llppiwroHintwifl
INDIGENOUS
ARCHITECTURE
OF ECUADOR
By Richard Johnson
O
utsiders may view native a r c h i t e c t u r e as backward or
primitive, but over the centuries,
i t has answered human needs of
survival, often achieving a r e markable balance with the natural
surroundings.
Today, throughout t h e T h i r d
World, newer 'modern,' 'Western,'
'developed' architecture i s rapidly replacing t r a d i t o n a l housing.
However, such 'imported' a r c h i t e c ture is often t o t a l l y inadequate
t o t h e needs of i t s u s e r s —
frequently downright unsuitable to
local conditions.
'Underdeveloped'
and ' d e v e l oped' are value judgements. Applied t o architecture, they imply
some sort of spurious ideal model.
This has led t o structures being
b u i l t t h a t are not m e r e l y ugly,
but p h y s i c a l l y ,
economically,
socially, and in every other sense
i l l s u i t e d t o an a r e a .
Before
imposing f o r e i g n a r c h i t e c t u r a l
concepts on Third World countries,
we should study indigenous values.
Alas, few a r e the p r o f e s s i o n a l
22
architects able to appreciate and
i n c o r p o r a t e the l e s s o n s l e a r n e d
over centuries by native artisans.
A t r i p through Ecuador reveals
a v a r i e t y of native housing styles
and b u i l d i n g technique s i n the
country's three d i s t i n c t climatic
zones. My research of Ecuadorian
housing concentrated on two major
styles — the thatched hut of the
high Andes and lowland housing
typical of the upper Amazon, This
a r t i c l e is about the former.
In Ecuador today, land reform,
o i l discoveries and modern technology a r e some of t h e f o r c e s
uprooting rural populations. Ecuador i s undergoing social upheaval.
In the midst of this, t r a d i t i o n al
housing styles are giving way to
concrete block houses with corrugated t i n or p l a s t i c roofs.
Concrete b l o c k s are not o n l y
c o s t l y , but o f f e r none of the
advantages of t h a t c h . Nonetheless, the 1974 Ecuadorian census
r e v e a l e d t h a t the t h a t c h e d h ut
remains the most common form of
housing. I narrowed my study t o
PHOTOGRAPHS BY THE AUTHOR
Chimborazo Province where f u l l y 53
p e r c e n t of t h e h o u s i n g
is
thatched, a fact a t t r i b u t a b l e to
the large numbers of Indians who
l i v e t h e r e and own t h e i r own
houses.
In o t h e r provinces,
thatched housing i s more c l e a r ly
on the way out, and even i n Chimborazo few new thatched homes are
b e i n g b u i l t . The b i a s a g a i n s t
t h a t c h e d s t r u c t u r e s i s more o b vious i n the census i t s e l f . Every
b r i c k and c o n c r e t e s t r u c t u r e i s
l i s t e d , but a l l thatched huts and
o t h e r indigenous housing which
make up over h a l f of Ecuadorian
d w e l l i n g s are grouped t o g e t h e r
under the heading of 'other.'
Since architecture i s a central
expression of l i f e s t y l e , I made an
e f f o r t t o l e a r n as much as p o s s i b l e about t h e p e o p l e , t h e i r
history, land and culture,
Several centuries ago, groups
of f i e r c e I n d i a n s l i v e d i n t h i s
r e g i o n — t h e Cachas, Chambos,
C u b i j i e s , P e n i p e s , Riobambas.
Together they formed the Puruhauye
n a t i o n , which, f o r a t i m e , s u c -
c e s s f u l l y r e s i s t e d Incan expansion. Eventually, they were overcome, p a r t i a l l y r e s e t t l e d and
pacified. Following the Conquest,
h a r s h t r e a t m e n t by t h e Spanish
l a i d the foundation for a d i s t r u s t
of outsiders that s t i l l s prevails.
Even so, I found t h i s a t t i t u d e
easily overcome, and I was treated
with great warmth and hospitality.
1
l i v e d i n El Socorro (2,800
meters above s e a l e v e l ) , a
small settlement northeast of Riobamba. This i s a lovely volcanic
area, with Andean valleys running
n o r t h and south. The a l t i t u d e
fluctuates between 2,500 to 4,000
meters a s l . Barren, windswept and
eroded h i l l s contrast with a beaut i f u l patchwork of green, c u l t i vated plots. The land supports a
r e l a t i v e l y high population density
— 22.52 people p e r square m i l e
compared to 9.36 nationwide. Temperatures range between a winter
low of 38J5°F to a summer high of
71.2°F (4-21°C). Prevailing A l i sio Winds blow from the northeast
during the coldest months of Jul y
and August. R a i n f a l l averages
some 40 cm (16 inches) per year.
