THE OPEN UNIVERSITY OF TANZANIA
FACULTY OF SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL
STUDIES
0EV 208: NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
EXTENDED COURSE OUTLINE
By
GODFREY FREDERK
UNIVERSITY OF DAR ES SALAAM
BOTANY DEPARTMENT
1
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY OF TANZANIA
FACULTY OF SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL
STUDES
OEV 208: NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
By
GODFREY, F.
B.Sc.Ed. (Hons), M.Sc. (Env. Sc.) Dar
ASSISTANT LECTURER DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY
UNIVERSITY OF DAR ES SALAAM
2009
2
OEV 208: Natural Resources Management
Number of Units: 2
Course Rationale
The course introduces students to the concept and importance of natural resource and
environmental conservation.
It examines the major constraints to natural resources
management and some of the solutions. The course also introduces students to various
approaches to the formulation of resource management plans. Specifically the course
deals with aspects of natural resource governance; integrated natural resources
management, establishment of protected areas, biodiversity conservation, property rights
and regimes, and policies on natural resources management.
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the course students should be able to:
•
Define key concepts: natural resources and natural resources management
•
Describe methods used in natural resource management
•
Acquire skills in natural resources management
•
Appreciate the fact that uncontrolled human growth posses a great risk to scarce
resources on the earth
3
Course Description
Definition of concepts: Environmental resources and Natural resources, Objectives and
principles of natural resources management, Resource degradation and depletion,
Resource use conflicts and conflict management, trans-boundary resources; Natural
resource governance; Integrated natural resources management, Rationale for
establishment of protected areas, Categories of protected areas, Property rights and
regimes, Natural Resources Policies, Management Regimes and Practices, Conservation
for Biodiversity
Methods of Assessment
Continuous Assessment
Timed tests
30%
Final examination
70%
4
Indicative Reading list
Cunningham, W.P. and Saigo, B.W. 2001. Environmental Science: A global concern.
McGraw-Hill Companies Inc; New York. 6th Edition. 646 pp.
Gjessing, J., 2002. Resource Geography: Conceptual Approaches. Centre for
Environmental Studies and Resource Management, Oslo.
Katerere, Y., Hill, R. and Moyo, S. 1999. A critique on transboundary natural resource
management in Southern Africa. Paper no. 1. IUCN-ROSA series on
transboundary natural resource management.
McKinney, M.L. and Schoch, R.M. 1996. Environmental science: Systems and solutions.
West Publishing Company, ST. Paul/Minneapolis. 639 pp.
United Republic of Tanzania – National Environmental Policy 1997 and other sector
specific policies.
United Republic of Tanzania –Environmental Management Act 2004, and other sector
specific acts.
Waugh, D. 1995. Geography an integrated approach. International Thomson publishing
company, UK. 2nd edition
5
TABLE OF CONTENT
TABLE OF CONTENT...................................................................................................... 6
LECTURE ONE ................................................................................................................. 9
ENVORONMENTAL RESOURCE AND NATURAL RESOURCE............................... 9
1.0 Introduction................................................................................................................... 9
1.1 Environmental resources......................................................................................... 10
1.2 Types of natural resources ...................................................................................... 10
1.2.1
Renewable Resources ............................................................................... 11
1.2.2
Non-renewable resources.......................................................................... 11
LECTURE TWO .............................................................................................................. 13
NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT.................................................................... 13
2.0 Introduction................................................................................................................. 13
2.1 Natural Resource Management............................................................................... 13
2.1.1
Environmental Preservation...................................................................... 14
2.1.2
Environmental Conservation .................................................................... 14
2.1.3
Environmental Restoration ....................................................................... 15
LECTURE THREE........................................................................................................... 17
RESOURCE CONSERVATION...................................................................................... 17
3.0 Introduction................................................................................................................. 17
3.1 Methods of Resource Conservation ........................................................................ 18
2.1.1
Efficiency.................................................................................................. 18
2.1.2
Resource reuse and Recycling .................................................................. 19
2.1.3
Substitution ............................................................................................... 20
3.2 The Need for Resource Management ..................................................................... 21
LECTURE FOUR............................................................................................................. 24
RESOURCE VALUE ....................................................................................................... 24
4.0 Introduction................................................................................................................. 24
4.1 Values of Natural Resources................................................................................... 25
4.1.1
Ethical value referred to as Intrinsic value ............................................... 25
4.1.2
Esthetic value (Aesthetic value)................................................................ 25
4.1.3
Emotional values....................................................................................... 26
4.1.4
Economic value......................................................................................... 26
4.1.5
Environmental service values ................................................................... 26
LECTURE FIVE............................................................................................................... 29
Resource Utilization.......................................................................................................... 29
5.0 Introduction................................................................................................................. 29
5.1 Sustainable Resource Utilization ............................................................................ 29
5.2 Resource Depletion................................................................................................. 32
5.2.1
Depletion of Matter................................................................................... 32
5.2.2
Depletion of Energy Resources................................................................. 33
5.2.3
Bubble Pattern of Resource depletion....................................................... 33
LECTURE SIX ................................................................................................................. 36
BIODIVERSITY............................................................................................................... 36
6.0 Introduction................................................................................................................. 36
6
6.1 Biodiversity degradation......................................................................................... 37
6.2 The value of biodiversity ........................................................................................ 37
6.2.1
Consumptive.............................................................................................. 38
6.2.2
Productive use........................................................................................... 39
6.2.3
Medicines .................................................................................................. 39
6.2.4
Materials ................................................................................................... 40
6.2.5
Cultural, Social and Ethical values .......................................................... 40
6.2.6
Aesthetic value .......................................................................................... 40
6.2.7
Environmental services............................................................................. 41
LECTURE SEVEN........................................................................................................... 46
LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY.............................................................................................. 46
7.0 Introduction................................................................................................................. 46
7.1 Causes of loss of biodiversity ................................................................................. 47
7.1.1
Habitat degradation and loss ................................................................... 47
7.1.2
Invasion of non-native species .................................................................. 48
7.1.3
Overexploitation of Resources.................................................................. 48
7.1.4
Global environmental change................................................................... 48
LECTURE EIGHT............................................................................................................ 50
TRANSBOUNDARY RESOURCES............................................................................... 50
