception and contragestion.It is sometimes refered as birth control.
The history of birth control began with the discovery of the connection between coitus and
pregnancy. The oldest forms of birth control included coitus interruptus, pessaries, and
39
the ingestion of herbs that were believed to be contraceptive or abortifacient. The earliest
record of birth control use is an ancient Egyptian set of instructions on creating a
contraceptive pessary.
Different methods of birth control have varying characteristics. Condoms, for example, are
the only methods that provide significant protection from sexually transmitted diseases.
Cultural and religious attitudes on birth control vary significantly.
4.1.1.1 Description of Contraception
There are various contraceptive methods available today. The most common artificial
methods are male/female condoms, spermicides, sponge, diaphragm, cervical cap, oral
contraceptives (birth control pills), injectable contraceptives (Depo-Provera, Lunelle), vaginal
rings, intrauterine devices (IUDs) and surgical sterilization.
The natural methods include complete abstinence (no sexual intercourse), periodic
abstinence and withdrawal.
Emergency contraception is a method to prevent pregnancy after unprotected intercourse has
occurred.
Male/Female Condom
The male condom (also known as a prophylactic or rubber) is a thin sheath, usually made of
latex rubber, which covers the erect penis. When used correctly, a latex condom is about 85
percent effective, both for preventing pregnancy and decreasing the chance of contracting
most STDs, including AIDS. Condoms can also be made of animal membrane; however, some
experts believe that the pores in such natural "skin" condoms may allow the virus to pass
through. To be effective, condoms must be undamaged, applied to the erect penis before any
genital contact, and must remain intact and snugly in place until completion of the sexual
activity. After intercourse is completed, the edges of the condom should be held up to
prevent spilling semen when the penis is withdrawn from the vagina.
40
The female condom is a lubricated sheath with a flexible polyurethane ring on each end. One
ring is inserted into the vagina while the other remains outside. The ring outside covers the
labia and keeps the condom in place during intercourse. When in place, the vaginal condom
lines the vaginal wall and creates a covered passageway for the penis. To be effective, the
condom must be undamaged and inserted before any genital contact. It must also remain
inside of the vagina until the completion of intercourse. The estimated effectiveness of the
female condom is 74 to 79 percent.
Spermicides
Spermicides are available in foam, jelly, gel and suppositories, and work by forming a
physical and chemical barrier to sperm. They can be inserted into the vagina on a
diaphragm, a cervical cap, a condom, or alone, within an hour before sexual intercourse.
If intercourse is repeated, more spermicide should be inserted.
Sponge
The sponge is made of white polyurethane foam (shaped like a small donut) and contains
a spermicide. The sponge is inserted into the vagina to cover the cervix during and after
intercourse. It is held in place by the vaginal walls and the dimple covering the cervix.
Diaphragm
A diaphragm is made of soft rubber and is shaped like a shallow cup. It has a flexible
metal spring rim that fits snugly over the cervix. Before insertion, a spermicidial cream
or jelly should be applied into the shallow cup. The diaphragm must be fitted by a health
professional and the correct size must be prescribed to ensure a snug seal with the
vaginal wall.
Cervical Cap
The cervical cap is a thimble-shaped rubber cap that fits snugly over the cervix. Like the
diaphragm, it blocks sperm from entering the cervical opening. Usually, a small amount
of spermicide is used on the inside of the cap to kill any sperm that may break through
41
the seal. The cervical cap must be fitted by a health professional and the correct size
prescribed to ensure a snug seal.
Oral Contraceptives (Birth Control Pills)
At present, more than 20 brand names and more than twice that number of formulations
of oral contraceptives are available. When used correctly and consistently, oral
contraceptives are 99 percent effective. With typical use, oral contraceptives are 90%
effective.
Birth control pills use synthetic hormones similar to the ones made in the ovaries. There
are two types of pills currently manufactured in the United States: a combination pill,
with both synthetic progesterone (progestin) and synthetic estrogen; and mini-pills,
which contain only progestin.
Although all oral contraceptives prevent sperm from uniting with an egg, they work in
slightly different ways. The combination pill keeps the ovaries from releasing an egg. The
mini-pill is less reliable in suppressing egg release, but creates changes in the cervix and
uterus that make conception less likely.
The mini-pill is less effective than the combination pill, but does not have the risks
attributed to estrogen, such as increased possibility of blood clots and nausea. However,
the mini-pill causes more problems with spotting and bleeding between periods and
therefore, its use is not widespread. Women who are breastfeeding may choose to use
the mini-pill rather than combination pills because mini-pills cause less effect on breast
milk production.
Combination pills come in two types. One provides the same combined dose of synthetic
progestin and synthetic estrogen throughout the entire cycle. Others, sometimes called
biphasic or triphasic pills vary the levels of these two hormones to more closely
approximate a woman's normal hormonal variations. In some women, these pills have a
lower risk of side effects.
42
The pill essentially works by interfering with a woman's normal fluctuations in hormone
levels, which in turn prevents the egg from maturing and being released. It also acts on
the climate of the cervix, uterine lining and fallopian tubes, making them all inhospitable
for egg, sperm or embryo.
Combination pills are packaged in several ways: the most common is the 21-day pack.
One pill is taken each day for 21 days, then none during the next seven days (for the
average 28-day cycle during which menstruation occurs). There are also 28-day packs,
with 21 active pills followed by seven inactive ones (placebos).
The mini-pills must be taken every day.
In addition to effectiveness in preventing conception, oral contraceptives offer other
benefits. Menstrual periods are usually lighter, making iron deficiency less likely, and
there may be less cramping. Ovarian cysts, ovarian cancer, and perhaps endometrial
cancer occur less often among pill users. In addition, ectopic pregnancy occurs less
frequently among pill users (in the rare instance when pregnancy occurs at all). Oral
contraception may also help with acne and some cases of unwanted, masculine type hair
growth.
Risks and side effects: Minor side effects include headaches, sore breasts, weight gain,
feeling sick to your stomach, irregular bleeding, and depression. Serious possible side
effects are more likely to occur in women over the age of 35. These include an increased
risk of heart attack, stroke and formation of blood clots in the veins (thrombosis).
Ortho Evra, Contraceptive Patch
The Contraceptive Patch has the same properties as the oral birth control pill, but is
applied to the skin of the lower abdomen, buttocks, upper arm or upper body. It is worn
continuously for 7 days and then replaced with another patch every week for 3 weeks,
followed by one week without a patch. When used as directed, the patch is also about
99% effective.
43
Risks and side effects: Side effects of the Contraceptive Patch may include nausea or
breast tenderness, and rare risks of blood clots, heart attack and stroke, particularly if
women smoke while using the contraceptive.
Vaginal Ring
The vaginal ring is a flexible transparent ring about two inches wide that is inserted into
the vagina once each cycle. The ring is placed into the vagina and left in place for three
weeks, then removed for one week to allow for a period. The ring releases both estrogen
and progesterone. When used as directed, the ring is about 99% effective.
Depo-Provera
Depo-Provera is an injectable form of a progestin (like the oral minipill). Each injection
provides contraceptive protection for 14 weeks. It is injected every three months into a
muscle in the buttocks or arm. Its estimated effectiveness is 99 percent.
Lunelle
Lunelle is an injectable form of combined estrogen/progesterone contraception. It is
injected each month in the muscle of the arm, thigh or buttock, during or within the first
days after your period. It is made to release the hormones such that there is a peak of
progesterone and estrogen that gradually decreases until the next injection. Its
estimated effectiveness is 99 percent.
IUDs
IUDs are small devices that fit inside the uterus. Some contain copper or synthetic
progesterone. One or more strings are usually attached to IUDs. When the IUD is in
place, these strings extend into the upper vagina. Though doctors are unsure exactly
how the IUD works, it is thought that the IUD makes the uterine cavity toxic to sperm
and eggs, and prevents implantation of fertilized eggs. IUDs containing progesterone also
act by preventing ovulation, making the lining of the uterus thin to prevent implantation,
and thickening the cervical mucous to prevent sperm from passing into the uterus. The
44
levonorgestrel containing IUD is the most effective reversible method of birth control
available, with a failure rate of about 0.1%.
Emergency Contraception
Emergency
contraception
is
a
method
to
prevent
pregnancy
after
unprotected
intercourse has occurred. It is best used in situations when intercourse happens
infrequently or unexpectedly, not as a routine method of birth control. Though there is
no
apparent
harm
in
giving
repeated
doses
of
emergency
contraception,
the
effectiveness is lower than other regularly used forms of birth control, and there is no
protection against sexually transmitted disease.
Several methods of emergency contraception are available including oral levonorgestrel
(a progesterone), oral combination pills, special doses of regular oral contraceptives,
insertion of a copper IUD and mifepristone (RU-486). The most commonly prescribed
pills are called Plan B and Preven. Both of these regimens consist of two pills taken 12
hours apart, and are most effective if taken within 72 hours after intercourse, though
they may be effective up to five days afterwards.
Mifepristone, or RU-486, is another available method of emergency contraception.
Approved in the U.S. in September 2000, RU-486 causes the uterine lining to shed after
an egg is implanted. It is taken as a series of pills over the course of a few weeks and
will interrupt a very early pregnancy. It is very widely used in Europe and has been
approved in the U.S. since September 2000. It is best to have this pill prescribed by a
physician or health care setting that is familiar with its use and can follow users carefully
to assure optimal outcomes. Initial studies show that RU-486 may be more effective than
emergency contraceptive pills like Preven and Plan B, with a failure rate of less than 1%.
Copper IUDs may be inserted up to five days after unprotected intercourse to prevent
pregnancy. This method is particularly attractive for those who are not at risk for
sexually transmitted infections, and who want to use the IUD for long term
contraception. The copper IUD is very effective for emergency contraception, with a
failure rate of less than 0.1%.
45
Surgical Sterilization
Female sterilization (tubal ligation) involves either cutting, constricting, clipping or
cauterizing the fallopian tubes to prevent the male sperm from reaching the ova. Male
sterilization (vasectomy) involves cutting the two vas deferens (the ducts that carry
sperm from the testes to the seminal vesicles). Tubal ligation is about 95% - 99%
effective, with rates varying depending on type of procedure used, and the age at which
sterilization occurs.
Complete Abstinence and Periodic Abstinence
Complete abstinence is not engaging in any type of sexual intercourse. Periodic
abstinence is not having sexual intercourse during a woman's fertile period. Also called
"natural family planning" or the "rhythm method", periodic abstinence is dependent on
the ability to identify the approximate 10 days in each menstrual cycle that a woman is
fertile. Its estimated effectiveness varies from 53 to 86 percent. However, it is important
to recognize that many experts in family planning feel that the actual effectiveness of
this method is much lower. This is because many women vary from month to month with
respect to when they are most fertile.
Withdrawal
Withdrawal involves removing the penis from the vagina just before ejaculation so that
the sperm is deposited outside the vagina and away from the lips of the vagina, as well.
Withdrawal is not very effective, because the drops of fluid that come out of the penis
right after it becomes erect can contain enough sperm to cause pregnancy.
4.1.1.2
Importance of contraception Education\methods of contraception
Contraceptives are important because it has a number of social and economic benefits. it is
not only women who can benefit from birth control but children, men youths, families and
communities as well:

Protection from too early and unwanted pregnancy and childbirth.

Freedom to decide when to have children.
46

More energy for household activities.

Prevention of unsafe abortion.

Increased economic opportunities

Increased education opportunities for children.

Reduced strain on environmental resources (land,food,water)

Greater participation by individuals in community affairs.

Reduced strain on community resources (health care, education).

Less emotional /financial strain.

Greater care for each children.

Improved quality of life.
4.1.1.3
Consequence of unprotected sex.
The chief ones are:

Unwanted pregnancy.

Venereal diseases (such as gonorrhoea and, much less commonly, syphilis).

other sexually transmitted infections (such as herpes, pubic lice, and viral warts and
especially the 21st century‘s major risk - Chlamydia).

HIV - the virus which can cause AIDS.

Cancer of the cervix.

Female infertility – due to pelvic infection caused by sex with an infected guy.
It’s almost inevitable that other sexual infections will arise during this century – especially if
the human race keeps going in for unsafe sex. Germs have a nasty way of exploiting people’s
behaviour, which is why – soon after the swinging 60s and 70s – herpes and HIV suddenly
emerged.
47
4.1.2 ABORTION
Abortion is a generic term for pregnancies that do not end in a livebirth or a stillbirth. It is the
premature expulsion from the uterus of the products of conception, which include the
placenta, bag of waters, and fetus, if present.
Types of Abortion
There are two types of abortions. Spontaneous abortion refers to a natural biological process
by which some pregnancies end. Induced abortion refers to pregnancies terminated through
human intervention.
Spontaneous abortion
Spontaneous abortion (also known as miscarriage) is the expulsion of an embryo or fetus due
to accidental trauma or natural causes before approximately the 22nd week of gestation; the
definition by gestational age varies by country. Most miscarriages are due to incorrect
replication of chromosomes; they can also be caused by environmental factors. A pregnancy
that ends before 37 weeks of gestation resulting in a live-born infant is known as a
"premature birth". When a fetus dies in utero after about 22 weeks, or during delivery, it is
usually termed "stillborn". Premature births and stillbirths are generally not considered to be
miscarriages although usage of these terms can sometimes overlap.
Between 10% and 50% of pregnancies end in clinically apparent miscarriage, depending
upon the age and health of the pregnant woman. Most miscarriages occur very early in
pregnancy, in most cases; they occur so early in the pregnancy that the woman is not even
aware that she was pregnant. One study testing hormones for ovulation and pregnancy
found that 61.9% of conceptuses were lost prior to 12 weeks, and 91.7% of these losses
occurred sub clinically, without the knowledge of the once pregnant woman.
The risk of spontaneous abortion decreases sharply after the 10th week from the last
menstrual period (LMP). One study of 232 pregnant women showed "virtually complete
48
[pregnancy loss] by the end of the embryonic period" (10 weeks LMP) with a pregnancy loss
rate of only 2 percent after 8.5 weeks LMP. (Jauniaux, et al, 1999).
The most common cause of spontaneous abortion during the first trimester is chromosomal
abnormalities of the embryo/fetus, accounting for at least 50% of sampled early pregnancy
losses. Other causes include vascular disease (such as lupus), diabetes, other hormonal
problems, infection, and abnormalities of the uterus. Advancing maternal age and a patient
history of previous spontaneous abortions are the two leading factors associated with a
greater risk of spontaneous abortion. A spontaneous abortion can also be caused by
accidental trauma; intentional trauma or stress to cause miscarriage is considered induced
abortion or feticide.
Induced abortion
A pregnancy can be intentionally aborted in many ways. The manner selected depends chiefly
upon the gestational age of the embryo or fetus, which increases in size as it ages.Specific
procedures may also be selected due to legality, regional availability, and doctor-patient
preference. Reasons for procuring induced abortions are typically characterized as either
therapeutic or elective. An abortion is medically referred to as therapeutic when it is
performed to:

save the life of the pregnant woman;

preserve the woman's physical or mental health;

terminate pregnancy that would result in a child born with a congenital disorder that
would be fatal or associated with significant morbidity; or

selectively reduce the number of fetuses to lessen health risks associated with multiple
pregnancy.
An abortion is referred to as elective when it is performed at the request of the woman "for
reasons other than maternal health or fetal disease."
49
Abortions and Public Health
There is no evidence that abortions are detrimental to the health of women. The CDC
reported that in 1992, the last year for which data on abortion related deaths were available,
only twenty-seven women died of abortion-related causes, ten due to induced abortions,
seventeen to spontaneous abortions, and none to illegal abortions. This is a case-fatality rate
for legal induced abortions of 0.7 per 100,000 legal induced abortions, a lower fatality rate
than for pregnancies. (In 1992, the maternal mortality rate was 7.8 per 100,000 live births.)
Injuries and illness, both physical and emotional, are also rare. Deaths and other adverse
consequences are more likely to occur when women are unable to obtain abortions legally
and attempt to induce abortions themselves or turn to providers outside the conventional
medical care system. Studies in Czechoslovakia have shown that women who are denied
abortions suffer psychological difficulties.
All Governments and relevant intergovernmental and non-governmental organisations are
urged to strengthen their commitment to women’s health, to deal with the health impact of
unsafe abortion as a major public health concern and to reduce the recourse to abortion
through expanded and improved family-planning services . . . In all cases, women should
have access to quality services for the management of complications arising from abortion.
There are many factors contribute to unplanned and unintended pregnancies, unsafe
abortions and related health risks
among women and girls. These factors may include:

Lack of family planning and knowledge about family planning methods

The use of rape as a weapon of war and a method of ethnic cleansing during conflict

The tendency for women who have become pregnant from rape to be shunned by
their husbands and communities

The restricted nature of abortion in many societies

Lack of PAC, which puts women and girls at risk of death from infection, severe
bleeding, and other serious, permanent injuries and disabilities
50

Lack of awareness of, and access to, quality services among women and girls who
need them.
Summary
Activity
References
1. Jauniaux, E.; P. Kaminopetros and H. El-Rafaey (1999). "Early pregnancy loss". in Martin J. Whittle
and C. H. Rodeck. Fetal medicine: basic science and clinical practice. Edinburgh: Churchill
Livingstone. p. 836. ISBN 0-443-05357-X. OCLC 42792567.
1. "WHO: Reproductive health". http://www.who.int/topics/reproductive_health/en/. Retrieved 200808-19.
2. Alan Guttmacher Institute (1999). Sharing Responsibility: Women, Society and Abortion
Worldwide. New York: Author.
3. Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation (1999). Issue Update: Abortion Fact Sheet. Menlo Park, CA:
Author.
51
LECTURE FIVE
5.1 SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES (STDS) and HIV/AIDS
By the end of this topic, you should be able to;
i)
Identify common STDs and their mode of transmission.
ii)
Explain methods for prevention and cure of STD’s.
iii)
Define HIV/AIDS
iv)
Discuss the impacts of HIV/AIDS and STD’s on National Development
Sexually transmitted diseases (also called STDs or STIs for sexually transmitted infections)
are infections that can be transferred from one person to another through sexual contact.
According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, there are over 15 million cases
of sexually transmitted disease cases reported annually in the United States. There are more
than 25 diseases that are transmitted through sexual activity. Other than HIV, the most
common STDs are
Chlamydia, Gonorrhea, Syphilis, Genital herpes, Human papillomavirus, Hepatitis
B, Trichomoniasis, and Bacterial vaginosis. Adolescents and young adults are the age
groups at the greatest risk for acquiring an STD. Approximately 19 million new infections
occur each year, almost half of them among people ages 15 to 24.
Some STDs can have severe consequences, especially in women, if not treated, which is why
it is so important to go for STD testing. Some STDs can lead to pelvic inflammatory disease,
which can cause infertility, while others may even be fatal. STDs can be prevented by
refraining from sexual activity, and to a certain extent, some contraceptive devices, such as
condoms.
52
Human Papilloma Virus:The human papilloma virus is thought to be one of the main
causes of cervical cancer. It has also been linked with other types of cancers of the female
reproductive system. While HPV can be treated to reduce the signs and symptoms, there is
currently no cure for this virus. However, the HPV vaccine has recently been developed to
prevent HPV infection.
Herpes Virus:Herpes is another STD that presently has no cure. However, treatment is
available and there are a number of things you can do yourself at home to help relieve your
genital herpes, as well as natural herpes treatment. Herpes symptoms include blisters or
sores that periodically break out on the genitals. Take a look at our FAQs on genital herpes
to learn even more about this uncomfortable STD.
Hepatitis: Although there is no cure for those already infected, there is now a Hepatitis B
(HBV) vaccine available to prevent the spread of this infection. Many are asymptomatic;
however those who do suffer from Hepatitis B symptoms may have many unpleasant
discomforts. Even though there is a possibility that the infection will clear up on its own,
some people suffer from chronic infections for many years. Treatment is available for chronic
sufferers. Other types of hepatitis infections that can be passed through sexual contact
include Hepatitis A and Hepatitis C.
HIV/AIDS: One STD that many people are worried about getting is HIV. While new ways of
treating this infection can significantly prolong an infected person's life, for far too many
people this infection eventually progresses to AIDS and, ulitmately, death. More than 40
million people worldwide are infected with the HIV virus; women account for 50% of those
infected. Recently, studies have found a link between the use of hormonal birth control and
HIV. In the US, African Americans account for a disproportionate number of HIV cases. Many
people may not realize they are infected, as the HIV virus is often asymptomatic for the first
few years. HIV testing is the only sure way to know if you are infected. However, you can
take steps to help prevent the infection. Find out about a new method that could prevent an
HIV infection in women using the cervical cap and microbicides.
53
Syphilis: Throughout history, cases of syphilis have been recorded. While this STD has not
always been effectively dealt with, nowadays, syphilis can easily be treated and cured.
However, as history has shown, without treatment, syphilis symptoms can progress and
affect the nervous system and brain leading to dementia and even death.
Trichomoniasis:Trichomoniasis is one of the most common, curable STDs out there.
However, symptoms of trich may be mistaken for a yeast infection causing a women to use
the wrong type of treatment for her vaginal discharge.
Common Infections:Chlamydia and gonorrhea often infect a person at the same time.
Although the symptoms of chlamydia are different from gonorrhea symptoms, it is not
unusual for a person to be asymptomatic. If you are testing for chlamydia, it may be a good
idea to also test for gonorrhea at the same time. Both STDs can be cured but can also do
damage to your reproductive system if left untreated.
Make No Mistake:Sometimes STD symptoms can be confused with mononucleosis.
Characterized by a fever, sore throat, and extreme weakness, mono is a viral infection that
needs to be treated right away. If you think you have the illness, seek mono treatment as
soon as possible. Also, yeast infection can cause painful itching and burning, and can even
be transmitted sexually.

What are the commonest STD’S

How STD’s can be transmitted from one person to another.

How can persons know that they have STD’s.