Forty-tv^o percent of the popul a t i o n of Chimborazo Province i s
under 14 y e a r s of age (1972).
I l l i t e r a c y stands at 40 percent,
and e d u c a t i o n beyond t h e s i x t h
grade i s g e n e r a l l y u n a v a i l a b l e .
Rural l i f e i s hard in El Socorro
and isolating. The national newspaper El Comercio conducted a
survey in 1973. I t reported that
i n Chimborazo P r o v i n c e , some of
the people believed that 'patria'
(Spanish word meaning 'homeland')
was the name of a local bus l i n e .
Many thought that the residents of
Guayaquil were f o r e i g n e r s , t h a t
B o l i v a r discovered America, and
that they were poor because 'God
wanted i t that way.'
Comments about Andean Indians,
especially with respect t o t h e i r
i n t e l l e c t u a l capacity, are not
always kind. But the inhabitants
of these upland valleys are very
skilled artisans.
They have,
f u r t h e r m o r e , adapted t o one t h e
w o r l d ' s h a r s h e s t environments —
an environment poor in basic foods t u f f s . They have m i r a c u l o u s l y
learned to survive a t high a l t i tudes on subsistance agriculture.
Lack of water, the a l t i t u d e and
eroded s o i l a l l contribute t o what
t h e OAS d e s c r i b e d as Ecuador's
having the lowest level of n u t r i t i o n i n South America.
In El Soccoro the diet consists
LOCATION OF Ecuadorian housing.
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mainly of mote, large corn usually
b o i l e d , t o s t a d o , f r i e d corn,
habas, a l a r g e form of bean,
capuli", a kind of l o c a l c h e r r y ,
yucho, a c e r e a l - l i k e m i x t u r e of
corn flour, morocho. ground corn
with milk, chawarmishki, a drink
e x t r a c t e d from t h e b l a c k cabuya
(Agave americano). These people
can r a r e l y a f f o r d meat, perhaps
once a month. Their diet averages
out a t an i n s u f f i c i e n t
1,700
c a l o r i e s p e r day. According t o
t h e OAS, such a d i e t poses a
serious health threat, made worse
by an almost t o t a l lack of medical
f a c i l i t i e s i n the p r o v i n c e (one
doctor for every t e n thousand
inhabitants).
The Indians of El Socorro can
produce enough food f o r an a d e quate d i e t . The t r o u b l e s t a r t s
when basic foodstuffs are sold to
buy concrete block, t i n roofing,
r a d i o s , and o t h e r f r i v o l o u s
Western commodities. This i s what
i s happening
throughout the
Andes. Seduced by the notion that
f o r e i g n i s b e t t e r and t o escape
t h e s t i g m a of b e i n g ' i n d i o , '
highland I n d i a n s a r e abandoning
t h e i r old b a r t e r system for a
money economy.
T
oday in El Socorro, and other
areas where thatched housing
i s found, homes a r e l o c a t e d i n
areas protected against the p r e v a i l i n g winds. Huts l i t e r a l l y
disappear into t h e i r surroundings,
and a passerby may go through an
area without noticing them at a l l .
Housing in El Soccoro tends to
be s c a t t e r e d . Married c h i l d e r n
b u i l d homes n e a r t h e i r p a r e n t s ,
selecting a protected clearing set
back from ravines and the danger
of flash floods.
Houses are b u i l t facing away
from the prevailing Alisio winds
that sweep in from the northeast
during the coldest months, bringing, i t i s believed, bad s p i r i t s
and sickness. A noteworthy feature of thatched houses i s t h e i r
aerodynamic shape — a s l i g h t l y
inward curving roof — which
allows them to withstand the full
force of the p r e v a i l i n g winds.
Finally, in an area where earthquakes a r e not uncommon, t h e
flexible thatched house is uniquely earthquake resistant . Concrete
s t r u c t u r e s are apt t o crumble,
k i l l i n g the inhabitants.
All the building materials for
a thatched house are found l o c a l ly, and they are few. The economic advantage of t h i s i s obvious.
