EDS-103
9
CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORIES
THEORIES OF LEARNING
LEARNING OBJECTIVES POSTED AS ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS
What are the distinguishing features of constructivist theories?
How is learning explained by constructivist theory?
What is schema? How does it describe knowledge and learning?
How do cognitive and social constructivist strands compare?
How can constructivist learning theory be applied in the learning
environment?
Module 9: Constructivist Theories
EDS 103 – Theories of Learning
EDS 103 - THEORIES OF LEARNING
Module 9. Constructivist Theories
Source: Santrock, 2011, p. 219
Introduction
Besides the behavioral approach and other theories of learning, there are four major
cognitive approaches—social cognitive, information-processing, and the constructivist
approach which in turn is distinguished in two sub-types, cognitive and social (Figure 1). In
this module, we focus our attention on the cognitive and social constructivist theories.
Figure 1. Main approaches to learning (Santrock, 2011, p. 219).
CONSTRUCTIVISM VERSUS INFORMATION PROCESSING
Unlike information processing theories that focus on
asymptotia.co
m
how information is recorded into long term memory,
constructivists focus on the ways that learners
construct knowledge in the working memory through
their experiences and reflections on those experiences
Such distinctions are important to note because
approaches to teaching and learning vary according to
the theoretical assumptions that underlie the practice.
Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU
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Module 9: Constructivist Theories
CONSTRUCTIVISM VERSUS DIRECT INSTRUCTION
The constructivist approach is often distinguished from
direct instruction. The former is learner-centered;
teachers facilitate and guide learning; learning is an active
construction of knowledge by the learners. In contrast,
direct instruction is a highly structured teacher-centered
approach; the teacher directs and controls most of the
learning activities, which are laid out in a clear scope-and
sequence program to maximize time utilization (Santrock,
2011).
EDS 103 – Theories of Learning
Think about how you learn.
When you hear, read, or see
something new, does it help to
talk about it and reflect on it to
better understand the new
information?
From http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/
concept2class/constructivism/w1_think1.html
COGNITIVE CONSTRUCTIVISM AND SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM
There are two major strands in constructivist theory: cognitive constructivism and social
constructivism. The two share common fundamental assumptions—that people construct their
own understanding and knowledge of the world, hence teachers facilitate and guide (rather
than direct and mold) learning.
(Chen, n.d.; Eggen & Kauchak, n.d.; Mayer, in Reigeluth,
http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Invariant_Tasks:_Principles_for_Learning; Santrock, 2011).
However, cognitive and social strands differ in their emphasis (Halford in Santrock, 2011,
p.218), specifically:

The cognitive constructivist approaches, grounded primarily on Piaget’s work,
emphasize learners’ cognitive construction of knowledge and understanding).
Piaget's theory of cognitive development “describes how learners develop
cognitive abilities [and] proposes that humans cannot be given information,
in which they immediately understand and use. Instead, learners must
construct their own knowledge. They build their knowledge through
experience. Experiences enable them to create schemas — mental models of
the world. These schemas are changed, enlarged, and made more
sophisticated through two complimentary processes: assimilation and
accommodation.”
Source: The Performance Juxtaposition Site,
The acquisition of
http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/history/constructivism.html
knowledge and skills
is a process of gradual
 The social constructivist approaches, grounded on Vygotsky’s
progression that is
work, emphasize collaboration in the production of knowledge and
characterized by the
construction of
understanding.
knowledge rather
We discuss these two strands in more detail in the sections that
than recording
information.
follow.
Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU
3
Module 9: Constructivist Theories
EDS 103 – Theories of Learning
A. Piaget: Cognitive Constructivism
Jean Piaget proposed a comprehensive stage theory regarding human development.
However, in this module, we focus on the aspect of his works that served as a major
foundation for cognitive constructivism. He posits that information as initially perceived by man
is not in a form that is immediately understood and usable. Instead, he capitalizes on prior
experiences to create mental models—schemas. These mental models or schemas are
gradually changed and modified, enlarged and made more sophisticated, as the individual
acquires more experience. Learners “construct knowledge by transforming, organizing, and
reorganizing previous knowledge and information” (Santrock, 2011, p. 334).
SCHEMA
Schemas refer to actions or mental representations of conceptually organized systems /
networks of information. Infants have mostly behavioral schemas (physical activities like
sucking, looking, and grasping), while mental schemas (cognitive activities like strategies and
plans for solving problems) develop later in childhood and become enormously diverse in
adulthood. They are mental frameworks, abstract mental structures that represent our
understanding of the world—“psychological representations to perceive and understand
reality”. They allow new perceptions to be quickly organized (added into pre-existing beliefs
and ideas) and enable action without much effort.
Organization refers to the systemic grouping of (seemingly) disjointed bits of information in
order to make sense of them.
A schema of “egg” (Davis, 1991). Acquired from
http://www.sil.org/lingualinks/literacy/implementaliteracyprogram/schematheoryoflearning.htm
Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU
4
EDS 103 – Theories of Learning
EXERCISE: What Schema?
What could be this toddler’s schema of “blow your nose” be?
i.imgur.com/8SMcY.jpg
Module 9: Constructivist Theories
Characteristics of schemata

Schemata are always organized meaningfully, can be added to, and, as an individual
gains experience, develop to include more variables and more specificity.

Each schema is embedded in other schemata and itself contains subschema.

Schemata change moment by moment as information is received.

They may also be reorganized when incoming data reveals a need to restructure the
concept.

The mental representations used during perception and comprehension, and which
evolve as a result of these processes, combine to form a whole which is greater than the
sum of its parts.
Anderson (1977).
http://www.sil.org/lingualinks/literacy/implementaliteracyprogram/SchemaTheoryOfLearning.htm
Assumptions supported by the schema theory of learning

It is important to present all the necessary lower-level facts before proceeding to teach at
higher levels of the knowledge hierarchy.

People can reason with higher-level concepts if they have learned all of the prerequisite
lower-level information.