Preventive and care of STD’s.
5.2 HIV/AIDS
The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) was once thought to only affect a select group of
people. Nowadays, it is recognized that HIV affects all people from every walk of life
regardless of sexual orientation. The United Nations AIDS Programme estimated that, in
2003, there were 40 million people worldwide living with HIV with women accounting for half
54
of these cases. In December 2003, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimated
that between 1,039,000 and 1,185,000 people in the United States were infected with HIV. In
America, African-Americans and homosexual males are thought to be the most at risk of
being infected with HIV.
5.2.1 Type of Infection: Viral
Mode of Transmission: Mainly through unprotected vaginal or anal sex as well as through
breast milk and sharing drug needles with an infected person. May also be infected by
performing oral sex on some who is infected or by sharing sex toys that have not been
cleaned. While there was once concern about the possibility of infection through blood
transfusions, strict screening procedures have been in place in North America and Europe for
many years to prevent an infection from occurring this way. People living in other countries,
though, may still be at risk of infection through blood transmission.
Symptoms: The initial symptoms of HIV are similar to the flu and include fever, swollen
lymph glands, headaches, muscle aches, fatigue and fever. However, many people fail to
notice any HIV symptoms. Although the virus can remain dormant in your system for many
years, the virus will continue to weaken your immune system by attacking your CD4 cells.
Once the viral load overwhelms your CD4 cells (or T4 cells), you will likely develop an
opportunistic infection resulting in a diagnosis of AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency
Syndrome).
Treatment:There is no cure for HIV or AIDS. HIV medications usually include antiviral drugs
that are taken to hinder the growth and even kill off part of the HIV cells. Although this
HIV/AIDS treatment does not work for everyone, they can help to keep you healthy and
avoid the progression of the infection to AIDS.
Complications: The main complications associated with HIV are the increased risk of
serious illness, developing AIDS, and dying of an AIDS-related complication.
55
Consequences in Infants: Approximately 25% of all babies born to women with HIV will
also be infected and will develop HIV symptoms within their first year of life. However, the
use of antiviral drugs during pregnancy can significantly reduce your risk of transmitting the
virus to your baby.
Risk Factors: Failing to use a condom every time you have vaginal or anal sex, sharing
needles and being infected with another sexually transmitted disease, like gonorrhea or
chlamydia, can increase your risk of being infected with HIV.
Prevention: Abstaining from sex or having sex within a long-term, monogamous relationship
with someone who has tested free of the HIV virus are the only sure ways to avoid being
infected. If you are sexually active, it is important to use a condom every time you have sex.
You should also avoid using illicit IV drugs and sharing needles.
Research: Many different research teams are working on creating an HIV vaccine as well as
a cure for those already living with the infection. Work is also underway to create a vaccine
for AIDS. Because many people form a resistance to their HIV medications, new drugs to
treat HIV are also being developed.
Summary
Activity
References
56
LECTURE SIX
6.0 ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS AND NATURAL RESOURCES
This lecture aims at introducing to students the concepts of environment, environment
systems, and natural resources. It will also cover aspects of physical and social environments.
6.1. What is the Environment?
The term ‘environment’ refers to the natural and social surroundings and conditions in
which people, animals and plants live. This includes all the living and non-living things that
affect the life of an individual organism or population.
Sometimes the environment is referred to as Natural environment or Physical
Environment, meaning all living and non-living things that are naturally on Earth. The
environment that is influenced by humans is referred to as "the built environment" or cultural
landscape.
6.1.1 Components of the Environment
The environment comprises of both physical and social component. These are referred to as
“physical environment” and “social environment”
(i) Physical Environment
The components of the physical environment are:
(i) a biotic component i.e. non-living things, and
(ii) biotic component i.e. living things
Many natural environments are the product of the interaction between nature and humans.
For this reason, the term ecosystem has been used to describe an environment that
contains nature, and includes people.
57
6.1.2 Environmental systems
Life on earth is based on highly organised interactions, which involves exchange of matter
and energy between organisms and their environment. Populations of different species that
live and interact in a particular area form a biological community.
Interactions of a
community with the physical factors of its environments comprise the ecosystems. The
environmental factors in an ecosystem interact so that an action of one factor affects other
factors in the environment.
So any action we take may have consequences on the
ecosystem. Thus every aspect of human behaviour has some relationship to the natural
environment.
6.1.2.1 Ecosystems
An ecosystem can be defined as “any unit that includes all of the organisms (ie: the
"community") in a given area interacting with the physical environment so that a flow of
energy leads to clearly defined feeding relationships, biological diversity, and material cycles
(i.e. exchange of materials between living and nonliving parts) within the system.
Central to the ecosystem concept is the idea that living organisms are continually engaged; in
a highly interrelated set of relationships with every other element constituting the
environment in which they exist. The term ecosystem can also pertain to human-made
environments, such as human ecosystems and human-influenced ecosystems. Fewer areas
on the surface of the earth today exist free from human contact, although some genuine
wilderness area continue to exist.
The interaction of living and non-living things within an ecosystem involves the flow of
energy, the recycling of matter and the regulation of populations of organisms. These
processes are explained below.
58
6.1.2.2. The flow of energy
All life forms require energy to maintain their bodies and perform their activities. The primary
source of energy is sunlight. Plants capture and store light energy and turn it into chemical
energy (carbohydrates, sugars, proteins, waxes and oils) through a process called
photosynthesis. Plants are eaten by animals, which are in turn eaten by other animals. So
energy is exchanged from one living thing to another.
6.1.2.3 Ecological interdependence
This process of cycling energy, elements and matter points to an important characteristic of
ecosystems: inter-dependence. The organisms within an ecosystem depend on one another.
The organisms and the non-living things are also inter-dependent. Thus, when an ecosystem
has become properly established, each life form is finely balanced in relation to those living
and non-living things from which it receive sustenance or shelter.
6.1.2.4 Population regulation
Population regulation is an important aspect of a balanced ecosystem. Predators are nature’s
way of regulating population or controlling the numbers of any given organism in an
ecosystem. Predators play an important role in controlling the rate at which organisms
multiply, and in maintaining the balance of nature. Therefore, in a well-functioning
ecosystem, numbers stay in balance. Without nature’s system of control, populations would
grow beyond the capacity of their environment to support them.
6.2 Natural Resources
A resource is any useful material or information. In other words a resource is something
useful for humanity. However, what is useful or useless can change because of technology,
economics, and the environmental effect of getting and utilising a resource.
59
Natural resources can be defined as “goods and services supplied by the environment”.
This term is sometimes used interchangeably with Environmental resources, defined as
“any thing needed by an organism that can be obtained from the environment”.
People meet their basic needs by harvesting and utilising the earth's natural resources:
water, air, plants, soil and wildlife.
6.2. 1 Categories of Natural Resources
Natural resources traditionally have been classified as renewable and non-renewable.
(i)Renewable resources are those, which are reproducible and are obtained from biomass
of living organisms (i.e. biological organisms). These resources are infinite and self
regenerating, under proper management regenerate and even improve their resource values.
They include plants and animals and other resources such as soils, inland waters and biogeochemical cycles.
(ii) Non-renewable resources are those resources, which are not reproducible and are
present on the earth in fixed amounts e.g. minerals, fossil fuels, and nuclear fuels. These
occur in finite quantities, and once used do not regenerate.
(iii) Intangible resources these include things like open space, landscape, biodivesity and
natural beauty. Sometimes these are identified as ones that enrich the quality of life.
6.2.2 Functions of Natural Resources
The natural environmental resources have various functions including: direct use
(productive), indirect use, non-use (existence) and carrier functions.
(i)
Direct use (productive functions)
60
The direct use or production values, these derive from the economic uses made of natural
resources (products) and services e.g. production of life support materials (water, food, fuel
and energy), raw materials for (building, clothing and household fabrics),
(ii)
Indirect use values or functions
The indirect use values or functions are the indirect support and protection function or
environmental services e.g. regulation of the local and global climate; assimilation of wastes
and pollutants, water catchments and ground water recharge
(iii)
Non-use or preservation values
Non-use or preservation values; these derives from existence of natural resources e.g.
preservation of scenic beauty, preservation of biodiversity and information functions
(iv)
Carrier functions
Carrier functions involve providing space and suitable substrate for the following: human
habitation and settlements, cultivation (crop production, animal husbandry, aquaculture) etc.
Activity
To review the main points that we have covered so far:
1) define the following terms in your own words:
a. environment
b. ecosystem
2) describe how living things interact with non-living things in our environment
3) Explain the functions of natural resources
References
DFID (2006) Developments, No. 35, October.
ENVIRONMENT
(2007)
‘The
History
Channel’
website.
Available
from:
http://www.history.com/encyclopedia.do?articleId=208594.
Lovelock, James (2006) The Revenge of Gaia, Penguin Books, London.