These materials are:
Sig sig grass (Cortaderia s a l loara), also known as pa.ja brava,
a long-bladed, shallow r o o t e d
grass found far from construction
s i t e s near the banks of rivers and
l a k e s . I t i s a l s o used t o feed
stock. U n f o r t u n a t e l y, s i g s i g
grass i s becoming scarce because
of lack of water and over-grazing.
Sig sig is basically impervious t o
water.
Unlike o t h e r b u i l d i n g
m a t e r i a l s , the whole p l a n t i s
u t i l i z e d , i t does not r e q u i r e
drying and can be used immediatel y . Moreover, many s i g s i g a c t u a l l y sprout in the spring rains,
t h e i r roots finding sustenance in
windblown earth which lodges in
the thatch.
Cabuya plant (Fulcrea andina),
a c a c t u s - l i k e p l a n t t h a t grows
everywhere, the t w o - m e t e r - l o n g
l e a v e s of which are used t o t i e
the s i g s i g g r a s s . The stem of
ABOVE: Lemattfh and runawasi homes.
Note d i f f e r e n t r o o f t o p s . LEFT:
Man w i t h thatching needLe and hoz.
the cabuya, c a l l e d chahuarquero,
often reaches a height of almost
four m e t e r s .
Ten c e n t i m e t e r s
(four inches) i n d i a m e t e r , and
similar to bamboo, i t i s used as a
beam in thatched huts. Chahuarquero i s c u t one month befor e
construction t o allow for drying.
Carrizo (Chosquea scandena)is a
bamboo-like plant t h a t grows close
t o the water. The very strong and
very flexible stem i s also s u i t a b l e f o r making b a s k e t s and
flutes. I t grows 3-4 meters high
and must be d r i e d for s e v e r a l
weeks.
Totora (Thyfa l a t i f o l i a ) . This
long-bladed plant grows in swampy
areas and lakes. The dried plant
i s woven i n t o bed mats.
The
leaves a l s o serve as c a t t l e
fodder.
Cangagua rock i s a l i g h t weight, y e l l o w i s h , porous rock
found in the fields. I t i s easily
worked and seen everywhere in hut
foundations and fireplaces.
A properly b u i l t thatched house
w i l l , with minor repairs, l a s t for
years. Only the thatch requires
p e r i o d i c p a t c h i n g . Many of t h e
houses I saw in El Socorro dated
back t o the 1920s. The t h e r m a l
and acoustic properties of these
houses are, furthermore, remarkable and improve with each addi-
tional layer of thatch. Sig sig,
a tubular grass contains numerous
a i r p o c k e t s , keeping a t h a t c h e d
house cool in summer and warm in
winter.
Such homes a r e o f t e n
twice as well insulated as houses
in the United States.
T i n r o o f s , on the o t h e r hand,
have an average l i f e of 6-8 years,
are deafening to live under when
i t r a i n s , provide v i r t u a l l y no
insulation and have the p o t e n t i a l l y lethal disadvantage of a t t r a c t ing l i g h t n i n g . Concrete b l o c k s
p r o v i d e l i t t l e insulation unless
f i l l e d with mica, vermiculite or
some o t h e r type of i n s u l a t i o n
which, even were i t a v a i l a b l e ,
tends t o s e t t l e and adds t o t h e
overall expense.
Concrete block construction i s
understandable in another climate,
r e g i o n and c u l t u r e .
Concrete
b l o c k s presuppose a r e c t a l i n e a r
model with abundant timber a v a i l able for frames and beams. In the
Andes, timber i s scarce, sawmills
frequently unknown. The thatched
home i s t h e i d e a l s t r u c t u r e for
the available materials.
I
n a t r a d e economy, family ,
f r i e n d s and members of the
community can be counted on t o
h e l p p l a n t , h a r v e s t and b u i l d
houses. Called mingas. cooperat i v e g r o u p s of 1 0 - 4 0 p e o p l e
receive no money. Traditionally,
they a r e compensated for t h e i r
25
labor with 'luxury' food and drink
such as chicken soup, boiled potatoes, cooked grains and fried cuy
(guinea pig). In addition, large
quantities of Chicha, an alcoholic
beverage made of corn, must be on
hand t h r o u g h o u t t h e p r o j e c t .
Chicha i s w i d e l y b e l i e v e d t o
bestow the ' f o r c e and courage'
needed for hard work. Mingas turn
i n t o t r u l y s o c i a b l e e v e n t s , and
depending on the resources of the
host, can l a s t up t o a week.