8.0 Introduction................................................................................................................. 50
8.1 The rationale for transboundary collaboration in resource management................ 51
8.2 The Objectives of transboundary resources management ...................................... 52
LECTURE NINE .............................................................................................................. 54
PROTECTED AREAS ..................................................................................................... 54
9.0 Introduction................................................................................................................. 54
9.1 Categories of protected areas .................................................................................. 55
9.2 The importance of protected areas .......................................................................... 57
LECTURE TEN................................................................................................................ 58
EVOLUTION OF THE CONCEPT OF PROTECTED AREAS ..................................... 58
10. Introduction................................................................................................................. 58
10.2 Criteria for identifying areas for protection .......................................................... 60
10.3 Criteria for selection of areas to be protected ....................................................... 61
10.3.1 Social criteria................................................................................................. 61
LECTURE ELEVEN ........................................................................................................ 64
CRITERIA FOR DESIGNATION OF PROTECTED AREAS....................................... 64
11.0 Introduction............................................................................................................... 64
11.1 Economic criteria .................................................................................................. 64
11.2 Ecological criteria ................................................................................................. 65
11.3 Regional criteria.................................................................................................... 67
11.4 Pragmatic criteria .................................................................................................. 68
11.5 Problems facing protected areas ........................................................................... 69
LECTURE TWELVE ....................................................................................................... 72
PROPERTY RIGHTS....................................................................................................... 72
12.0 Introduction.............................................................................................................. 72
12.1 Property rights....................................................................................................... 72
12.2 Property Rights Regimes ...................................................................................... 73
7
LECTURE THIRTEEN .................................................................................................... 75
RESOURCE GOVERNANCE ......................................................................................... 75
13.0 Introduction............................................................................................................... 75
13.1 Natural resource governance strategies ................................................................ 75
13.2 Integrated natural resource management .............................................................. 77
13.3 Importance of integrated resource management ................................................... 78
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................. 80
8
LECTURE ONE
ENVORONMENTAL RESOURCE AND NATURAL RESOURCE
1.0 Introduction
In this lecture subject matter is simplified and broken down into parts to make
comprehension of the subject concepts easily, for example resources and reserves are
distinguished to enable you to real appreciate that not all the materials that occur in the
environment are resources but only those which technical knowhow has managed to tap
for use. The aspect of management is as well introduced and its meaning given to equip
you with basic understanding of this concepts which forms the core of this subject matter.
Objectives of the lecture
At the end of this lecture you should be able to;
☼ Define environmental resources
☼ Define the term reserve
☼ List two types of natural resources
☼ Explain with examples the two types of natural resources listed above
☼ Explain why renewable resources are preferred over non-renewable natural
resources
☼Identify 5 types of natural resources in their locality and show their importance
in life
9
1.1 Environmental resources
Environmental resources (natural resources) are the materials that occur naturally in the
environment and they have use value naturally or after being subject to certain degree
modification or process. Or these are sources of raw materials used by the society
(McKinney and Schoch, 1996). On the other hand Waugh (1995) defined natural
resources as features which are needed and used by people. Literally the term resources is
synonymous to natural resources, some individuals broaden the meaning to even
accommodate human resources. These materials include all types of matter and energy
that are used to build and run society. These include materials such as soil, minerals,
water, coal and all other naturally occurring materials. Materials that have been located
and can profitably be extracted at the present market price form a subset of natural
resource termed Reserves. The resources are exploitable under current economic and
technological conditions.
The materials that have been located but cannot be extracted profitably at the present time
are simply called resources which are as good as undiscovered raw materials.
1.2 Types of natural resources
The natural resources are mainly grouped into two major categories, namely
i) Renewable resources and
ii) Non-renewable resources
10
1.2.1 Renewable Resources
These are resources that can be replaced within few humans generation. These resources
have ability to replenish themselves after use. Examples of these resources include
timber, food and most of alternative sources of energy such as solar power, biomass,
wind power and hydropower.
1.2.2 Non-renewable resources
These are the resources that cannot replenish themselves within a few human generations.
The phrase ‘few human generations’ here is very essential because some resources are
replaceable over a very long geologic time scales. For example oil, soil, coal and some
metallic mineral deposits may form again if we wait for thousands to hundreds of
millions of years. However, these rates of renewal are so many thousands of times slower
than the rates of use that, for all intents, they are nonrenewable on a human time scale.
The concept of renewability is sometimes blurred. Very old ground water in desserts may
take centuries or even many years to replace themselves, while ground water in rainy
tropical areas may be replaced in a few days. Thus deep ground water in desserts is
sometimes termed ‘fossil ground water’ which is in a way non-renewable resource.
NOTE: The major concern of the earth as whole currently is to switch from the use of
non-renewable resources to use of more environmental friendly renewable resources i.e
use of wind energy as opposed to fossil energy which is so unfriendly into the
environment. Their use therefore pollute environment
Since non-renewable resources have time limit in terms of their use, prices tend to
fluctuate a great deal and hence destabilizing many economic processes.
11
Study questions
1. Use of renewable natural resources is friendlier to environment compared to nonrenewable resources. Discuss
2. Differentiate the natural resources from the reserves.
3. Renewability of a resource is sometimes blurred. Discuss
4. Differentiate renewable resources from non-renewable resources.
12
LECTURE TWO
NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
2.0 Introduction
Natural resource management is a concept that encamp wise use of natural resources i.e
use that does not compromise the quality of the resources. Such a use ensures that yield
and quality of resources in question are not compromised in course of their use. When
resources are used caution should be taken not to degrade the same since some resources
are non-elastic (cannot replenish ones exhausted), ones exhausted they are gone.
Resources should be well timed in terms of conservation to avoid the risk of overuse and
hence exhaustion which equal to disappearance on human time scale.
Objectives of the lecture
This lecture aims at introducing students to resource management practices in the
environment. At the end of the lecture you should be able to:
☼ Define the term environment management
☼ List and explain three options of natural resource management
☼ Briefly describe three importance of natural resource conservation
☼ Explain the alternative use of resources like forests and wildlife to make them more
beneficial, without exhaustion.
2.1 Natural Resource Management
Increasing resource use tend to be ‘‘bought’’ with increasing environmental costs.
Mining for example tend to degrade the land more than tourism. Increased resource uses
tend to give high short-term economic benefits. Throughout global history it has been
13
found that entrepreneurs who rapidly exploit resources have succeeded. This is done at
the expense of environmental costs, which are in most cases ignored.
A more realistic way to analyze resource use is to include long term economic benefits of
not using them. When this is done less resource use will translate to greater economic
benefits. The total economic value of rainforest for instance is usually greater if the forest
is utilized over a long time span for tourism, pharmaceuticals, native foods, and other
uses than if it is cut down for a one-time (short-term) gain in lumber that leaves the forest
unusable for decades or centuries. The total value of the rainforest is enhanced even more
if extremely long-term environmental benefits are included, such as the value of the
forest to future generations.