Meadows, D. H., D. L. Meadows and J. Randers (1992) Beyond theLimits, Earthscan, London.
61
Morrow, Rosemary (1993) Earth User’s Guide to Permaculture,Kangaroo Press Pty Ltd,
Australia.
Porritt, J. (2005) Capitalism: As if the Earth Matters, Earthscan, London.
62
LECTURE SEVEN
7.0 ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
This lecture explores the current environmental concerns include the global and local
environmental problems. It also examines the effects of population growth and rapid
urbanisation on the environment.
7.1.
Global and Local Environmental Problems
An environmental problem is defined as a degradation of natural resource and consequently
decrease or loss of its service flows due to reduction of its capacity.. Environmental problems
vary in the degree of urgency. These problems can be distinguished between environmental
changes of global significance and changes, which have only a local or regional context.
7.1.1
Global Environmental Concerns
The current global environmental issues include: air pollution, global warming together with
greenhouse gases effect, deforestation, loss of bio-diversity, fossil fuel energy utilisation,
population growth and demographic trends.
(i)
Air pollution
Air pollution is the accumulation in the atmosphere of substances that, in sufficient
concentrations, endanger human health or produce other detrimental effects on living matter
and other materials. Among the major sources of pollution are burning of fossil fuels (for
energy production and transport), industrial processes and burning of solid wastes.
Pollutants raising a global concern are those, which causes global warming.
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(ii)
Global warming and green house effect
The available scientific evidence indicates the increasing global temperature.
This is
associated to increasing levels of carbon dioxide and other green house gases. The global
warming is raising a global concern, because it is believed to bring about global climatic
changes.
(a) Green house gases
The greenhouse gases functions in the same way as horticultural greenhouse. The naturally
occurring trace-gases in the atmosphere trap some of the heat from the sun’s radiation in
much the same way as horticultural greenhouses. As sunlight heats up the sea and land, the
warmed surface of the earth radiates the heat back towards the space. On its way some heat
is absorbed by the gases, raising air temperatures sufficiently to allow greater concentrations
of atmospheric water vapour that is a very efficient absorber of heat. The greenhouse gases
include: Carbon dioxide, Methane, CFCs, Ozone, Nitrous oxide.
(b) Carbon dioxide emissions
The recent measurements suggest that the concentration of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere is increasing at a rate of about 0.2% every year. The effect of this increase may
be to alter the Earth's climate by increasing the average global temperature. Moreover, the
burning of oil and coal in developed countries is a much more significant source of carbon
emission.
(iii) Ozone destruction
In the 1970s and 1980s, scientists began to find that human activity was having a
detrimental effect on the global ozone layer, a region of the atmosphere that protects the
Earth from the sun’s harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays. Without this gaseous layer, which is 40 km
(about 25 miles) thick, it has been argued that no life could survive on the planet.
Studies showed that the ozone layer was being damaged by the increasing use of industrial
chemicals called chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) – used in refrigeration, air conditioning, cleaning
64
solvents, packing materials and aerosol sprays. When CFCs are released into the atmosphere,
they rise and are broken down by sunlight. The chlorine that is released reacts with and
destroys ozone molecules. For this reason, the use of CFCs in aerosols has been banned in
many countries. Research revealed a growing ozone hole concentrated above Antarctica.
Later, a hole was also discovered above the Arctic.
t1
A thinning of the ozone layer exposes life on Earth to excessive UV radiation, which can
increase skin cancer and cataracts, reduce immune system responses, interfere with the
photosynthetic processes of plants and affect the growth of oceanic phytoplankton. Because
of the growing threat of these dangerous environmental effects, many nations have been
working towards eliminating the manufacture and use of CFCs, with the initial target having
been the year 2000.
(iv)
Marine Pollution
Seas and oceans occupy about seventy-one percent of earth's surface. These ecosystems
have always served as primary source of sustenance.
Marine pollution is defined as the
introduction by man, directly or indirectly, of substances or energy into the marine
environment resulting in deleterious effects like harm to living resource, health hazards,
hindrance to marine activities including fishing, impairment of quality of use of sea-water and
reduction of amenities. With increasing pressure on land based resources oceans are now
increasingly exploited for food (fishing), mining (metal and minerals), energy generation
(tidal and wave power), transportation, recreation and tourism. Oceans and seas are also
used for waste disposal, but this has often ignored the absorptive capacity of marine
environments. Wherever the absorptive capacities are exceeded, the functioning of oceans
and seas as an integral part of the global ecosystem is therefore threatened. Such
environmental destruction is mainly due to the fact that oceans and seas are common
property resources, which tends to be over-exploited and misused.
(v)
Loss of biodiversity
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Biodiversity or diversity of resources is usually measured as the numbers of species or
subspecies of plants, animals, and micro-organisms. A diversity of species is generally
important to the natural functioning of ecosystems, and biodiversity is therefore considered
an indication of the health of an environment. Biological diversity is also valued for aesthetic
enjoyment, and for natural products such as foods and drugs.
(vi) Synthetic pesticides
Extensive use of synthetic pesticides derived from chlorinated hydrocarbons to combat insect
pests has had disastrous environmental side effects. These organo-chlorine pesticides (e.g.
DDT) are highly persistent and resist biological degradation. Once volatilised, the pesticides
are distributed worldwide, contaminating wilderness areas far removed from agricultural
regions, and even the Antarctic and Arctic zones.”
These pesticides also enter the food chain. They are either taken in by plant eaters or
absorbed directly through the skin by such aquatic organisms as fish and various
invertebrates. The pesticide is further concentrated as it passes from herbivores to
carnivores. It becomes highly concentrated in the tissues of animals at the end of the food
chain, such as the peregrine falcon, bald eagle, and osprey.
Chlorinated hydrocarbons interfere in the calcium metabolism of birds, causing thinning of
eggshells and subsequent reproductive failure. As a result, some large predatory and fisheating birds have been brought close to extinction. Because of the dangers of pesticides to
wildlife and to humans, and because insects have acquired resistance to them, the use of
halogenated hydrocarbons such as DDT is declining rapidly in the Western world.
1
(vii) Radiation
Although atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons has been banned by most countries,
eliminating a large source of radioactive fallout, nuclear radiation still remains an
environmental problem. Power plants release some radioactive waste into the air and water,
66
but one of the main dangers to human beings is the possibility of nuclear accidents in which
massive amounts of radiation are released into the environment, as happened at Chernobyl,
Ukraine, in 1986.
A greater problem facing the nuclear industry is the storage of nuclear wastes, which remain
toxic for between 700 to 1 million years, depending on the type . Safe storage for geological
periods of time seems, therefore, to be problematical; meanwhile nuclear wastes continue to
accumulate, possibly threatening the integrity of the environment.
(viii)
Population growth
Although population growth is not a direct environmental issue, but the rapid population
growth experienced globally have serious impacts on utilisation of environmental resources as
well as environmental pollution. As human population increase, there is a greater demand on
natural resources and accelerated rate of environmental deterioration.
Such population
expansion is a significant environmental issue, which goes hand in hand with increased
pollution and environmental degradation.
7.1.2 Local Environmental Problems
Most of the environmental impacts of human communities are manifest at least initially as
local environmental changes.
The local issues include: soil degradation, deforestation,
acidification, eutrophication of water systems, desertification, urbanisation and associated
waste disposal.
(i)
Soil degradation
Soil degradation is a serious problem in the third world countries, located in the tropical
region. There are four main types of soil degradation: water and wind erosion; chemical
degradation and physical degradation.
(ii) Desertification
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Desertification is a serious problem in the arid areas in the sub - Saharan Africa, the Middle
East, South West Asia, the Indian subcontinent and South America. In additional to the
drought ridden third-world countries, the more developed richer nations of the world have
also been adversely affected by desertification, for example eastern Colorado in the USA.
Thus neither the cause nor the process of desertification are confined to the Third World,
although it is there that society is least able to combat the problem.
(iii)
Industrial Emission and Acidification
The industrial emissions containing the acidic gases - sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrous
oxides (NO2 and NO) - produced through combustion of fossil fuels, are one of major air
pollutants in developed countries. The accumulation of these gases leads to “acid rain"
formation. The major impacts of acidification have been on freshwater ecosystems. The
impacts of acidification on terrestrial ecosystems are noticed on forest health, but this can
also be affected by increasing atmospheric (near ground) ozone levels.
(iv) Eutrophication
Eutrophication is accelerated nutrient enrichment of aquatic environment results from
anthropogenic disruption of the bio-geochemical cycles of phosphorus and nitrogen.
The
nutrients leading to eutrophication mainly emanates from fertiliser use, sewage out put and
urban run-off. Cultural eutrophication (anthropogenically accelerated) manifests itself in lakes
by stimulating ageing process.
The accelerated addition of nutrients due to human
disturbance in lake catchments speeds up the process of transforming the open water into
terrestrial ecosystems. Sediment input also increase in response to catchment’s disturbance
and silting thus accelerated. The visual outcome in lake ecosystems and coastal regions is in
form of algal blooms. The impact on aquifers is high nitrate concentration, which have no