Mingas can be used for b o t h
t r a d i t i o n a l and n o n - t r a d i t i o n a l
construction, but t r a d i t i o n a l
housing i s not only cheaper, costing only the food, i t can be b u i l t
in far l e s s time. Concrete block
houses require materials that must
be trucked in. Also, such housing
i s so expensive that i t represents
a major financial drain requiring
piecemeal c o n s t r u c t i o n over a
period of time.
A t y p i c a l minga needed for
thatch construction might number
20 cutters of sig sig, six encarrizdores to t i e the thatch and one
expert to finish the ridge.
When the hut i s finished, a l l
celebrate the event with a huasi-
p i c h a y or buluhauy, r i t u a l s
similar to a house-warming party.
Everyone marches around the new
house s e v e r a l t i m e s , t h e owner
l e a d i n g the p r o c e s s i o n . Local
musicians play flutes, bass drums
and an occasiona l b r a s s horn.
After s e v e r a l rounds, a l l e n t e r
the hut (if possible) and take the
owner captive. They t i e his feet,
haul him up t o the r a f t e r s and
t i c k l e t h e i r helpless host with
straw u n t il he promises more food
and especially more chicha. And
then the party begins.
L
ike the building m a t e r i a l s ,
the tools required for making
a t h a t c h e d hut are few and, for
the most part, easily improvised
from m a t e r i a l s found l o c a l l y .
They include:
The machete, the tool for cutting chahuarqueros and carrizo.
The hoz, a f o o t - l o n g (30-cm)
tool resembling a sickle for c u t t i n g s i g s i g and t o t o r a .
The
blade i s serrated, and the handle
i s of eucalyptus wood and rags.
A wooden needle, with eye hook,
measuring approximately a meter in
l e n g t h and two c e n t i m e t e r s i n
diameter, made of eucalyptus wood,
which they use to ' s t i t c h ' sig sig
t o carrizo.
La barra, a modern tool, a bar
f l a t bladed on one end and pointed
on the other, good for prying up
rocks and shaping stone.
In El Socorro, as elsewhere in
the Andes, u n i t s of measure are
d e r i v e d from the body of an
average s i z e d male. While not
exact, a high degree of tolerance
i s not required.
The vara i s the distance from
the t i p of the index finger of an
outstretched arm to the sternum —
a p p r o x i m a t e l y 84 cm or 2.8 f t .
This i s the measure used in markets to measure cloth or rope.
The cuarta i s the distance from
the t i p of the thumb t o the t i p of
the s m a l l f i n g e r of a s t r e t c h e d
out hand. The cuarta, some 15 cm
(6 inches), i s used t o measure the
spacing of carrizo spandrils and
rows of thatching.
I n El Socorro, t h a t c h e d h u t s
come in four sizes. The standard
(runahuasi) g e n e r a l l y belongs t o
the head of the household and, as
a rule, i s well b u i l t and o u t f i t ted. Larger, although r a r e , i s
Cross and Sabi La plant. The sabi La
is used for medicinal purposes, glu
and as ridge decoration.
CONSTRUCTION BY STEPS:
Copete - Ridge pLanter for
water protection. Made of
chahuaquero or
carrizo. Lined with
sig sig grass
and filied with
fertile gray soiL
and donkey manure.
Previously used as
a watchtower by
the Puruhuayes.
1.
Begin first row of thatching
anacuche) at bottom,
overlapping the rock.
2.
Continue thatching up to
workable height or rim.
Construct copete
[planter at rim of house)
Aguja - "Y" shaped
stick or wooden needle
for sewing thatch
Rows of
overlapping
sig sig
thatching
spaced one
cuarta (6")
Impervious Andean grass
thatching. Two layers
of thatching, up to a
meter thick, is
customary.
Anacuche - First row of sig sig
thatching overlaps base course
of cangagua rack to protect
it from rain, that with time
would disintegrate the rock.
LEFT: Woman making cabuya t w i n e .
RIGHT:
Hand M e a s u r e m e n t
[La
c u a r t a and measures a t m a r k e t [La
vara].
the lematon, g e n e r a l l y housing
grandparents and t h e i r extended
family. Smaller huts belonging t o
married children (chaquihuasi) can
also be guest houses. The small e s t structures (choglia) are for
s h e l t e r i n t h e f i e l d s or for
animals.