Proper resource management is therefore based on recognition that less resource use can
lead to long term economic benefits and recued environmental costs. Such management,
while recognizing that some resource use is unavoidable thus seeks to minimize use
where possible.
Resource management is encompassed with three basic options that can ensure minimum
resource utilization; which are; Preservation, Conservation and Restoration.
2.1.1 Environmental Preservation
This refers to nonuse. A ‘‘preserved’’ national park or wilderness area is an ecosystem
that is set aside and (in theory at least) protected in its pristine condition or natural state.
In this areas consumptive use of products are prohibited.
2.1.2 Environmental Conservation
This is an attempt to minimize use of natural resource. This can be attained through
efficiency improvements, recycling or reuse and substitution of other resources.
14
Environmental conservation usually ensures longevity in resource utilization. When
environment is conserved the resources therein are conserved. Resource conservation is
important as it;
(a) Slows depletion of resources
(b) Reduces pollution by slowing flow of materials and energy (throughput) through
society and
(c) Saves money for example burning less coal by increasing power plant’s efficiency not
only saves coal but produces less acid rain and other forms of pollution.
(d) It is also cheaper to design power plants to burn less coal than to pay for all the
pollution control devices needed to trap the air pollution in the smokestack and then
dispose of the trapped pollutants. This entails that the costs of rehabilitating degraded are
so high.
2.1.3 Environmental Restoration
This is the process of returning a degraded resource into its original state. The rapidly
growing field of restoration ecology is attempting to return many ecosystems, such as tall
grass degraded grasslands and wetlands into their original state. Mining activities in most
cases alter the nature of landscape and many plants are cleared and their existence is
therefore threatened. After mining operations especially open cast mining deliberate
efforts should be taken to restore the origin landscape i.e scenery of the place in question
and its plant population
Or
Environmental Restoration is the deliberate attempt to speed recovery of damaged
areas. It ranges from practical and economic attempts to simply restore some productivity
15
to degraded grazing lands, to the attempt to return full ecosystem function and structure
in protected ecosystems. Restoration is needed virtually everywhere humans have been
active past the hunter-gatherer stage. A third of the surface of the earth is afflicted with
land degradation or desertification and this affects almost a billion people. Every year 6
million an additional hectares are completely lost to production according to U.N.
estimates and 60% of the rangeland, 60% of rain-fed croplands and 30% of irrigated
croplands are at risk. Protecting and restoring damaged lands requires an understanding
of ecology, economics, psychology and culture
Study Questions
1. Why is it so necessary to ensure resource management in course of resource use?
2. Differentiate environmental conservation from environmental preservation
3. What is importance of environmental conservation
4. Write short notes on the term environmental restoration
5. Using the corals in the ocean and agricultural land in Tanzania show the
importance of management of such resources.
16
LECTURE THREE
RESOURCE CONSERVATION
3.0 Introduction
In lecture two you were introduced to basic concepts of management of resources that
included restoration, conservation and preservation. Lecture three explores these concepts
further deeper to give you an in-depth understanding of the concept of conservation
which is a common practice in our daily life. This lecture goes further in explaining the
ways through which resources are conserved. It as well explains the need for resource
management which is crucial for sustainability of various ecosystems on the planet earth.
Conservation is given due weight here because it is the one applicable to most people as
opposed to other practices like protection which is applied in special areas like national
parks.
Lecture objectives
Generally this lecture introduces the learners various ways of resource
conservation. At the end of this lecture you will be able to;
☼ To list and explain three different resource conservation methods
☼ To compare and contrast recycling and precycling
☼ To explain the virgin resources
☼ To state the rationale for resource conservation
☼ To identify and propose alternative ways through which wastes in their
environment can be recycled using local techniques
17
3.1 Methods of Resource Conservation
The resources are well managed/conserved by three basic practices namely; Efficiency,
Recycling and substitution.
2.1.1 Efficiency
Efficiency improvement is generally most effective and economically sound because
many technologies and activities are wasteful and inefficient. Efficiency improvements
occur when the same task is accomplished with fewer resources. An example would be
use of fuel efficient cars to conserve fuel. Between 1973 and 1992, the average efficiency
of cars doubled in the USA from 14 to 28 miles per gallon. Such cars perform the same
tasks as less efficient fuel cars but use fewer resources in doing so. As another example,
about two-thirds of the water used in irrigation is lost through evaporation. Using microirrigation where water is carried by pipes and sprayed through small holes decreases
water loss to less than 20%.
Inefficiency in resource utilization is costly to the economy but efficient utilization of
resource results into enormous gains as it conserves resources like minerals and others.
Besides the economic savings, environmental savings from efficiency are also enormous.
Less depletion saves more resources for future generations
Less resource extracted means less degradation of the land. Less resource use as well
reduces environmental pollution which in a way translates into resource pollution.
Reduced usage and processing can as well control pollution. The amount of pollutants are
greatly reduced from fossil fuels, much less pollutants are released when efficient engines
are used.
18
2.1.2 Resource reuse and Recycling
Reuse occurs when the same resource is used again in the same manner, for example
refilling soda bottles. Recycling is more or less similar to reuse but the resource is not
used in the same form. With recycling the original materials are made into other
devices for example soda bottles may be remelted to make new bottles or other glass
containers. Reuse as efficiency, reduces resource depletion and pollution from resource
extraction and use. Reuse/recycling is useful in reducing solid wastes. This further spares
land that would be used as landfills for such solid wastes.
Recycling scheme begins with virgin resources which are the original resources being
extracted. The recycling loop begins just before the purchased product is discarded; the
discard is reprocessed into the same or perhaps another product. The loop is closed when
someone buys a product containing recycled material. This slows depletion of virgin
resources and reduces pollution in two basic ways.
Most basic it reduces the amount of solid wastes that would have been discarded into
landfills and incinerators. It further reduces wastes that would have been processed by
extraction of more virgin resources.
Advanced form of recycling is precycling. This is not actually recycling but conservation
by increased efficiency, the same task is accomplished but fewer resources are used. For
example reduce of packaging materials by concentration of foods. Concentrated foods
require small package materials.
Unfortunately, the recycling loop is often not closed because, even though people are
willing to sort and return recyclable wastes, there is always little demand to purchase the
recycled products. The reasons for this are usually economic: when product are made
from virgin resources are cheaper, the loop goes unclosed. If the costs of products made
19
from virgin resources were increased to reflect their true cost to the environment, the
price differential would disappear, and the loop could be closed.