It is important to use teaching steps which correspond to the internal sequence in which
the brain processes information.
Spaeth & Walter.
http://www.sil.org/lingualinks/literacy/implementaliteracyprogram/InformationProcessingTheoryOfL.htm
Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU
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Module 9: Constructivist Theories
EDS 103 – Theories of Learning
Piaget's Theory of Constructivism
A QUICK OVERVIEW
Piaget's Theory of Constructivism
Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Theory by McLeod
KEY CONCEPTS ON LEARNING
In addition to schema, which we have discussed in the previous section, the key concepts
behind Piaget’s theory that apply to learning include assimilation, accommodation, and
equilibration.
Schema (Schemata)
Schema is a concept that describes “knowledge as an
elaborate network of abstract mental structures which
represent one's understanding of the world”
(http://www.sil.org/lingualinks/literacy/implementaliteracyprogr
am/schematheoryoflearning.htm).
psas.pdx.edu
Assimilation
Assimilation refers to the incorporation of information into existing knowledge structures,
without the necessity of making changes to old ones—i.e., merely “adding”.
Accommodation
Accommodation describes the construction of new knowledge that requires a restructuring
(adjustment, slight alteration) of old concepts so that new ones fit in.
Equilibration
colourbox.com
When an experience disrupts an individual's equilibrium (disequilibrium), cognitive
constructivists believe that the individual reconstructs understanding that reestablishes
equilibrium (i.e., resolve the conflict and reach a balance).
THINK
1. Contrast assimilation and accommodation. Cite examples to clarify the distinctions.
2. When/ How is equilibrium attained? How does disequilibrium contribute to learning?
kitomarketing.com
PIAGET'S CONSTRUCTIVISM ON VIDEO
An alternative way of learning about assimilation, accommodation,
equilibration and schemas.
Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU
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EDS 103 – Theories of Learning
Module 9: Constructivist Theories
Can you distinguish the SCHEMA and INFORMATION-PROCESSING
THEORY components in the following paragraph?
[Besides information-processing,] the other major kind of cognitive theory is schema
theory. It proposes that, when new knowledge is encoded, it is organized into
schemas, which are networks of related pieces of knowledge. For example, an
invariant task can be encoded as a new schema, complete with such contextual
factors as conditions for its use, in which case it will be at least loosely related to
other schemata, or more typically it can be assimilated into an existing schema. But
more importantly for instructional purposes, specific elements of the invariant task
can often be learned--or more accurately, retrieved--more easily by relating them to
certain carefully selected prior knowledge, especially meaningful knowledge. For
example, it is easier to remember the colors of the rainbow and their order (red,
orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet) by associating them with the name, "Roy
G. Biv."
http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Invariant_Tasks:_Principles_for_Learning
SCHEMA THEORY OF LEARNING: Some Optional Readings
Schema Theory: An Introduction
Schema Theory
Cognitive Schema Theory in the Constructive Debate
Piaget’s Constructivism, Papert’s Constructionism: What’s The Difference?
AN INTEGRATION: SCHEMA THEORY AND MYERS BRIGGS
A brief overview with visual simulations of schema according to the Myers-Briggs
psychological functions (S, N, T and F)—a fun way to integrate schema theory and
personality.
TWO KEY PIAGETIAN PRINCIPLES:
Learning is an active rather than passive process. Experience, including the errors made
therein, enables the construction of new knowledge, which involves two complementary
processes: assimilation and accommodation, described above. In cognitive constructivist
theory, information is valued as tools for problem solving rather than as plain facts isolated
from real contexts. The Piagetian concept about knowing argues that knowledge cannot be
“told”, “spoon-fed”, “given” or “poured”. Rather, teachers ought to provide opportunities for
students to develop understanding through exploration and co-construction of knowledge.
Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU
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EDS 103 – Theories of Learning
Module 9: Constructivist Theories
Learning, to be effective, should be whole, authentic, and "real". In connection to the first
principle, learning must be meaningful. Meaning is
SITUATED COGNITION
constructed by way of mindful interactions and
engagement with the world; the construction of
Thinking and knowledge cannot be
meaning requires the learner to be actively
separated from the social and physical
involved with his environment. There is great
contexts in which they occur.
Hence, authentic (real-world) tasks
emphasis on whole (integrated across disciplines)
make one of the best learning situations.
and authentic (real-world) activities in contrast to
Santrock, 2011, p. 335
“skills through drills” methods that tend to be
confined to specific subject areas.
http://viking.coe.uh.edu/~ichen/ebook/et-it/cognitiv.htm
http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/history/constructivism.html
Santrock (2011), p. 334.
CHILDREN ENGAGED IN A REAL-WORLD TASK: Can thinking be “visible”?
Here, children are designing a parachute in order to explore the
effect of shape, size, and weight on the rate of descent.
In a traditional setting, the teacher "teaches" these facts in the
classroom. However, a real-world design problem allows children to
discover the interaction between these variables. Through trial and
error and collaborative learning, children attempt to figure out which
combination of conditions will enable a parachute to descend.
http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/constructivism/demonstration.html#2
(Four young kids sitting on grass outside.)
Girl in Yellow:
If I do it different next time and me and Jill are buddies, we would probably make (pause) a
circle or something?
Jill:
Yeah (very softly).
Girl in Yellow:
A circle. Cause the real people use their, and they, they come down really safely so maybe
the circle would be better than a tri . . . than a rectangle.
Boy in Black:
Maybe it's the weight. Maybe it's, you . . . maybe you need a certain weight for the shape to
work.
Girl in Yellow:
Yeah, maybe the weight on the person . . .
Jill:
. . . brings it down nice and slowly. (softly)
Girl in Yellow:
Well, if this person was thin and they was on a real parachute probably go down smooth,
but if this person was heavy (group laughs) it would probably go down a little crookeder.
Excerpted from Just Think: Problem Solving through Inquiry. A production of the New York State Department of Education. Commissioner of
Education: Richard P. Mills, Ed.D. Principal Investigator: Edward Lalor., Senior Producers: Bob Reilly and Susan Burns; Co-produced by
Thirteen/WNET New York. Producer: Jill Peters. Executive Producer: Sandra Sheppard. © 1996 New York State Department of Education. All
rights reserved. http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/constructivism/w2_trans7.html
Can you tell how their schemata evolves or takes shape?
PLAN AN AUTHENTIC TASKS
Consider a specific grade-level topic (or a current lesson you are teaching). What authentic task(s) can
you prepare on this subject if you were the teacher? (Search the web for some bright ideas!)
Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU
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EDS 103 – Theories of Learning
Module 9: Constructivist Theories
B. Vygotsky: Social Constructivism