The standard size runahuasi in
El Socorro has a floor measuring
5-6 varas (4-5 meters) by 5 varas
w i t h a roof s i x v a r a s high.
Built of light material and r e l a tively small, thatched huts do not
r e q u i r e a subgrade foundation.
One to three layers of the local
cangagua rock provides more than
adequate support. Mortar or mud
is not needed since the stone i s
e a s i l y worked i n t o a c l o s e f i t .
Foundation stones are simply laid
on hard e a r t h , u s i n g e i t h e r a
s t r i n g or s i g h t i n g by eye along
the l e n g t h t o make the s t o n e s
level.
Upon t h i s foundation r e s t the
main structural supports — four
chahuarqueros tied together a t the
top forming a tripod-like s t r u c ture six varas high. These frames
are raised above the foundation at
either end of the house and a rope
i s strung between the two to check
i f they a r e l e v e l . If they a r e ,
they w i l l be secured permanently
w i t h s a q u i p a t a rope. (No n a i l s
a r e used.) Each outer pair of
supports i s longer, giving pitch
t o t h e r o o f and c r e a t i n g a
mansard-type cone.
With the poles in place,
a n o t h e r l a r g e chahuaquero i s
secured exactly halfway down the
middle of the back w a l l . This
s t a b i l i z e s the e n t i r e frame since
the weight of the roof pushes not
27
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fefli
ABOVE: F l o o r pLan o f home w i t h
s e p a r a t e cook house.
OPPOSITE
ABOVE: H u t i n t e r i o r .
OPPOSITE
BELOW: T y p i c a l c o u r t y a r d .
only downward because of gravity
but towards the back of the h u t
because of wind pressure.
S t i l l more chahuarqueros a r e
needed t o complete the main frame.
Then h o r i z o n t a l chahuarqueros
(called cintaqueros) are t i e d
around the base, one cuarta above
the stone . Then from bottom t o
top, at one vara intervals, more
rows are added.
With the cintaqueros in place,
the structure takes on s t a b i l i t y .
At t h i s p o i n t , a l a r g e c h a h u a r quero i s t i e d h o r i z o n t a l l y two
meters above ground, at the t h i r d
row of cintaqueros to support an
indoor platform.
Short chahuarqueros are a t t a c h ed to the frame to build a v i s o r like overhang above the entry for
protection against the elements.
Carrizo spandrils i n bunches of
3-4 can now be a t t a c h e d t o t h e
frame, starting a t the top. The
cintaqueros serve as scaffolding.
The structure i s now ready for
the gig sig thatching, the f i r s t
row of which i s t i e d a t the base
so t h a t o v e r l a p s ( s h i n g l e - l i k e )
and protects the highly absorbent
cangagua rock. Thatching t r a d i t i o n a l l y employs three men inside,
w i t h a n o t h e r t h r e e men working
outside the frame. Those on the
o u t s i d e p o s i t i o n s i g s i g one
c u a r t a (approx. 20 cm or 6 in)
above the previous row of thatch.
A wooden needle a t t a c h e d t o a
length of saquipata cord i s pushed
through a sig sig plant j u s t above
t h e r o o t and t h r o u g h
the
s p a n d r i l s . Those on t h e i n s i d e
pull i n the needle, then pass i t
out again under the carrizo, where
the two ends of the saquipata are
t i e d . I n t h i s way, working i n
teams of two, the words 'sig sig,
s a q u i p a t a . ' a r e chanted r h y t h mically, sometimes sounding like a
song.
Higher up, a smaller needle i s
used t o secure the t h a t c h . The
more layers, the warmer the house.
An enormous amount of sig sig i s
r e q u i r e d t o t h a t c h a hut —
approximately 45 cubic meters for
two l a y e r s . Light t a n i n c o l o r
when new, the thatch darkens with
time u n t i l i t blends in perfectly
w i t h the landscape.
T
here are two ways of finish ing the top, a task performed
by a s p e c i a l i s t .
The s i m p l e r
method i s accomplished by reversing t h e d i r e c t i o n of the t h a t c h
and tying i t down with saquipata.
This forms a conical ridge which
w i l l shed water. The second technique i s t o b u i l d a c a r r i z o box
frame on the ridge lined with sig
sig.