2.1.3 Substitution
Substitution in terms of resources is the process whereby one resource is used instead of
the other. Substitution can also help to reduce both depletion and pollution problems. It
helps with depletion because when one resource is being depleted, a more common
substitute can be used at a cheaper price. For example aluminum a very common metal in
the earth’s crust can sometimes be substituted for much rarer and more expensive in
making alloys, equipments and other uses. Substitution reduces pollution when
extraction, processing and disposal of substituted resources produce less pollution. For
example many plastics last for 50 to 100 years in the environment before they
significantly decompose. The plastics are made from nonrenewable resource, petroleum,
whereas trees are renewable. Such considerations have led to substitution of paper for
plastic in many items, such as drinking cups and containers.
Although it can be useful in reducing resource depletion, substitution is often less
desirable than efficiency improvements and reuse/recycle. Instead of reducing overall
resource depletion substitution often simply switches depletion from one resource to
another. This can be satisfactory if the new resource is renewable, as in paper or very
abundant as with glass made from sand. Furthermore substitution does not solve the
problems of pollution, solid waste or other output problems completely, for instance, the
use of paper products offers many environmental advantages over plastic, but it may do
little to solve landfill space problems. Paper is indeed a very big problem in urban areas
currently.
20
It is very difficult to find affordable substitutes for some resources i.e water for most of
its uses. There is hardly a substitute for drinking and agricultural water, so increased
efficiency and recycle/reuse of waste water are the common options.
3.2 The Need for Resource Management
The need for resource management is inescapable. As human population and
technologies grow inevitably the pressures to exploit the environmental resources will
increase. Proper management can help minimize environmental damage.
Careful
planning of water use for instance could spare water for natural ecosystems that would
have been used for agriculture.
Furthermore management can help undo past damage. Elimination of alien (introduced)
species for example is a common management strategy for some biological communities.
Thus though resource management is not attractive concept in some ways, it is preferable
to the alternative, which is uncontrolled resource exploitation. Global society will be
facing many difficult environmental challenges in the near future. This being the case
therefore, making informed decisions about how to use resources is essential for the well
being of the resource and resource users.
It is because of this importance of resource management that some people have even
resolved to consider the concept of resource management as Human arrogance. They
argue that viewing natural environment as ‘‘a resource’’ is a very narrow anthropocentric
approach to nature.
Another objection is that the concept assumes that humans not only should manage
environmental resources but are capable of managing them effectively. Environmental
ethics revolve around whether humans have a right to tamper with nature and if so how
21
much tampering is justified. If ethics are set aside, the assumption that humans are able as
a practical reality, to effectively manage nature is not shown in human history.
Study Questions
1. Point out two challenges that environmental conservation encounters
2. Why is environmental conservation an important aspect?
3. Citing relevant examples of your choice from Tanzania explain why recycling
wastes is important
4. Lack of efficiency is one of critical problems on environment resource use in
Tanzania today. Citing different examples show the validity of this statement
Activity 3
Perform the following task while in full filled attires and take all precaution measures
including using proper paths and clean the dirty lest you come into contact with harmful
creatures and wastes
Take a tour to a family or public solid waste dumping site in your vicinity
While in protective gears sort out ten solid wastes that are disposed in the site
Put the chosen wastes considerably far from the pit to avoid some chaotic
nuisance like bad smell
Try to think some alternative ways through which the same wastes could have
been used which would have reduced their volume in the site
Identify some simple or local technologies that can be used to redefine the wastes
a bit to make them useful once more. For example think of molding cans to be
used as waters for chicken
22
Out of wastes collected which ones could have been used a little more but they
were thrown while well or had other uses
Make an advertisement by using cartoon art to attract customers whom you think
can collect the wastes you have collected, process them a bit and use them ones
more to reduce their volume in the environment
Discuss this activity in study groups and compare your findings with others
findings
23
LECTURE FOUR
RESOURCE VALUE
4.0 Introduction
Various values are ascribed to the resources that occur in the environment. The care
given to any environmental resource is subjective to the value that the resource users put
on such a resource. Huge trees in some villages in Tanzania are highly valued for their
local religious functions they play. The communities in which such trees or forests occur
accord them maximum care. In this lecture various values ascribed to different resources
are discussed. The values are drivers of conservation because these values force the
individuals to aspire for longevity of the resources concerned.
Lecture objectives
At the end of this lecture you should be able to;
☼ List five types of values assigned to resources
☼ Explain the five types of the resources listen above
☼ Draw the floor chart that illustrates the values ascribed to the resources.
☼ Explain the term anthropocentric natural resource values
☼ Economic environment natural resource value
☼ Distinguish anthropocentric values from economic environmental values
24
4.1 Values of Natural Resources
In most cases individuals refers to only economic benefits when looking at the value of
environmental resources. There are some other values that are attached to environmental
resources summing up to five. Sometimes these are referred to as five e’s as explained
below;
4.1.1 Ethical value referred to as Intrinsic value
This is the value of resource unto itself, regardless of its value to humans. This justifies
existence of mountain scenery, worm in the wastes etc. If these resources have a right of
existing, then high intrinsic value should be ascribed to them. Intrinsic values are
ecocentric or environmental oriented. The rest of the e’s are referred to as extrinsic
values.
The extrinsic values are the ones which are external to resources own right to exist, refer
instead to the resource’s ability to provide something for human beings. Such values are
anthropocentric (human centered). Extrinsic values are more utilitarian or practical, than
intrinsic values and therefore tend to be more widely discussed in political and economic
debates on resource management.
4.1.2 Esthetic value (Aesthetic value)
This is the value of resource in making the world more beautiful, more appealing to the
senses and generally more pleasant. The value one place on a mountain hike in the cool
morning air is an example. Some people place no value to this and would pay northing
for it while others find it indispensable.
25
4.1.3 Emotional values
This is the value resource beyond sensory enjoyment. Some people for example develop
very strong emotional bonds to certain natural areas or certain animal or plant species.
This is sometimes called sense of a ‘‘place’’. Many psychologists consider nature to be
important for mental health, especially children.
4.1.4 Economic value
This is type of value involved with tangible products that can be bought or sold. For
example food, timber, energy etc. Society needs to focus more on long term economic
values, which actually provide more income over the long run. The value of resources for
tourism, native fruits, or other sustainable products is ultimately much greater than the
value of their destructive uses.
4.1.5 Environmental service values
This is the value of resources in providing intangible services that allow humans (and
other life) to exist on earth. Plants help to purify air, produce oxygen and plant roots and
soil microbes purify water.