“Social Development Theory was originated by Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky (18961934), who lived during Russian Revolution. Vygotsky’s work was largely unkown to the West
until it was published in 1962… [The theory] argues that social interaction precedes
development; consciousness and cognition are the end-products of socialization and social
behavior.” (In contrast, Piaget argues that development precedes learning.)
(source: http://www.learning-theories.com/vygotskys-social-learning-theory.html)
Social constructivism emphasizes that knowledge is first
constructed in a social environment and is then
appropriated by individuals. According to social
constructivists, knowledge grows directly out of the
interaction. Social interactions and involvement with
others are very important aspects in the process of
knowledge building and construction. In particular,
exposure to the thoughts of others provides opportunities
to evaluate and refine their own. In the process, the
participants develop not only personal knowledge but
shared understandings as well. If Piaget focused on individual cognition, Vygotsky focused on
the “child embedded in a sociocultural context”, which values collaboration, social interaction,
and sociocultural activity. In addition, culture defines what the society values and considers
important. Thus, culture—including the language, beliefs, and skills of that culture—strongly
shapes the nature of the knowledge and understandings created by the learners (Santrock,
2011, pp. 333-334; McLeod, 2007).
A QUICK OVERVIEW
Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory by McLeod
Vygotsky's Theory on Constructivism
MAJOR THEMES
1. Social interaction plays a fundamental role in the process of cognitive
development. In contrast to Jean Piaget’s understanding of child development (in
which development necessarily precedes learning), Vygotsky felt social learning
precedes development. He states: “Every function in the child’s cultural
development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual
level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child
(intrapsychological)” (Vygotsky, 1978).
2. The More Knowledgeable Other (MKO). The MKO refers to anyone who has a
better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, with respect to a
particular task, process, or concept. The MKO is normally thought of as being a
teacher, coach, or older adult, but the MKO could also be peers, a younger
person, or even computers.
Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU
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Module 9: Constructivist Theories
EDS 103 – Theories of Learning
Although the implication is that the MKO is a teacher or an older adult, this is not
necessarily the case. Many times, a child's peers or an adult's children may be the
individuals with more knowledge or experience. For example, who is more likely to
know more about the newest teen-age music groups, how to win at the most recent
PlayStation game, or how to correctly perform the newest dance craze - a child or
their parents?
In fact, the MKO need not be a person at all. Some companies, to support
employees in their learning process, are now using electronic performance support
systems. Electronic tutors have also been used in educational settings to facilitate
and guide students through the learning process. The key to MKOs is that they must
have (or be programmed with) more knowledge about the topic being learned than
the learner does.
Source: http://www.simplypsychology.org/vygotsky.html
3. The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). The ZPD is the distance between a
student’s ability to perform a task under adult guidance and/or with peer
collaboration and the student’s ability solving the problem independently.
According to Vygotsky, learning occurred in this zone.
Vygotsky (1978) sees the Zone of Proximal Development as the area where the most
sensitive instruction or guidance should be given - allowing the child to develop
skills they will then use on their own - developing higher mental functions.
Vygotsky also views interaction with peers as an effective way of developing skills
and strategies. He suggests that teachers use cooperative learning exercises where
less competent children develop with help from more skillful peers - within the zone
of proximal development.
[ZPD versus Discovery learning]
Freund (1990) conducted a study in which children had to decide which items of
furniture should be placed in particular houses of a dolls house. Some children
were allowed to play with their mother in a similar situation before they attempted
it alone (zone of proximal development) whilst others were allowed to work on this
by themselves (Piaget's discovery learning).
Freund found that those who had previously worked with their mother (ZPD)
showed greatest improvement compared with their first attempt at the task. The
conclusion being that guided learning within the ZPD led to greater
understanding/performance than working alone (discovery learning).
Source: http://www.simplypsychology.org/vygotsky.html
Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU
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EDS 103 – Theories of Learning
Module 9: Constructivist Theories
Vygotsky focused on the connections between people and the sociocultural context
in which they act and interact in shared experiences (Crawford, 1996). According to
Vygotsky, humans use tools that develop from a culture, such as speech and writing,
to mediate their social environments. Initially children develop these tools to serve
solely as social functions, ways to communicate needs. Vygotsky believed that the
internalization of these tools led to higher thinking skills.
APPLICATIONS OF THE VYGOTSKY’S SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY
Many schools have traditionally held a transmissionist or instructionist model in
which a teacher or lecturer ‘transmits’ information to students. In contrast,
Vygotsky’s theory promotes learning contexts in which students play an active role in
learning. Roles of the teacher and student are therefore shifted, as a teacher should
collaborate with his or her students in order to help facilitate meaning construction in
students. Learning therefore becomes a reciprocal experience for the students and
teacher.
Source: http://www.learning-theories.com/vygotskys-social-learning-theory.html
Zone of Proximal Development
Zone of proximal development (ZPD) refers to the range of
potentials that a person has for learning, which can reach
actualization when someone with greater expertise provides
the necessary facilitation. Social interactions, particularly
with more knowledgeable others (MKO), is crucial for
abilities in the zone of proximal development to become
reality. In the ZPD, people learn to use the “psychological
tools” available in order to achieve cognitive growth.
innovativelearning.com
http://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/zoneproximal-development.png
Scaffolding
Scaffolding, a concept closely linked with zone of proximal
development, refers to the guidance provided by a more
knowledgeable other that is adjusted to fit the current skill
level of the learner. Scaffolds facilitate the movement of the
individual to higher levels. Scaffolding is provided according
to the needs and is gradually removed as the learner acquires
competence. Note that scaffolding involves providing suitable
assistance and in no way suggests doing the task for the
learner (e.g., giving away answers or solutions).
Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU
allies-in-elearning.blogspot.com
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EDS 103 – Theories of Learning
Module 9: Constructivist Theories
kitomarketing.com
SCAFFOLDING ON VIDEO
Watch this video that demonstrates scaffolding:
Scaffolding Self-Directed Learning In The Primary Grades ( Davidson Films)