any visual impact. In many of the world's waterways, for example Lake Victoria, the Nile and
the lower Mississippi, a water hycinth (Eichlornia crassipes) has become a major problem. It
has responded to increasing nutrient input to such an extent that it is causes oxygen
deficiency and thus high fish mortality.
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(v)
Rapid urbanisation and waste disposal
Another impact of expanding human population, on the environment is the rapid
urbanisation. The concentration of people in dense settlements has important effects on the
local environment. Urban populations, through their production and consumption activities
generate large localised amounts of waste materials, which when poorly disposed causes
serious environmental pollution.
Activity
1) What are the immediate implications of each of these three- acid rains, ozone layer
depletion, and global warming?
2) Briefly discuss on local environmental problems? How are these likely to affect your
family?
3) By citing local examples discuss on eutrophication
References
Mannion, A. M and S. R. Bowlby (1992). Environmental issues in the 1990s. John Wiley, NY
USA.
Commonwealth Youth Programme (1998), Sustainable Development and Environmental
Issues. Commonwealth Secretariat
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LECTURE EIGHT
8.0 THE SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT
The aim of this lecture is to introduce the concept of social environment, and explore linking
the roles of value systems, economic order and environment degradation. The role of poverty
on the environment was also discussed.
8.1 The Social Environment
Our social environment encompasses such things as social and cultural institutions (families,
religion and values, law, education, economics and politics) together with what is referred to
as our built environment. Whatever happens in our social environment affects the natural
environment, but this is not a one-way relationship. As we have already discussed, people
have had a dramatic effect on the natural environment, for that reason if we do not consider
our natural environment as we plan our development activities, the survival of future
generations will be threatened.
The aspects of the social environment that can affect the natural environment include:
value systems, legislation and global economics.
(i) Value systems
Some societies do not destroy or deplete the resources in their natural environment, .because
of their traditional value systems. The people in these societies live more or less in harmony
with their environment, because they are highly conscious of their place in their ecosystems.
For example some groups in India believed that the trees in the forest were gods and, as a
result, they protected all trees. Where as other societies like those in the industrialized world,
do not hold these sorts of beliefs about the natural environment; they tend to see the living
and non-living elements in their environment as resources to be used for consumption or as a
source of pleasure. This kind of value system tends to create space for practices that may
lead to environmental damage. In extreme cases, lack of concern for one’s environment may
70
be symptomatic of deep social problems. For instance a drug addict who has come to the
stage where he doesn’t care about himself could hardly care less about the proper disposal of
garbage or depleting the ozone layer.
(ii) Legislation
Our environment is also affected by the existence or non-existence of appropriate laws and
the extent to which they are enforced. If there are no laws created specifically to protect our
environment, degradation is likely to occur. Again, if laws exist, but they are weak or not
enforced, degradation is also likely to occur. In such a situation, our physical environment is
more likely to be affected by large economic projects. Weak legislation and governmental
emphasis on economic growth, without regard for the environment, open the doors to
developers, which may result in severe damage to our environment. Such damage is even
more likely when the enforcement of laws and the management of the economy depend on
very rich, powerful and greedy people.
Conversely, if laws are effective and enforced, protection of the environment is likely to
result. Effective legislation, such as an Environmental Impact Assessment Act (or sometimes
an Environmental Protection Act), requires the incorporation of environmental considerations
into the planning and design of development projects. This has been proven to be a valuable
and promising approach in many countries, including Europe, Japan and United States. But,
to a lesser extent in developing countries in Africa and South America.
(iii) Capitalism
Since the collapse in 1971 of the financially stabilizing of Bretton Woods world financial
system (WB, IFM) the world’s stock and bond markets have been potentially very unstable.
As a result capitalism is no longer controlled by individuals or even governments, but by what
happens in global stock and bond markets. The main concern of the investors who operate in
those markets is to increase profits or at least not to lose money. Therefore, they focus only
on the economic value of goods and services. Moreover, because of the rapidity with which
71
information is transmitted by the new electronic communications media, markets react to
changes in global conditions with amazing speed. Long term issues like the environment
scarcely figure as an issue in the activities of most investors. The only way a company can
afford to care for the environment is when international and national laws, backed up by
powerful enforcement, make them do so, and that can only happen when the laws apply to
everyone in the market.
(iv) Globalisation
As the discussion above on capitalism indicates, growth and wealth come from the stimulus
of trade. Globalisation refers to the acceleration of international trade and financial
transactions. This has increasingly included the process of removing national barriers to the
various kinds of market forces, such as the barriers of national political and legal systems and
the technical barriers for comparing the prices of goods. Electronic communications such as
the internet make buying and selling very quick and simple across the world. Consequently
the power and wealth of the large countries push the concerns of smaller and poorer nations
to one side. To take one example –although most countries are able to grow their own food,
globalisation dictates that they grow cash crops or make cheap shoes for export instead. The
principle of competitive advantage reduces the market price of goods. But it may not reduce
the real costs when you consider the consequences if it destabilises local economies as well
as households’ livelihoods and local environment.
(v) Consumerism
Consumerism promotes the social value of consuming a large number of commodities of all
kinds. It is intrinsic to developed capitalist societies and derives from economic relations
where there is a huge capacity to produce things cheaply and a need for these things to be
consumed in order to keep the economy running. It requires a large consuming group with
the resources to pay for these things.
Two thirds of the people in developed countries and a minority of people in the upper-income
levels of developing countries enjoy a high standard of living and consume an enormous
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proportion of the available energy, food, water, mineral and other resources. It is estimated
that 80 per cent of the world’s resources are consumed by 20 per cent of the world’s
population. Over-exploitation of environmental resources can come about because, among
other things, of overpopulation or the desire to maintain unsustainable life-styles. One of the
recommendations for dealing with this problem is for people to lessen their consumption
patterns, change their style of living and learn to do more with less.
(vi) Third World debt
Another important fact about the global economic system is that, by its structural relations, it
causes a serious imbalance in the distribution of wealth, and this has led to massive Third
World debt. The initial impetus for this debt was the unjust transfer to newly independent
countries of the debts of the colonising States. In most cases, poor countries have found
themselves in a cycle of indebtedness. Because their economies are weak, they have had to
continue to borrow money to keep them running. However, they can normally only obtain
new loans if they continue to pay money towards their existing debts. When caught in this
situation, what do poor countries do? The more they are indebted, the more likely they are to
cull the earth’s scarce resources in order to create cash for debt repayment. They overexploit
their natural resources and cut back on social services (for example, health and education)
and environmental conservation programmes.
(vii) Imbalance of wealth within countries
Imbalance in the distribution of wealth is also widely evident within the developing countries,
where often quite a small proportion of the population may own and control most of a
country’s wealth. This, too, may contribute to environmental degradation. This is often cited
in instances when too many trees are cut down for fuel, which in turn disrupts the ecosystem
and can cause desertification. In other cases mangrove trees, which are homes to a wide
variety of wild life and nurseries for fish, are destroyed to make charcoal. When the social
system does not take the physical environment into account, the results include
73
deforestation, the removal of vegetation and the destruction of the habitats for natural food
supplies and, of course, widespread pollution.
8.2 Effects on the Socio-Economic System itself
It is important to note that the negative effects caused by our socio-economic system in turn
affect the system itself. For example, deforestation adds to the threat of global warming or
climatic changes. These changes can, among other things, reduce agricultural
production and contribute to the cycle of poverty. Apart from the human tragedy, this is also
a huge burden on an already strained economy. In effect, whatever happens in the physical
environment rebounds on the social environment. Our social and physical environments are
inter-related.
8.2.1 The relationship between the environment and development
We have already discussed the relationship between the natural and social environments.
Now let’s consider the relationship between the environment and development, which is an
integral part of the social environment. First, we must recognise that the environment and its
resources are finite and that economic growth cannot continue at the expense of the natural
environment. As populations and their demands increase, the idea of continuous growth must
give way to a more rational use of the environment, but this can be accomplished only by a
dramatic change in the attitude of the people. In order to achieve sustainable development,
environmental protection should constitute an integral part of the development process and
cannot be considered in isolation from it. First we need to think about what development is.
The attributes of Development are:

the acceleration or quickening of economic growth

the reduction of inequality

the elimination of absolute poverty.
Let’s take a closer look at the first process mentioned in this definition: economic growth.
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Economic growth results from activities such as forestry, mining, tourism, agriculture and
manufacturing. All economic activities depend, directly or indirectly, on the environment and
natural resources. However, a basic function of all economic activity is to provide as many
people as possible with the means of overcoming the helplessness and misery that arise from
a lack of food, shelter, health and protection. Therefore, economic growth in the capitalist
sense can help in reducing inequality and eliminating poverty. Unfortunately, it has not yet
proved to do so for some large groups of people. Furthermore, development that has
economic growth as its primary focus does not take into account the potential cost of damage
to the environment.
As was already discussed, not only does the development process have a direct impact on the
environment but, conversely, the condition of the environment and its resources also affects
development and therefore the social environment. In fact, it is cyclical. The degradation of
the environment that results from the development process cause great losses in potential
revenue to the government and people of the countries involved. Thus, on a long-term basis,
over-exploitation of the environment could lead to loss of the very resources that we require
for development and to the continuation of a cycle of poverty. In effect, the environmental
effects of our development strategies can hinder future efforts to develop our countries.
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8.3 Poverty and our environment
Poverty eradication remains a global development challenge. This was underlined when it
was identified as the first goal of the Millennium Declaration. In developing countries, the
majority of people has very low standards of living or lives in absolute poverty (at or below
US$1/day, estimated by the World Bank). This is often manifested in the form of inadequate
housing, poor nutrition and health, limited or no education, high infant mortality, low life and
work expectancy, and a general life of deprivation and sense of hopelessness and despair.
Globally, the increase in poverty has come about because of a host of issues. Chief among
these are the unequal distribution of land and wealth, inappropriate interventions by
international financial institutions, rapid increases in population, environmental degradation
and low living standards.
It’s tempting to think that the results of environmental degradation and collapse will be borne
equally by rich and poor alike. In the light of that, we might expect considerable efforts on
the part of the wealthy and powerful to protect the environment. However, as Indira Gandhi
told the 1972 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm, “poverty
is the worst form of pollution”.
Poverty intensifies the pressure on the environment as the poor people who are forced to
occupy these ecologically vulnerable areas put natural resources further at risk in order to
generate income or to consume what they need to live. Many of these situations are
geographically positioned in very poor countries where governments can ill-afford the
establishment of proper infrastructure and effective disaster management plans to deal with
hazards – like the hurricane that destroyed most of Grenada, or the widespread floods that
severely disrupted livelihoods in Guyana. It is therefore important that the eradication of
poverty should remain high on the international agenda.
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Self help questions
1) Discuss the roles of social environment on the problems facing the environment today.
2) How is poverty related to the environment?
3) Discuss on the relationship between poverty and the environment
References
Commonwealth Youth Programme (1998), Sustainable Development and Environmental
Issues. Commonwealth Secretariat
French, Hilary (1993) Costly Tradeoffs. Reconciling Trade and theEnvironment, Worldwatch
Institute, Washington DC.
Kahn, J.R. and McDonald, J.A. (1994) Third World debt and tropical deforestation, Ecological
Economics.
Lovelock, James (2006) The Revenge of Gaia, Penguin Books, London.New Internationalist
(1999) ‘Poor and Rich – The Facts’, Issue 310, March.
Todaro, Michael P. and Smith, Stephen C. (1997) Economic Development (6th edition),
Addison Wesley.
World Resources Institute (1994) World Resources: A Guide to the Global Environment,
Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Foskett, N. and R. Foskett (2004). Conservation. Hodder & Stoughton. UK.
77
LECTURE NINE
9.0 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND ENVIRONMENT
This lecture aims at introducing the concept of sustainable development, relationship
between development and environment and discusses the global efforts to attaining
sustainable development. The different approaches to sustainable development are also
examined.
9.1 Introduction
Owing to widespread destruction and degradation of the environment, there has been a
global call for the integration of environmental protection and development. To many people
who are concerned about the environment, some of the answers lie with a new development
path: sustainable development. In this topic we will examine: the major events that have
caused the world to focus on the need for environmental protection, in particular the 1992
Earth Summit, what sustainable development means and why action is essential to the
success of sustainable development projects
9.1.1 Environmental Protection
As early as 1864, George Perkins Marsh, called attention to a growing worldwide need for
environmental protection. Marsh emphasised that humans were making global and often
permanent and disastrous changes in the environment. However, the world only started to
open its eyes with the occurrence of very visible environmental disasters. Major events in
environmental protection that have caused the world to focus on environmental problems
and the need for environmental protection are presented in table 1.
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Table 1: Period events on environment conservation
1900–1962
Awareness of incidents of pollution grows.
. 1970s
Political awareness and action, at the highest level, to solve
environmental problems
1980s
Recognition that environment and development are two faces
of the same coin and that the issue of poverty is closely related
to environmental
1990s
Merging the concepts of ‘environment’ and degradation and
development through the concept of sustainable development
2000s
International cooperation, partnerships and commitment to
achieve sustainable development
.
It is evident that the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro was an important milestone. It
helped awaken the world to the need for a development process that does not endanger
future generations.Let’s look at it now.
9.1.2 The Earth Summit
The Earth Summit conference in 1992 was the largest gathering of world leaders in history. It
was convened to address urgent problems of environmental protection and socio-economic
development. By means of treaties and other documents signed at the conference, most of
the world’s nations committed themselves to the pursuit of economic development in ways
that would protect the Earth’s environment and non-renewable resources. Some of the
documents produced at Earth Summit are as follows.
(i) The Declaration on Environment and Development
The Declaration on Environment and Development outlines the 27 broad, non-binding
principles for environmentally sound development that were established at the Earth Summit
in 1992. These are the basic principles of sustainable development.
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(ii) Agenda 21
Agenda 21 is a blueprint on how to make development socially, economically and
environmentally sustainable. It contains strategies for preventing environmental degradation
and for establishing a basis for a sustainable way of life on the planet into the twenty-first
century.
Agenda 21 identifies nine major groups as partners with governments in the global
implementation of the Rio agreements , these are- women, farmers, young people, trade
unions, business and industry, local authorities, scientists, indigenous peoples, and
NGOs -working in environment and development.
In response to Agenda 21, several countries, including Tanzania with the assistance of the
World Bank and other financial institutions have prepared national documents, called
variously as National Environmental Action Plan, National Conservation Strategy or
Sustainable Development Strategy – as guides to attaining sustainable development.
9.1.3 Outcomes of the Earth Summit
Although the Earth Summit did achieve a massive leap forward in global awareness of the
need for environmental protection and some consensus about future action, there were
disputes between the wealthy, industrialised nations in Europe and North America and
poorer developing countries in Africa, Latin America, the Middle East and parts of Asia.
In general, poorer countries were reluctant to jeopardize their economic growth through the
environmental restrictions urged on them by richer, developed countries unless they received
increased financial aid, which they claimed would help make environmentally
sound growth possible.
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9.2 Earth Summit +5
Earth Summit +5 was a special session of the UN General Assembly that took place five years
after the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro. It aimed to evaluate how well countries,
international organisations and sectors of civil society had responded to the
challenge of the Earth Summit. Its objectives were to:

revitalise and energise commitments to sustainable development

frankly recognise failures and identify reasons for these

recognise achievements and identify actions that would boost them

define priorities for the post-1997 period

raise the profile of issues addressed insufficiently by Rio.
It found that, while interest in and concern about the environment remained high and some
advances had been made, there were still major environmental problems facing future
generations. For example, we were still faced with a polluted and damaged atmosphere,
poisoned and diminished water supplies, erosion and soil degradation, loss of bio-diversity,
food shortages and depletion of natural resources. Progress at the international and
governmental levels had been slow in developing strategies for sustainable development
because of political and economic conflicts.
Another key event in the legislation for environmental protection was the 2002 World Summit
on Sustainable Development. In addition to Earth Summit, is one of the key formal events
related to environmental protection and sustainable development. A
number of informal
activities of local groups and individuals can have as much impact as the large-scale global
conferences. These are referred to as social movements.
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9.4 Approaches to Sustainable development
This topic examines more closely the meaning of sustainable development and its main
features. While there is debate over the way that it is interpreted and implemented, the
concept remains central to any approaches to saving our environment. The term ‘sustainable
development’ was first used by economists who were concerned about the problems caused
when efforts to promote growth ignored the environmental dimensions of that growth. Such
efforts focused on activities in which projected benefits exceeded projected costs by the
highest margin possible. Of course, this was a very limited way of calculating economic
growth, because it did not look at the environmental effects of growth, which are normally
long-term costs.
So the rise in the use of the sustainable development concept has been caused by growing
recognition that:

the impact of development on the environment is so great that development cannot
be contemplated without reference to its effects on the environment

environmental and development concerns must be integrated.
There are two approaches to sustainable development:
(i)An ecological approach
In 1980, the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN),
the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the World Wildlife Fund (WWF)
published the World Conservation Strategy in which they defined sustainable development in
terms of ecology. According to their definition, sustainable development had three priorities:

to maintain essential ecological processes and life support systems

to preserve genetic diversity

to sustain utilisation of species and ecosystems.
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This view of development ignores the issue of economic growth. Since environment and
development cannot realistically be separated like this, this view of development is as flawed
as the earlier one that ignored environmental effects. In a drive to protect the environment,
we cannot ignore variables such as economic and social factors. The physical environment
cannot be sustained if development policies do not consider the need for changes in access
to resources, and the distribution of costs and benefits. Thus, if sustainable development is to
be achieved, basic needs must be met and opportunities must be provided for everyone to
have a better quality of life.
(ii) An integrated approach
The World Commission on Environment and Development (also known as the Brundtland
Commission), which was formed in 1983, redefined sustainable development. Its final report,
Our Common Future, which was published in 1987, defined sustainable development as:
“Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their needs”. The report points out that: “Environment and development
are not separate challenges: they are linked. Development cannot subsist on a deteriorating
resource base; the environment cannot be protected when growth leaves out of account the
costs of environmental destruction.”
In fact, within the notion of sustainable development are two other key concepts:
1) The concept of needs – more particularly, the basic needs of the world’s poor
to which overriding priority should be given.
2) The concept of limitations – limits that are imposed on the capacity of the
environment to meet present and future needs. These limits are brought
about by the state of technology and social structures.
Next we look at the characteristic concerns that distinguish sustainable development from
other forms of development – quality of life and social equity.
a) Quality of life
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The supporters of sustainable development view the quality of human life as the main
concern of development. In fact, sustainable development is a process of gradual
improvement in the quality of human life brought about by economic growth. The change
must be gradual because sudden and rapid change requires over-exploitation of
environmental resources and defeats the purpose of sustainable development.
(b) Social equity
Sustainable development also implies social equity. Entailed in the idea of social equity or
equality are:

respect for regional, national, local, ethnic and cultural diversity

the strengthening and full exercise of citizens’ participation in development

peaceful coexistence and harmony with nature.
As we seek to achieve social equity, our goal is to ensure the quality of life for future
generations while meeting the needs of the present citizens. Sustainable development aims
at changing production methods and consumption patterns in the interest of ecological
balance.
9.5 Principles and strategies of sustainable development
Sustainable development centres on improving the quality of life of human beings. It is
designed to enhance the ability of humans to meet their socio-economic needs without
damaging the environment. A minimum condition for sustainable development is that the
development process must not endanger the ecological systems that support life on earth.
The following strategies for sustainable development have been outlined in Our Common
Future:

reviving economic growth in developing countries as a means of meeting basic
needs, since economic growth is a prerequisite for environmental protection in
developing countries
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
changing the quality of growth to achieve improved distribution of income,
social equity, reduced vulnerability to economic crisis and, more or less, to
make growth less dependent on energy and materials

meeting the essential needs (jobs, food, energy supply, water, health care,
education, sanitation) of most of the world’s population

enabling a sustainable level of population

conserving
and
enhancing
the
natural
resource
base
through
waste
management, cleaner technology, use of substitutes such as alternative sources
of energy, etc.

reorienting technology and managing environmental risks

merging environmental issues and economics in decision-making

viewing environment and development not as opposites but as inter-related
and complementary.
9.6 World Summit on Sustainable Development
The World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD), described as a ‘summit on actions
and results’, was held in Johannesburg in 2002. The primary aim was to review Agenda 21 in
terms of the world’s attainment of sustainable development. At this important gathering, no
new treaties were made but new targets were set. These included:

to halve the proportion of people without access to basic sanitation by 2015

to achieve by 2010 a significant reduction in the current rate of loss of biological
diversity.
Some of the significant outcomes of this Summit were:

the launching of more than 300 voluntary partnerships, which it is hoped will
increase resources to support efforts to implement sustainable development

the beginning of a new level of dialogue among stakeholders, especially
governments, civil society and the private sector

commitments to improve the quality of our natural environment
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
setting of targets and timetables – for example, a ten-year programme on
production and consumption.
9.7 Sustainable livelihoods
The sustainable livelihoods approach is gaining prominence in poverty-oriented research, as
well as among development organizations. The sustainability of livelihoods raises two
fundamental questions:


Is a livelihood sustainable from a natural environmental standpoint?
Can it survive stress and shocks such as depleted soils, floods, droughts, fires,
famines, epidemics of human illness, among others?
The aim is to support people to achieve their own livelihood goals (with due consideration
about sustainability). One of the strengths of this approach is that it puts poor people at the
centre and also focuses on the impact of development policies on people’s priorities and
concerns. Policies can either enable or prevent access to the various types of capital
(ecological, economic, etc.) required to achieve sustainable livelihoods’ outcomes.
Activity
1) Compare and contrast the ecological and integrated approaches for sustainable
Development
2) Briefly discuss on global milestones to attaining sustainable development
3) How the principles of sustainable development are related to sustainable livelihood
References
DFID (1998) Sustainable Livelihoods Guidance Sheets. United Nations Earth Summit +5
website (section on sustainable development): ttp://www.un.org/esa/earthsummit/
United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (1992) Agenda 21, UN
Department of Public Information (DPI), New York.
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United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (1992) The Rio Declaration on
Environment and Development, UN Department of Public Information (DPI), New York.
World Commission on Environment and Development (1987) The Brundtland Commission –
Our Common Future, Oxford University Press.
World Resources Institute (1994) A Guide to the Global Environment, Oxford University Press.
WikipediaEnvironmental http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_movement.
Foskett, N. and R. Foskett (2004). Conservation. Hodder & Stoughton. UK.
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