Some people put all the five values on all environmental resources. Others put different
values on resources like beach etc.
Logging, mining and other types of harvesting that destroy the resources are called direct
values. Most environmental problems arise when the resources are appreciated for only
their direct value. Placing only ‘‘direct’’ short term economic value on natural resources
artificially ‘‘discount’’ their true value to society and to the future generations.
Environmental service, emotional, esthetic and ethical values are referred to us indirect
values, meaning that they are in ways that do not involve direct harvesting or other
destruction of the resources. More sustainable uses of resources, such as extractive
26
forestry and ecotourism, will be encouraged and rewarded. As long as only short term
values are considered, overuse and exploitation will be encouraged and rewarded.
Incumbent in the resource utilization is sustainability. Thus most often environmental
natural resource managers tend to stress on sustainable utilization of resources. This is as
crucial to natural resources as it ensures longevity and persistent quality for generations
who depend on resource in question.
The concept of resource values can be illustrated well in the diagram below;
Potential values of environmental resources
Anthropocentric
Ecocentric
Esthetic value
Ethical
Emotional value
Economic value
Environmental services
Figure 1 The five e’s representing five potential values of environmental resources.
Source: Mackinney and Schoch (1996)
27
Study Questions
1. Enumerate and explain various values ascribed to different natural resources by
human beings
2. Degradation of resources turns the resources in question noxious to individuals
who previously depended on the resource. Using any resource of your choice
support this contention
3. Most values attached on environment are human centered ignoring other
components of environment. Discuss.
28
LECTURE FIVE
Resource Utilization
5.0 Introduction
Resource utilization needs to be addressed thoroughly because even ubiquitous resources
may quickly go extinct if misused. Uncontrolled use of natural resource may result into
wastage of the same resource and the population that depends on it may easily fall in
scarcity of resources. Key issue that is worth to note and that needs consideration in
resource utilization is increase in longevity of resource use. The resource should be used
for the longest time possible without compromising its quality i.e sustainable resource
use.
5.1 Sustainable Resource Utilization
Sustainable resource utilization means resource use process that bears within it elements
of perpetual aspects of the same resources. Some impacts that emanate from resource
misuse are permanent with far reaching fatal impacts. With sustainable resource
utilization the resource use by the present generation should not deny the right for the
future generation to use the same resources. Hence sustainable resource utilization means
utilization of resources rationally on the basis that they can support the present and future
generations.
The major aim of sustainable resource utilization is to attain sustainable development in
which resources are used in solving the current problems without jeopardizing the
possibility for the future generation to exist. In other words sustainable utilization of
resources is the utilization of resources while observing resource management and
conservation principles for the resources to last longer.
29
The basic resources of the world that are likely to subject the earth into crisis unless they
are used with great care are water, air, forests, minerals, agricultural land, special
ecosystems and tourism resources. Below is a description of how some of these resources
can be used to ensure longevity and maintain yield.
(i) Water resources
Water must be considered in terms of quality, quantity and accessibility. For instance
lakes, rivers, swamps, underground waters are necessary to support population and
economic development of the people. The critical shortage of water inhibits economic
development and directly damage people as diseases may erupt. Major economic sectors
like transport, agriculture and industries depend on water at one point for proper function.
Sustainable utilization of water involves channeling and absorbing excess water, efficient
distribution of the available water, avoiding disposing wastes in water bodies that
interfere with water quality, avoid cultivation along river banks and at river sources.
Water reservoirs should be constructed to tap rain water to avoid risk of shortage during
dry period.
(ii) Minerals like iron ores
Minerals like copper, tin, mica; diamond, gold etc. have greater contribution towards
economic development hence these nonrenewable resources need to be managed
properly. When managed properly mines will yield economic products for a long time.
Governments and companies involved in mining activities should have proper
environmental rehabilitation projects, like revetment of the soil, planting of trees,
enacting laws and regulations to reinforce mining companies to rehabilitate land when
mining activities ceases in a particular place.
30
(iii) Forests
Forests should be used with conservation mind because careless use of trees may lead to
their disappearance. There should be proper reforestation programs to ensure that
deforested areas are rehabilitated. Only mature trees should be harvested. Alternative
sources of energy should be sought to relieve forests of the pressure pressed to it by both
rural and urban population.
(iv) Land
When land is used especially in agriculture, care should be taken to maintain nutrients in
it. When nutrient in the soil decrease, proper fertilization preferably by using organic
fertilizers should be done. Cultivation in areas which are prone to soil erosion should be
properly done by using contours. Proper agronomic practices should be adhered to in
order to avoid land degradation in course of agricultural activities. Rotational cropping is
one of good agricultural practices that ensure safety to agricultural land.
(v) Air
Air is the resource that is available everywhere on earth. Misuse of atmosphere by
dumping in it undesirable gases, has led to major environmental problems facing the
world today. The problems range from global warming, acid rain to depletion of ozone
layer. There should be deliberate efforts to ensure discharge of harmful gases such as
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) into the atmosphere.
Rational utilization of resources for economic purposes will ensure continuous use of the
same resource for a long time. On the other hand a wasteful use of resources will result
into ill-impacts which will come back to community and harm it, soon or later.
31
5.2 Resource Depletion
The pressure on the environment due to human activities has been greatly enhanced due
to the accelerated use and depletion of natural resources. Given the finite nature of all
resources the ultimate aim is to achieve sustainable use of the natural capital. When the
rates at which certain resources are used exceed their ability to renew (replenish)
themselves these resources are at risk of exhaustion. This is simply termed resource
depletion as it is further explained below.
Principally there two basic inputs from the environment, namely matter and energy
5.2.1 Depletion of Matter
Matter resources are depleted by being ‘‘lost’’ or dispersed. Ore deposits are usually
concentrated deposits of minerals that are normally found in dilute form in the earth’s
crust. When the minerals are mined and processed metals are obtained they can be used
to make cars and other refined products. The atoms contained in the minerals may be
dispersed i.e wearing and tearing of the materials or lost to further human use when
wastes are disposed in landfills and elsewhere, the urban ore of a landfill may later be
mined for its metal contents. Similarly rapid soil erosion depletes the soil not because the
nutrients and minerals in the soil are destroyed, but because the soil is dispersed,
ultimately into the oceans.
These are examples of nonrenewable matter; when dispersed, molecules of metals and
soils will stay dispersed unless much energy and money is used to concentrate them. In
terms of renewable matter resources, dispersion still occurs such as when houses are built
out of timber relatively quickly. The renewable resources are Oftenly biological resources
that can be re-grown.