Then reflect on how you were assisted in your learning when you were a much
younger student. Identify situations that exemplified scaffolding as a very young
learner, and also in your more recent experiences as a young adult.
Cite personally observed or experienced instances of inappropriate assistance.
Using learning theory, why do you consider such events “inappropriate”?
Tutoring
Tutoring takes place when a more skilled person (a teacher, a more knowledgeable peer,
classroom aide, or even a volunteer) assists someone who is less skilled and needs more
individual help to cope with a task or lesson to be learned.
INVESTIGATE: SCAFFOLDING IN TUTORIAL SESSIONS?
Observe how some tutors try to help students learn.
>
>
>
Do they utilize the concept of scaffolding as a technique to facilitate learning?
What other theoretical concepts or principles provide sound basis for their
strategies?
Considering social (and cognitive) constructivist theories, what “unsound”
practices were you able to observe?
Psychological tools
Psychological tools mediate our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors, such as language, counting
systems, symbol systems, art, writings, maps, technology, etc. Among these, Vygotsky
specifically highlights the value of language as the most important, which Nicholl concisely
explains:
It is through language that we construct reality. With words we define, shape, and experience.
Without the words to think, communicate, experience, or understand our lives would be very
different from what they are. Words expand our consciousness but also limit us as we can only
fully experience those things that we have the words for. Language provides the framework
through which we perceive, experience, and act.
Trish Nicholl http://www.massey.ac.nz/~alock/virtual/trishvyg.htm
Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU
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Module 9: Constructivist Theories
Effects of Culture: - Tools of intellectual adaptation
Like Piaget, Vygotsky claimed that infants are born with the basic materials/abilities for
intellectual development - Piaget focuses on motor reflexes and sensory abilities.
Lev Vygotsky refers to Elementary Mental Functions –
>
>
>
>
Attention
Sensation
Perception
Memory
Eventually, through interaction within the socio-cultural environment, these are developed into
more sophisticated and effective mental processes/strategies which he refers to as Higher
Mental Functions.
For example, memory in young children this is limited by biological factors. However, culture
determines the type of memory strategy we develop. E.g., in our culture we learn note-taking to
aid memory, but in pre-literate societies other strategies must be developed, such as tying knots
in string to remember, or carrying pebbles, or repetition of the names of ancestors until large
numbers can be repeated.
Vygotsky refers to tools of intellectual adaptation - these allow children to use the basic mental
functions more effectively/adaptively, and these are culturally determined (e.g. memory
mnemonics, mind maps).
Vygotsky therefore sees cognitive functions, even those carried out alone, as affected by the
beliefs, values and tools of intellectual adaptation of the culture in which a person develops and
therefore socio-culturally determined. The tools of intellectual adaptation therefore vary from
culture to culture - as in the memory example.
Vygotsky and Language
According to Vygotsky (1962) language plays 2 critical roles in cognitive development:
1: It is the main means by which adults transmit info to children.
2: Language itself becomes a very powerful tool of intellectual adaptation.
Vygotsky sees "private speech" as a means for children to plan activities and strategies and
therefore aid their development. Language is therefore an accelerator to thinking/understanding
(Bruner also views language in this way).
Vygotsky believed that language develops from social interactions, for communication purposes.
Later language ability becomes internalized as thought and “inner speech”. Thought is the result
of language.
Source: McLeod, 2007. http://www.simplypsychology.org/vygotsky.html
THINK
How do counting words, particularly in the patterns of naming quantities in
English, Filipino, Chinese, and Japanese compare? How would Vygotsky
connect these differing patterns with learning embedded in cultural contexts?
Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU
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Module 9: Constructivist Theories
EDS 103 – Theories of Learning
WANT TO EXPLORE WWW SOME MORE?
Constructivism as a Paradigm for Teaching and Learning
lonelyreload.com
What is constructivism?
How does this theory differ from traditional ideas about teaching and learning?
What does constructivism have to do with my classroom?
Expert interview
What is the history of constructivism, and how has it changed over time?
What are some critical perspectives?
What are the benefits of constructivism?
Comparing Vygotsky’s and Piaget’s Theories
Santrock, 2011, p. 56
THINK ABOUT IT.
Both cognitive constructivism and social constructivism emphasize the importance of
social interaction in learning. They differ, however, in describing the function it
performs. Describe this difference.
Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU
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EDS 103 – Theories of Learning
Module 9: Constructivist Theories
MORE VYGOTSKY – PIAGET COMPARISONS
 http://www.simplypsychology.org/vygotsky.html.
 Piaget & Vygotsky in 90 seconds. Compares the developmental learning
theories of Piaget and Vygotsky.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=yYSXM8f0gU
 Comparing Theories.pdf (available on the course site)
Constructivism in the Classroom
Is the student building theories?
Is the student the one who has to
put together ideas based upon
evidence and information at
hand?
Jacqueline Grennon Brooks.
http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/co
nstructivism/w2_transq9.html
At the heart of constructivist theory is the principle that
learners construct, rather than record, knowledge. It
highlights the importance of prior knowledge, social
interaction, and the authentic tasks towards the
construction of knowledge and understanding.
Eggen & Kauchak
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_eggen_education_7/49/12581/3220913.cw/index.html
CHARACTERISITICS OF (SOCIAL AND COGNITIVE) CONSTRUCTIVIST LEARNING
ENVIRONMENTS
1. Constructivist learning environments (CLEs) provide multiple representations of
reality.
2. Multiple representations avoid oversimplification and represent the complexity of the
real world.
3. CLEs emphasize knowledge construction inserted of knowledge reproduction.
4. CLEs emphasize authentic tasks in a meaningful context rather than abstract
instruction out of context.
5. CLEs provide learning environments such as real-world settings or case-based
learning instead of predetermined sequences of instruction.
6. CLEs encourage thoughtful reflection on experience.
7. CLEs "enable context- and content- dependent knowledge construction."
8. CLEs support "collaborative construction of knowledge through social negotiation, not
competition among learners for recognition."
Jonassesn (1994) http://viking.coe.uh.edu/~ichen/ebook/et-it/constr.htm
Jonassen (1999). www.personal.psu.edu/wxh139/Jonassen.htm
Constructivist Learning Environments (CLE). www.accesswave.ca/~hgunn/special/.../cle.htm
Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU
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Module 9: Constructivist Theories
GUIDING PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTIVISM
Jacqueline Grennon Brooks and Martin G. Brooks offer five key principles of
constructivist learning theory. You can use them to guide curriculum structure and
lesson planning.