Once b u i l t , the box i s
f i l l e d with about 90 kg (200 lb)
of macadan (a grey, f e r t i l e soil)
and donkey manure which, w i t h
time, compresses t o form an effective water seal. Sabilas (aloe)
are succulents planted in this
s o i l t o soak up r a i n water. Sabila, also known as 'the immortal,'
i s also valued for i t s medicinal
and decorative q u a l i t i e s , as well
as i t s use as a household glue.
In the past, roofs tended t o be
higher, over ten meters. This had
a d e f i n i t e purpose .
The roof
doubled as a watchtower where men
spent many hours on the a l e r t for
enemies.
29
A typical interio r might look
something like t h i s : Entering the
door, you'd find a p l a t f o r m bed
(approx. 2 X 1 meter). Called the
cama tarima or cahuito, i t r i s e s
more than half a meter above the
floor, and i s used by the e n t i r e
family. Eucalyptus boards l a i d
across the bed frame support a
cushion of sig SIR and eucalyptus
leaves. An estera mat covers t h i s
affair and handspun wool weavings
or ponchos serve as blankets.
In t h e back, a crude s h e l f
holds gourds for s a l t , o i l b o t t l e s
and other containers for cooking.
An interior platform b u i l t with
the remaining carrizo r i s e s two
meters above the f l o o r . Grain,
clothing and other perishables are
s t o r e d h e r e . On the w a l l s hang
a l l s o r t s of a r t i c l e s , such as
bags, l a n t e r n s , p o t s , d r i e d
cabuya, etc.
Off to the side, a small c a r r i zo pen lined with sig sig holds a
number of cuy (guinea pigs). Coy
are sometimes free t o run around
the house.
I t i s remarkable how warm and
cozy such houses can be. Near the
center of the floor, a small f i r e place, fogdn, surrounded by f l a t
cangagua stones, is used for cooking.
Burning e u c a l y p t u s wood
gives off a pleasing aroma. The
smoke h e l p s season and p r e s e r v e
the wood and keep down vermin.
Other dwellings sometimes have a
fogon i n t h e s l e e p i n g a r e a . A
fogon c r e a t e s a cloud of smoke
about head level. People s i t on
rocks and stumps, keeping them off
t h e d i r t f l o o r , but below t h e
hovering smoke.
Lighting, for the most part ,
i s poor. The window has not been
developed since i t i s more important to keep out the cold winds.
The l i t t l e l i g h t t h e r e i s comes
from candles and sometimes kerosene lamps. The i n t e r i o r i s used
for sleeping, cooking and eating,
although some more e l a b o r a t e
houses have a separate cook house.
Socializing generally takes place
outside in a courtyard
The interesting p a t t e rn of chahuarqueros, carrizo, saquipata and
s i g s i g i n s i d e the hut t a k e s on
deeper tones w i t h age. I n some
houses, a f i l m of soot w i l l
further darken the interior.
Governmental support of nont r a d i t i o n a l housing i s widespread,
although misplaced. This i s the
case n ot only i n Ecuador but
t h r o u g h o u t t h e T h i r d World.
'Modern' housing i s creating rampant consumerism. I t i s diverting
the efforts of those who can least
afford i t , and i n the l a s t resort,
money i s being spent where i t does
the l e a s t good. This fosters dependency, and w o r s t of a l l , i t
represent an invasion on cultures
and threatens t h e i r survival.
i
hope I have demonstrated that
i n v i r t u a l l y every respect,
economically, a r c h i t e c t u r a l l y and
e s t h e t i c a l l y , t r a d i t i o n a l housing
i s s u p e r i o r . I t makes sense t o
use l o c a l m a t e r i a l s which c o s t
l i t t l e to build dwellings so well
s u i t e d t o t e r r a i n and c l i m a t e .
Y e t , my f i n d i n g s m e t w i t h
c o n s i d e r a b l e o f f i c i a l suspicion
and disbelief.
Countries which f a i l t o unders t a n d t h e advantage s of t r a d i t i o n a l housing are wasting
precious resources.
'Western'
architecture i s i n many instances
technically inappropriate. I t s
p r e s e n t p o p u l a r i t y can only be
e x p l a i n e d a s an u n f o r t u n a t e and
c o s t l y aping of more a f f l u e n t
nations.
BELOW:
C o s t l y "Modern" h o u s i n g .
OPPOSITE ( C l o c k w i s e f r o m upper l e f t ) : Cabuya rope and bag,
e s t e r a , c a r r i z o b a s k e t s , cabuya bag f o r donkeys, cabuya rope and c o n s t r u c t i o n e s t e r a .
household