32
5.2.2 Depletion of Energy Resources
Energy has a one-way flow through society because it is transformed to unusable form
‘‘waste heat’’ when used. Energy resources are therefore depleted when they are
transformed this way. This is a key difference from some forms of ‘‘lost’’ matter, which
could be recollected and reconcentrated if cheap energy is available. In contrast ones
energy is transformed, it is lost forever; waste heat can never be reconcentrated. For
example when coal or oil is burnt to release their chemical energy to drive engine that
energy can never be reused.
It is because of the one way flow of energy that always an alternative form environmental
friendly energy which is ubiquitous is recommended and that is sun. This source of
renewable energy could potentially keep the society running for many millions of years.
Examples of sun’s energy include direct solar power, biomass, hydropower and wind
power.
5.2.3 Bubble Pattern of Resource depletion
Unsustainable use of many resources exhibits a bubble pattern of depletion. The best
known example is the so called Hubbert’s Bubble of oil depletion. King Hubbert
predicted accurately the bubble patterns of oil depletion in the United States. The
assumptions were made in 1950s and have proven to be strikingly accurate. U.S oil
production peaked in 1970 and has been declining since the richest reserves are steadily
depleted.
The bubble pattern has two causes: exponential exploitation and exponential depletion.
Because both use and exhaustion are exponential, they tend to make mirror image. The
exploitation, side of the bubble is exponential because resources are exploited very
quickly once society discovers their utility. The underlying cause of this exponential use
33
is the exponential growth of human populations and technology that uses the resources.
All resources on the earth are finite, limits to growth eventually occur, and demand
exceeds supply. At this stage, society usually tends to intensify its efforts to obtain more
of the resources through further exploration and increased technological applications.
However these efforts soon usually encounter what is termed Law of Diminishing
Return, in economics, meaning that increasing efforts to extract resource produce
progressively smaller amounts/returns. This results into depletion side of the bubble.
Production declines exponentially because the most easily extracted concentrations of the
resource become exhausted.
As supply of the resource decline, prices rise sometimes leading to unemployment and
other unpleasant changes. Historically the society responds to the increase in resource
prices by switching to another resource. England switched from wood to coal as energy,
when forests were decimated and more recently to oil because it is cheaper. The series of
bubbles shown in England has often been repeated elsewhere and with other resources as
societies have tended to switch from one unsustainable resource to another. The only way
to break this ‘‘cycle of Unsustainable use’’ is to switch to sustainable uses.
34
Consider the illustration below
Oil
Coal
Wood
1600
1900
Now
Figure 2 unsustainable energy resource uses in UK. Source McKinney and Schoch1996
Study Questions
1. Explain the concept of bubble trend of resource depletion.
2. Why do resources get depleted?
3. Write an essay on sustainable resource utilization. Cite specific resources and
explain
4. Soil is ubiquitous and there to stay, yet it is placed into a non-renewable resource
group. Explain
35
LECTURE SIX
BIODIVERSITY
6.0 Introduction
Biodiversity is the variety of life that occurs on the earth i.e the totality of all lives found
on earth or. It may also be defined as the variety and variability among living organisms
and habitats in which they live. The number of species of plants, animals, and
microorganisms, the enormous diversity of genes in these species, the different
ecosystems on the planet, such as deserts, rainforests and coral reefs are all parts of a
biologically diverse Earth.
Almost all cultures have in some way recognized the importance that nature, and its
biological diversity has had upon them and the need to maintain it. Yet, power, greed and
politics have affected the precarious balance. Biodiversity include genetic differences
within each species for example within varieties of crops and breeds of livestock.
Chromosomes, DNA and genes are building blocks of life that determine the uniqueness
of each individual and each species.
Another aspect of biodiversity is the variety of ecosystems such as those that occur in the
deserts, forests, wetlands, mountains, lakes, rivers and agricultural landscapes. In each
ecosystem, living organisms, including humans form a community, interacting with one
another and with the air, water and soil around them.
36
6.1 Biodiversity degradation
In natural environment species share common habitat requirements, and hundreds of
species coexists in close proximity. Habitats are degraded when they can no longer
support association of plants and animals in a natural condition. Erosion of native
biodiversity is manifested by the following
Species extinction
Restriction of geographic range
Unusual population fluxes
Reproductive failures
And depletion of genetic diversity
The consequences of biodiversity erosion are
o Loss of potentially valuable organisms and biological compounds for agriculture
o Loss of biological compounds for medicine\
o Loss of biological compounds and valuable organisms for medicine
Biodiversity is usually considered at three different levels
a) Genetic diversity
b) Species diversity
c) Ecosystem diversity
6.2 The value of biodiversity
Many advantages accrue from conservation of biodiversity. One way of looking at
importance of biodiversity is to look on what humans derive from biological diversity
and what usually happens as a result of loss of biodiversity or when certain species go
extinct. Below are descriptions of what humans derive from biodiversity and hence its
importance
37
6.2.1 Consumptive
Biodiversity is so essential for maintaining the global food supply. The main sources of
human food include animals, fish and plants. The global biodiversity does not only
ensure food supply to humans but also to non-human (consumers) in the ecosystem.
Animals
Quite a few animals have been termed for domestication and consumption by human
beings. 100% of the entire proteins intake by humans is derived from domesticated
animals. These animals include cattle, pigs, goats, sheep, water buffaloes, chickens,
ducks, geese and turkeys.
Fish
Through the development of aquaculture fish is as well in the list of animals domesticated
by human beings. Fish by their varieties are farmed in large steel net cages that are
moored in various estuaries and Rivers in Norway, Canada, Spain, Scotland and Ireland.
Fishes are as well farmed in the developing countries like Thailand, Bangladesh,
Ecuador, Philippines and a large fish farm has been established at Sagana fish farm, in
Kenya where fish are farmed under enclosure in ponds. Israel and China already get
about half their fish from aquaculture. The species most commonly grown restrictive
facilities include cichlids and Tilapia.
Plants
Only a few species of plants are currently used on earth as source of food on a large
scale. About 10-50,000 plant species are thought to be edible but only about 150 are used
as human food. As economies become more global, human beings have confined
themselves on fewer species for food whereby 90% of the world’s food come from 15
species only. Of these, wheat, corn and rice contribute two-thirds.
38
It is so dangerous to rely on too few crops as it has recurrently resulted into Great
Famine. Potatoes were introduced into Ireland from the New World in 1600 and most of
the Irish people became over dependent on this crop. In 1845 – 1847, the wind-born
tomato blight fungus spread throughout the country and caused total failure of potato
crop. About 1 million people died of starvation, cholera and typhoid.