. Pose problems of emerging relevance to students.
. Structure learning around primary concepts.
. Seek and value students' points of view.
. Adapt instruction to address student suppositions.
. Assess student learning in the context of teaching.
http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/constructivism/implementation.html
SUGGESTIONS IN DESCRIPTIONS OF LEARNING ACTIVITIES.

Instruction based on constructivism emphasizes high quality examples and
representations of content, student interaction, and content connected to the real world.

Teachers who ground their instruction in constructivism realize that lecturing and
explaining often fail to promote deep understanding in learners.

Basing instruction on constructivist learning theory requires teachers to use ongoing
assessment as an integral part of the teaching–learning process.

Instruction that applies constructivism in classrooms emphasizes both students' answers
and how students arrived at those answers. Effective instruction makes students'
thinking open and visible.
Eggen & Kauchak http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_eggen_education_7/49/12581/3220913.cw/index.html
CONSTRUCTIVIST PRINCIPLES IN ACTION INSIDE THE CLASSROOM.
Constructivism has important implications for teaching, but its interpretation sometimes leads to
misconceptions. People sometimes confuse learning theory and instructional theory, tacitly believing that
teachers should avoid setting clear goals, guiding instruction, or correcting student misconceptions.
Constructivism supports none of these practices.
Instruction based on constructivism emphasizes high-quality examples and representations of content,
high levels of student interaction, and content connected to the real world. Teachers who ground their
instruction in constructivism realize that lecturing and explaining often fail to promote deep understanding
in learners.
Instruction that most effectively applies constructivism in classrooms emphasizes both students’ answers
and how students arrived at those answers. Effective instruction makes students’ thinking open and visible.
Guided discovery, inquiry, discussion, and cooperative learning, when well done, can each involve
students in knowledge construction and make their thinking visible.
Teachers using guided discovery present students with information and guide them to find patterns in the
data. Inquiry begins with a problem, follows with hypotheses that offer tentative solutions to the problem,
and ends with data gathering to test the solutions. Discussions involve students in activities in which their
interpersonal skills are developed and reconstruction of understanding can
occur. Cooperative learning involves students in groups of two to five in
tasks that require the efforts of each to succeed.
Eggen & Kauchak
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_eggen_education_6/13/3459/885610.cw/index.html
CONCEPT LEARNING AND MISCONCEPTIONS
Supplementary module (optional reading available on the course site).
Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU
chrismaddencartoons.wordpress.com
16
EDS 103 – Theories of Learning
Module 9: Constructivist Theories
CONSTRUCTIVIST CONDITIONS FOR LEARNING

Embedding learning in complex, realistic and relevant environments

Providing for social negotiation

Supporting multiple perspectives and the use of multiple modes of representation

Encouraging ownership in learning

Nurturing self awareness of the knowledge construction process
Driscoll (2005, p. 393) In Reigeluth. http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Invariant_Tasks:_Principles_for_Learning
SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM AND INSTRUCTION
Emphasis on sociocultural theory, communities of learners, cognitive apprenticeships, and
situated cognition are all outcomes of the influence of social constructivism on instruction.
Social Influences on Cognitive Development
Like Piaget, Vygotsky believes that young children are curious and actively involved in their
own learning and the discovery and development of new
understandings/schema. However, Vygotsky placed more emphasis on social contributions to
the process of development, whereas Piaget emphasized self-initiated discovery.
According to Vygotsky (1978), much important learning by the child occurs through social
interaction with a skillful tutor. The tutor may model behaviors and/or provide verbal
instructions for the child. Vygotsky refers to this as co-operative or collaborative dialogue.
The child seeks to understand the actions or instructions provided by the tutor (often the parent
or teacher) then internalizes the information, using it to guide or regulate their own performance.
Shaffer (1996) gives the example of a young girl who is given her first jigsaw. Alone, she
performs poorly in attempting to solve the puzzle. The father then sits with her and describes or
demonstrates some basic strategies, such as finding all the comer/edge pieces and provides a
couple of pieces for the child to put together herself and offers encouragement when she does
so. As the child becomes more competent, the father allows the child to work more
independently. According to Vygotsky, this type of social interaction involving co-operative or
collaborative dialogue promotes cognitive development.
Source: McLeod, 2007. http://www.simplypsychology.org/vygotsky.html
Vygotskian Practices in Children’s Education
1. Determination of the child’s ZPD is the emphasis of assessments.
2. Teaching is based on the child’s ZPD.
3. The support and guidance of more-skilled peers is utilized.
4. Private speech is encouraged to facilitate internalizing and self-regulation.
5. Materials for learning are always placed in meaningful contexts.
6. Classroom includes Vygotskian elements—“Tools of the Mind”—cultural tools and
developing self-regulation, the ZPD, scaffolding, private speech, shared activity, and
play.
Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU
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Module 9: Constructivist Theories
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COOPERATIVE AND COLLABORATIVE LEARNING
Working in small groups has been found to effectively improve deep learning and
achievement outcomes across grade levels or variety of tasks, including problemsolving.
COOPERATIVE AND COLLABORATIVE LEARNING: Read to find out more.
Visit http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/coopcollab/index.html.
This site addresses the following questions:
lonelyreload.com






What are cooperative and collaborative learning?
How do cooperative and collaborative learning differ from the traditional approach?
How have cooperative and collaborative learning developed since they became popular?
What are the benefits of cooperative and collaborative learning?
What are some critical perspectives?
How can I use cooperative and collaborative learning in conjunction with other educational
techniques?
Essential conditions for effective cooperative learning:
 Group reward or recognition – generates the sense that helping each other is
beneficial to individual members.

Individual accountability – is essential to prevent some individuals from having others
do the work for them (social loafing or free-riding) and from finding some members left
out of the group because they are perceived incapable of making any significant
contribution anyway.
Positive peer interactions and the positive affect
generated by ownership of decision-making when
students work in cooperative groups have been
found to enhance motivation. Students willingly
stay on task longer, set more intrinsic goals, and
achieve better.
shandeecantdothis.wikispaces.com
Source: Slavin (in Santrock, p. 241)
Do you have more anecdotes to describe other benefits that might be experienced from
learning in cooperative groups.
Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU
18
Module 9: Constructivist Theories
EDS 103 – Theories of Learning
DISCUSSION STRATEGY
Discussion is a strategy designed to stimulate thinking, help learners reconstruct
understanding by challenging attitudes and beliefs, and develop interpersonal skills. These
skills include:

Learning to listen to others

Developing tolerance for dissenting views

Learning democratic processes
As with all learning, these skills are developed with practice, and in discussions social
interaction is the mechanism that provides that practice. During discussions students are
involved in negotiation, co-construction of meaning, and collaborative elaboration, all social
constructivist processes. One technique for discussion to be effective, teachers intervene only
when necessary. This technique has been found rather difficult, because teachers have a
tendency to dominate discussions and maintain an information-giving roles in lectures. The
purpose of discussions is to engage students with the topic and with one another, not with the
teacher. The teacher’s role is to facilitate or moderate, rather than participate (Cazden;
Cuban; Dillon; Keefer, Zeitz, & Resnick; Meter & Stevens, all in Eggen & Kauchak).
Eggen & Kauchak http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_eggen_education_7/49/12581/3220913.cw/index.html
An actual discussion
(Four high school students sitting together in class.)
Male student 1: Stress should be placed on the word management cause total
annihilation should not be any part of this issue at all. I think controlled hunting
seasons will help as a form of protection for the wolf.
Male student 2: If my kid was out playing in the yard, I don't want no wolf coming
along and snatching up my kid. You know what I mean.
Female student: And then plus yeah they put them 30 miles away. Wolves run up to
25 miles per hour and they can run up to 9 hours! What, like they're not gonna come
back if you put them 30 miles away from the farm? They're gonna come back and eat
everything again.
Teacher: Besides enabling students to appreciate somebody else's perspective it
gives them a chance to listen to and to evaluate ideas and the logic or lack of logic of
ideas that they - that are presented to them.
Excerpted from Peaceful Solutions, a production of Thirteen/WNET New York. Producer: Jill Peters. Executive
Producer: Sandra Sheppard. Executive in Charge: Ruth Ann Burns. (c) 1997 Thirteen/WNET New York, all rights
reserved. http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/constructivism/w2_trans2.html
REFLECTING ON “MY OPEN THREAD DISCUSSIONS”
To what extent have you intentionally engaged in discussions with your peers to learn
your lessons (rather than comply with the tasks) in the course?
Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU
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Module 9: Constructivist Theories
EDS 103 – Theories of Learning
MORE EXAMPLES OF CONSTRUCTIVISM IN THE CLASSROOM
Personalizing Content in an Urban Environment
Janet Williams is a sixth grade world history teacher at Matthew Gilbert Middle School,
an urban middle school in a large city in the southeast. The class was discussing the events
leading up to World War I. The students struggled to understand abstract concepts that were
described in their textbooks (such as nationalism) and their motivation was low.
In an attempt to make the content more meaningful to the students Janet created a
series of examples more personally relevant to the students. The examples are as follows.
(While you are reading, note that Eugene Butler is another urban middle school in the same
general vicinity of the city, and Mandarin Middle and DuPont are suburban middle schools in
the same city.)
The students at Matthew Gilbert love their school. "We don't want someone coming in
here and changing our school," they say. "We understand each other when we talk. The rest of
them are different than we are. They play funny music, and they don't do the things we do after
school or on the weekends."
"We're Gilbertites," they say. "We don't want to be anybody else, and we don't want
anybody telling us what to do."
Students at Eugene Butler feel the same way about their school. "We don't want
someone coming in here and changing our school," they say. "We understand each other
when we talk. The rest of them are different than we are. They play funny music, and they
don't do the things we do after school or on the weekends."
"We're Butlerans and we don't want to be anything else."
Students at Mandarin Middle School have some similar thoughts. "I don't like the way
they talk at Gilbert," some of them have been overheard saying. "They want to hang around
with each other after school, and we want to go to the Mall. I don't want anybody from there to
tell us how to think.
"We're Mandariners, and we want to stay that way."
The students at Gilbert and Butler got worried about some of the other schools, so they
decided to get together to protect themselves from being "taken over."
"If we get together," they agreed, "these other schools won't be able to tell us what to do,
and, we'll be able to share some things with each other."
The Gilbert and Butler students all agreed that this idea was a good one, and they even
wrote it down and signed the agreement.
When the students at Mandarin Middle School found out that Gilbert and Butler had
made an agreement, they got worried.
"Maybe we need a friend too," they thought. So, they talked to some students from
DuPont Middle School, and these two groups also signed a pact to protect each other.
Then, one day, an unfortunate thing happened. A group of kids from DuPont saw one of
the kids from Gilbert downtown, and they started pushing him around. Before they were
finished, they actually pushed him off the sidewalk and knocked him down.
Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU
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Module 9: Constructivist Theories
EDS 103 – Theories of Learning
Janet presented the first three vignettes as examples of the concept nationalism and had
the students make observations and comparisons of the examples as part of a guideddiscovery procedure. The students were very involved in the discussion, and a number of their
comments were quite animated.
She then presented the third and fourth vignettes as examples of alliances and again had
the students discuss them. Finally, she presented the last vignette as a metaphor for the
assassination of the Archduke Francis Ferdinand in 1914, which is commonly cited at the
event that precipitated the First World War.
One of the most interesting aspects of the lesson was the fact that the students, instead
of responding to the vignettes as analogies or metaphors for the concepts ofnationalism and
alliance, took the examples literally. They believed that students from Mandarin and DuPont
literally were plotting against them, and they also believed that students from DuPont really did
push a student from Matthew Gilbert off the sidewalk, The teacher had a great deal of difficulty
in trying to convince the students that the examples were not meant literally, and it is likely that
some of the students remained unconvinced.
The most striking feature of the process was the difference in students' level of
motivation and involvement when the teacher used the personalized examples to deliver the
content instead of presenting the concepts in a traditional way (Eggen, 1998).
Eggen & Kauchak http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_eggen_education_7/49/12581/3220913.cw/index.html
Self-Assessment
Answer the following to assess how well you have learned the unit. You need not post your
answers, but you may want to raise questions or engage in discussion for clarification.





Identify causes for cognitive development from the Piagetian perspective.
Define and explain how egocentrism, conservation, false belief principle and theory
of mind influence early childhood thinking.
Provide an example of how the information processing approach can be added to the
Pagetian theory of cognitive development.
Provide a practical example of how development of metacognitive skills can assist a
child.
Explain how expertise may influence cognitive development.
Source: http://wps.ablongman.com/ab_childdev_studysite_1/149/38360/9820271.cw/-/9820402/index.html



When learners conclude that a word is an adverb only if it ends in “-ly”, or that a
word is a verb because it ends in “-ing”, what concept from Piaget's theory are they
most likely demonstrating? Explain.
Identify two similarities between information processing and constructivism. Identify
one important difference.
How do you synthesize (blend) constructivist theory after having considered the
separate views of Piaget and Vygotsky?
Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU
21
Module 9: Constructivist Theories
EDS 103 – Theories of Learning
CRACK THE CASE: “UNDEFINED”
In the middle of a class discussion, Natalie, one of Sandy Clark's math students, raises her hand and
says, "I don't get this 'division by zero is undefined.' I just don't understand what they mean by
'undefined'."
"Yeah," Jeremy adds. "Division is division. You divide, you get an answer. Everybody knows that. So,
'undefined' is . . . I don't get it."
Sandy thinks for a moment, writes the number 12 on the chalkboard and assigns the students
successively smaller numbers to divide into 12. (The 12 is arbitrary. Any number would work as well.)
As the students report their answers, Sandy makes a table on the chalkboard (see inset):
"So, let's look at the patterns we have here," Sandy
directs. "What do you notice about the left column? . . .
Terry?"
"The numbers are getting smaller and smaller."
"Good. So imagine now that we kept going with
those numbers. Eventually we would be approaching
what? . . . Leah?"
". . . I'm not . . . quite . . . following you."
"Imagine that we have several more numbers in the left column," Sandy prompts, "and they continue
to get smaller and smaller. Eventually, they would be nearly what?"
". . . Zero?"
"Yes, exactly. Good," she smiles at Terry.
"Now look at the right column. What pattern do you see there? . . . Rene?"
"They're getting bigger and bigger."
"Now imagine that the numbers in the left column get incredibly small; so small that we can hardly
imagine. What would happen to the numbers on the right?"
". . . They would be huge," Brent volunteers.
"And ultimately if we actually GOT to zero, what would happen to those on the right? . . . They would
sort of what?" Sandy shrugs.
". . . They would sort of blow up?" Dennis responds uncertainly.
". . . Sensible idea," Sandy nods. "So what do you mean, 'blow up'? Anyone, what does that term
mean?"
". . . It sort of means 'get huge all of a sudden,' I think," Veronica offers.
"It doesn't mean anything really," Cal puts in. "I sort-of know what you mean, but we can't really say
'gets huge all of a sudden.' "
"So, what do you think?" Sandy probes. "What does it mean?"
". . . That must be what 'undefined' is," Troy offers after thinking about it for several seconds.
"Good," Sandy nods. "Good thinking everyone. That indeed is what we mean by 'undefined'."
Review the student comments such as, "I don't get this 'division by zero is undefined.' I just don't
understand what they mean by 'undefined'," and "Division is division. You divide, you get an
answer. Everybody knows that. So, 'undefined' is … I don't get it." Of the following choices,
these comments suggest that students are struggling with which of the following characteristics
of constructivism?
a.
Learners construct knowledge that makes sense to them.
b.
New learning depends on current understanding.
c.
Social interaction facilitates learning.
Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU
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Module 9: Constructivist Theories
EDS 103 – Theories of Learning
d.
The most meaningful learning occurs in real-world tasks.
Of the following choices, which principle for using constructivism as a guide for instruction is
best illustrated by the table Sandy created on the chalkboard?
a.
Provide learners with a variety of examples and representations of content.
b.
Connect content to the real world.
c.
Treat verbal explanations skeptically.
d.
Promote high levels of interaction.
e.
Make assessment an integral part of the teaching-learning process.
Look at the dialogue between Sandy and the students after the table on the chalkboard was
completed. Of the following choices, which instructional principle for using constructivism as a
guide for instruction is best illustrated by this dialogue?
a.
Provide learners with a variety of examples and representations of content.
b.
Connect content to the real world.
c.
Treat verbal explanations skeptically.
d.
Promote high levels of interaction.
e.
Make assessment an integral part of the teaching-learning process.
>
Provide an assessment of the extent to which Sandy applied, in her lesson, the
principles for using constructivism as a guide for instruction.
>
Which of the principles for using constructivism as a guide for instruction was least
illustrated in the case study?
Open Thread Discussions
The forum is open for any related discussion and must not be limited to the
following suggestion/s.
1. Piaget
a) Define and give illustrative examples
a. assimilation
b. accommodation
c. equilibration
b) What happens to a learner’s schema during assimilation? In contrast, what happens
during accommodation?
c) When is equilibrium attained? Is it more important for a teacher to stimulate equilibrium
or disequilibrium? Why?
2. Vygotsky
a) Following Vygotskian (ZPD, scaffolding, etc) principles what are some common teaching
practices would be considered inappropriate and how can these be modified?
b) How can we improve teaching by taking into account various psychological tools
(language, counting systems, symbol systems, art, writings, maps, etc., excluding
technology)?
3. Contrasts. Cite specific strategies/ approaches/ activities to show the differences among
constructivist teaching, behaviorist approach and direct instruction (typical of informationprocessing)
Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU
23
Module 9: Constructivist Theories
EDS 103 – Theories of Learning
Guide for your e-Journal
For your e-journal entries, you may use the following as guides,
but feel free to express other thoughts (and feelings) about
learning as they have been stimulated by the topics in this
chapter. Keep in mind that learning is very personal and your e Journal should be reflective of those personal learning events.
APPLYING CONSTRUCTIVISM TO MY OWN TEACHING-LEARNING
(Identify constructivist principles that can contribute to effective teaching-learning.)
How did you fail to learn / teach well in the past because constructivist principles were
not activated? How you will now want to approach the ways you teach and/or learn.
Primary Readings