6.2.2 Productive use
Many of the commercial pesticides have been synthesized basing on the natural products
from variety (biodiversity) of plants. Many tropical plants produce chemical referred to
as pesticides with the ability to deter herbivores.
Examples
Methyl carbamate insecticides are derived from Calabar bean in West Africa and they are
used as poisons
Extracts from forest vine is used by natives of South America to stun fish. This later on
led to the discovery of rotenone a biodegradable insecticide.
Neem tree in India has been the source insecticides termed Azadirachtin as well as
fungicide and spermicidal for birth control.
6.2.3 Medicines
Medicinal compounds have been and are still being discovered in wild organisms and this
provides one of the most powerful arguments for conservation of biological diversity.
This is specifically important for tropical tree species. The pharmaceutical industry
depends on natural products heavily. About ¼ of all prescription drugs are extracted from
the plants and are chemically modified versions of plant substances and more than half of
39
them are modeled on natural compounds. About 121 prescription drugs are derived from
higher plants. These include Morphine, codeine, quinine, atropine, and digitalis.
6.2.4 Materials
Many creatures have evolved some materials whose unusual physical properties may
make them useful. The materials are either obtained from wild or better copied by
biochemists. In most instances, finding one useful material may lead to the discovery of
many more, with subtle differences in physical properties from closely related organisms.
6.2.5 Cultural, Social and Ethical values
The cultural value of biodiversity for the present and future generations is important
reason for conserving it now. Human cultures co-evolve with their environment. And
conservation of biodiversity can be important for cultural purposes. Natural environment
provide many inspirational, aesthetic, spiritual and educational needs of people, of all
cultures, at present and in the future. Indian society put big cultural value on the forests
while certain species like peacock, tiger and lotus have become national icons. The
conservation of biological diversity has ethical benefits. The presence of wide range of
living organisms reminds people that they are only one of the interdependent parts of the
earth
6.2.6 Aesthetic value
Nature has an aesthetic value that can be experienced by humans and other creatures
when they are in the natural surroundings. Growing up in degraded environment, may
create negative attitudes in human populations towards environment. Studies have
revealed that being near to the nature relieves work stresses, while people working in
40
closed environment or with views of only human-made structures experienced much
more job stresses and illness.
The value that people put to the aesthetic function of nature is reflected in the creation of
millions of small home gardens, hundreds of community gardens and several dozens of
botanical gardens, zoos, aquariums, and many others that communities have established
in different areas. This is also reflected in the amount of tourism to the areas of natural
beauty.
The aesthetic value of our natural ecosystems and landscapes contribute to the emotional
and spiritual well being of a highly urbanized population.
6.2.7 Environmental services
One of the most important benefits of biodiversity is maintenance of environmental
services such as water resources and soil protection. Some of the ecological services
offered by biodiversity
a) Protection of water resources
Natural vegetation cover in the water catchment areas helps to maintain hydrological
cycles, regulating and stabilizing water runoff, acting as a buffer against extreme events
such as flood and drought. Vegetation removal results in siltation of catchment
waterways, loss of water yield and quality, and degradation of aquatic habitat. Wetlands
and forests act as are water purifying systems while mangroves trap silt, reducing impacts
in marine ecosystems.
b) Soil formation and protection
41
Biological diversity helps in the formation and maintenance of soil structure and the
retention of moisture and nutrients in the soil. The loss of biological diversity through
clearing of vegetation has contributed to the Salinization of soils, leaching of nutrients,
laterization of minerals and accelerated erosion of the top soil and reduced land
productivity. Soil protection by maintenance of biodiversity can preserve the productive
capacity of the soil, prevent landslides safeguard coast lines and riverbanks and hinder
degradation of riverine and coastal fisheries by siltation.
Trees and other vegetation also play part in the formation of soil. A significant
contribution is introduction of organic matter in the soil through litter formation and upon
decay improves both soil physico-chemical properties a great deal. Root systems of
plants break down soil and rock leading to easy penetration of water. Root systems bring
the deep nutrients to the surface through nutrient uptake. Organic matter formed by the
decay of tiny fibrous roots can also bind with minerals, such as iron and aluminum which
can reduce potential deleterious effects of these minerals on other vegetation.
c) Nutrient storage and cycling
Ecosystems perform the vital functions of recycling nutrients. The nutrients include
elements of the atmosphere as well as those found in the soil, which are necessary for life
maintenance. Biological diversity is essential for these processes. Plants are able to take
up nutrients from the soil. This nutrients form the basis for food chains, to be used by a
wide range of other life forms on earth. The soil nutrients are then replenished by the
dead decaying organic matter which are decomposed by microorganisms; this may then
feed other species such as earthworms which also mix and aerate soil and make nutrients
more readily available.
42
d) Pollution break down and absorption
Ecosystems and ecological; processes play important part in the break down and
absorption of many pollutants created by human beings and their activities. These include
wastes such as sewage, garbage and oil spills. Ecosystems are composed of lower and
primitive creatures like bacteria to organisms in the higher life forms that are involved in
the break down and assimilation of wastes. Excessive quantities of any pollutant can
however exceed the decomposition ability of the natural ecosystem and harm the integrity
of the ecosystems and the biota thereof. Some ecosystems, especially wetlands have
qualities that are particularly suited to breaking down and absorbing nutrients. Natural
and artificial wetlands are being used to filter the effluents to remove nutrients, heavy
metals and suspended solids, reduce the biochemical oxygen demand and destroy
potentially harmful organisms.
e) Contribution to climate stability
Vegetation influences climate at micro and macro levels. There evidences suggesting that
undisturbed forests help to maintain the rainfall in its immediate vicinity by recycling
water vapour at a steady rate back into the atmosphere and through the canopy’s effect in
promoting atmospheric turbulence. At a smaller scale, vegetation has a moderating
influence on local climates and may create quite specific microclimates.
f) Maintenance of ecosystems
Ecosystem relationships resemble web of connections from one living organism to other
living and non-living things. They not only allow survival, but also maintain a balance
between living things and resources they need to survive. Vegetation is integral to
maintenance of water and humidity levels and is essential for maintenance of the
43
oxygen/carbondioxide balance in the atmosphere. Ecosystem relationships are so
complex, and removal of a part thereof, could adversely affect the functions of other
components of the ecosystem.