Bransford, J., Brown, A, & Cocking, R. 2000. How People Learn. Washington: NAP. pp 8-13
Constructivism
http://www.learning-theories.com/constructivism.html
Provides a quick overview of constructivist theory.
What Is a Schema? By Kendra Cherry In About.com.
http://psychology.about.com/od/sindex/g/def_schema.htm
Schema Theory. http://www.csus.edu/indiv/g/gipej/teaparty.pdf
Constructivism as a Paradigm for Teaching and Learning. In Concept to Classroom site.
http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/constructivism/index.html
This page contains an index to the sections intended to develop good understanding of the
CONCEPT of constructivism, including demonstrations and n techniques for class room
application.
Constructivism . In An Electronic Textbook on Instructional Technology. by Chen, I.
http://viking.coe.uh.edu/~ichen/ebook/et-it/constr.htm
This site contains several sections that discuss both social and cognitive strands of
constructivism.
Contructivist Teaching and Learning. By Gray, A. SSTA Research Centre Report #97-07
http://www.saskschoolboards.ca/research/instruction/97-07.htm#What is Constructivism?
Videos
Fish is Fish by Leo Leonni http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YbnsHX8e2OY
Building knowledge: constructivism in learning. John Abbott.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F00R3pOXzuk
The Cognitive Revolution. Steven Pinker.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AeoyzqmyWug&feature=relmfu
Eddie Obeng: Smart failure for a fast-changing world. A TED-Talk Video.
http://www.ted.com/talks/eddie_obeng_smart_failure_for_a_fast_changing_world.html
Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU
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Module 9: Constructivist Theories
EDS 103 – Theories of Learning
Web Destinations
Constructivism as a Paradigm for Teaching and Learning.
by Educational Broadcasting Corporation (2004).
Theoretical Concepts and History:
http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/constructivism/index.html
Classroom Application:
http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/constructivism/exploration.html
Principles and Models:
http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/constructivism/implementation.html
Constructivism in Action (Demonstrations)
http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/constructivism/demonstration.html
Constructivism. by Ryder, M.
http://carbon.ucdenver.edu/~mryder/itc_data/constructivism.html
This site contains links to definitions and readings on constructivism
Constructivism Learning Theory. In Teachnology.
http://www.teach-nology.com/currenttrends/constructivism/
Examples of Social Constructivist Classroom Activities
http://viking.coe.uh.edu/~ichen/ebook/et-it/cognitiv.htm
Student-Centered Interactive e-Portfolios by Helen Barrett
http://www.slideshare.net/eportfolios/google-appsiste2012workshop
See also http://electronicportfolios.org/
Constructivist Foundations
http://www.univie.ac.at/constructivism/journal/
Constructivist Foundations (CF) is an international peer-reviewed academic e-journal dedicated
to constructivist issues raised by philosophy as well as the natural, human, and applied
sciences.
Constructivism. by Clark, D. R. (2010). In The Performance Juxtaposition Site.
http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/history/constructivism.html
A very short overview.
Invariant Tasks: Principles for Learning. Reigeluth.
http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Invariant_Tasks:_Principles_for_Learning
What Is Schema Theory and Myer Briggs?
http://www.teamtechnology.co.uk/schema-simulator/home.html
SEDL
Is It Constructivism? by Mimi Mayer.
Published in SEDL Letter Volume IX, Number 3, August 1996, Constructivism
http://www.sedl.org/pubs/sedletter/v09n03/construct.html
The Practice Implications of Constructivism. Wesley A. Hoover.
Published in SEDL Letter Volume IX, Number 3, August 1996, Constructivism
http://www.sedl.org/pubs/sedletter/v09n03/practice.html
Resources for Constructivism
http://www.sedl.org/pubs/sedletter/v09n03/resources.html
Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU
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References
Anderson, Richard C. 1977. "The notion of schemata and the educational enterprise: General
discussion of the conference." In Anderson, R. C., Spiro, and Montague 1984.
http://www.sil.org/lingualinks/literacy/implementaliteracyprogram/SchemaTheoryOfLearning.ht
m
Davis, Patricia M. 1991.Cognition and learning: A review of the literature with reference to
ethnolinguistic minorities. Dallas, TX: Summer Institute of Linguistics.
Derry, S.J. (1996). Cognitive Schema Theory in the Constructive Debate. Educational Psychologist,
31(3/4), 163-174. http://www.tlu.ee/~kpata/haridustehnoloogiaTLU/schematheory.pdf
Eggen, P. & Kauchak, D. ().Educational Psychology: Windows on Classrooms (6th ed.).
Ernst von Glasersfeld. (1982). An Interpretation of Piaget’s Constructivism. Revue Internationale de
Philosophie, 36 (4), 612–635, .
http://elearnmap.ipgkti.edu.my/resource/dpli_r/index_htm_files/InterpretationPiagetConstructivi
sm.pdf
Schunk, D.H.. (2012). Chapter 6 Constructivism, pp. 228 - 276. In Learning theories: An educational
perspective (6th ed.). MA: Pearson.
Piaget
Ackerman, E. (n.d.). Piaget’s Constructivism, Papert’s Constructionism: What’s The Difference?
http://learning.media.mit.edu/content/publications/EA.Piaget _ Papert.pdf
Bhattacharya, K. & Han, S. (2012). Piaget and Cognitive Development.
http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/index.php?title=Piaget%27s_Constructivism
McLeod, S. A. (2009). Jean Piaget | Cognitive Theory.
http://www.simplypsychology.org/piaget.html
Ozer,O. (2004). Constructivism in Piaget and Vygotsky. In The Fountain Magazine, Issue 48.
http://www.fountainmagazine.com/Issue/detail/CONSTRUCTIVISM-in-Piaget-and-Vygotsky
Piaget's Theory of Constructivism.
http://www.teach-nology.com/currenttrends/constructivism/piaget/
Vygotsky
Cole, M. & Wertsch, J. V. (n.d.). Beyond the Individual-Social Antimony in Discussions of Piaget and
Vygotsky. http://www.massey.ac.nz/~alock/virtual/colevyg.htm
Dixon-Krauss, L. A Mediation Model For Dynamic Literacy Instruction.
http://psych.hanover.edu/vygotsky/krauss.html
Learning Theories Knowledgebase (2012, October). at Learning-Theories.com. http://www.learningtheories.com/vygotskys-social-learning-theory.html
McLeod, S. A. (2007). Vygotsky - Social Development Theory.
http://www.simplypsychology.org/vygotsky.html
Nicholl, T. (n.d.). Vygotsky. http://www.massey.ac.nz/~alock/virtual/trishvyg.htm
This site provides an introduction to some of the basic concepts of Vygotskyean theory.
Schaffer, R (1996). Social Development. Oxford: Blackwell.
Shotter, J. Talk of Saying, Showing, Gesturing, and Feeling. In Wittgenstein and Vygotsky.
http://www.massey.ac.nz/~alock/virtual/wittvyg.htm
Vygotsky's Theory on Constructivism
http://www.teach-nology.com/currenttrends/constructivism/vygotsky/
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Vygotsky, L.S. (1962). Thought and Language. Cambridge MA: MIT Press.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU
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