Maintenance of natural habitats for this case helps the ecosystems. Natural habitats offer
sanctuary to breeding populations of birds and other predators which help to control
insect pests in agricultural areas, thus reducing the need for, and cost of artificial control
measures. Birds and nectar loving insects roost and nest in natural habitats may range
some distance and pollinate crops and native flora in surrounding areas.
g) Recovery from unpredictable events
Maintaining health ecosystems improves the possibility of recovery of plant and animal
populations from unpredictable natural calamities such as fire, flood and cyclones and
disasters caused by human beings. Inadequately conserved and isolated populations and
ecosystems which are degraded, are less likely to recover or to recover as quickly to their
former state. Populations of living things may end up with small, possibly non-viable
genetic bases, which can lead to extinctions.
Hereunder are some specific ecosystem services/environmental services of biodiversity
Carpenter bees pollinate Brazil nut trees. Bats pollinate wild bananas (not
cultivated ones that are parthenocarpic), breadfruit, guava and durian
Earthworms turn over soil and keep it aerated. Soil bacteria turn nitrogen into
nitrate fertilizer
Plants use up carbondioxide and produce oxygen, thereby reducing global
warming due to low carbondioxide in the atmosphere.
44
Wild microorganisms biodegrade much of our garbage as well as fallen leaves
and other dead animal and plant matter
Study Questions
1. The world is full of countless species of tree, fish and animals for human
consumption but yet human beings suffer food shortage. Explain
2. Biological diversity ensures environmental services in the area in question.
Explain
3. Biodiversity can fuel industrialization. Comment
45
LECTURE SEVEN
LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY
7.0 Introduction
Excessive exploitation has pushed some species to the verge of extinction. Included are
the tiger, Giant Panda, Black Rhinoceros, cod and several whale species. Between 1979
and 1989 the African elephant population was halved by ivory poaching. Other species
have been relentlessly persecuted as vermin, often based on wrong assumptions about the
supposed harm they caused. Rates of extinction are now estimated to be between 1,000
and 10,000 times greater than in the recent past. Tropical forests are being destroyed at
the rate of 0.8 to 2.0% per annum, sending some of their estimated 5 million species into
extinction. 484 species of animals and 654 plants have become extinct since 1600 AD.
This rate is alarming and it calls for immediate action to stop the situation from
worsening.
Lecture objectives
At the end of this lecture you should be able to;
☼ Appreciate the fact that there is alarming loss in biological resources on the
earth at present
☼ List and explain the causes of loss of biodiversity
☼ Suggest ways of controlling loss of biological diversity
46
7.1 Causes of loss of biodiversity
Anthropogenic activities are endangering around the earth. Extinction is a part of
evolutionary processes, but today’s rate of disappearance of creatures is much greater
than the scale at which species naturally disappear. At present many species are vanishing
from the earth at an alarming rate, on earth history. Most threats to biodiversity are
attributable to a growing human population, which is increasing at about 90 million per
year.
The biodiversity we depend on is threatened by several factors. Some of the threats can
be reduced in the short term and others are long term. The following are prominent
threats to biodiversity
a) Habitat degradation and loss
b) Invasion of non-native species
c) Overexploitation of resources
d) Global environmental change
e) Pollution
7.1.1 Habitat degradation and loss
Habitat degradation/fragmentation is an important cause of extinctions of some creatures.
Deforestation in the tropics causes mass extinction of creatures. All organisms have
specific food and habitat needs. The more specific and localized needs of species are
vulnerable to agricultural land, livestock, roads and cities. Whenever major projects like
mining or road construction are carried the habitats are greatly altered and species of
organisms suffer and in some cases disappear. Bush fires and dynamite fishing induce
considerable alterations into environment and hence important drivers of species
extinction.
47
7.1.2 Invasion of non-native species
This is an important aspect though overlooked in most cases and it leads to extinction of
the inferior species. The African great lakes (Victoria, Nyasa and Tanganyika) are
famous for their great diversity and endemism. In Lake Victoria a single exotic fish
species, the Nile Perk has been established and may cause the extinction of most of native
species, by simply eating them all. It was purposefully introduced for sports fishing and
subsistence but they have turned a disaster.
Introduced species is major cause of extinctions of creation accounting for about half all
the extinctions on earth since 1600.
7.1.3 Overexploitation of Resources
The overuse or over harvesting of plants, animals and other natural resources threaten
earth’s biodiversity. Overexploitation such as logging, hunting or fishing can reduce
species number to the brink of extinction. Individual species are usually targeted for their
products. Overharvest through hunting has been significant cause of the extinctions of
hundreds of species while endangering many more, such as whales and many African
large mammals. Much extinction in the past years has been due to overharvesting for
food, fashion and profit. Commercial hunting both legal and illegal (poaching), is the
principal threat. The pet and decorative plant trade falls within this commercial hunting
category and includes a mix of legal and illegal activities.
7.1.4 Global environmental change
A changing global climate threatens species and ecosystems. The distribution of species
(Biogeography) is largely determined by climate, as is the distribution of ecosystems and
Plant vegetation zones (biomes). The burning of fossil fuel such as coal, oil and natural
gas
48
Study questions
1. Unsustainable human growth endangers biodiversity. Explain
2. Enumerate and explain various causes of loss of biodiversity
49
LECTURE EIGHT
TRANSBOUNDARY RESOURCES
8.0 Introduction
Transboundary resources management is a discipline that seeks agreement, legal
understanding and abidance to rules and standards on resource use or;
Transboundary natural resource management is any process of cooperation across
boundaries that facilitates or improves the management of natural resources (to the
benefit of all parties in the area concerned) (Griffin et al., 1999).
Resource use can lead to problems that cannot be confined within the boundaries of a
specific territory i.e some resources cut across borders. For example indoor air pollution
in the late 60s and 70s resulted in the adoption of air quality legislation between Canada
and USA. It mainly was instituted to ensure good air quality along the boundaries.
Lecture objectives
At the end of this lecture you should be able to;
☼ List and explain the 5 rationale for transboundary natural resource management
☼Give five objectives of transboundary natural resource management
☼ Use Virunga-Bwindi Gorilla case to show necessity of transboundary resource
management
50
8.1 The rationale for transboundary collaboration in resource
management
According to Lanjour et al., (2001), there are some resources that cannot be confined
within boundaries of a territory and in course of their utilization, collaboration
between/among countries/territories where the resources boundaries overlap is so
important. For example mountain Gorillas, a rare and charismatic species of great ape
that occur in the Virunga-Bwindi region. They are found in only two mountain blocks
and are found nowhere else even in captivity. The total population for Virunga and
Bwindi is 655. Virunga host about 355 animals and Bwindi 300 animals. The dense
human population living in the land surrounding these two forest blocks limits the habitat
of gorillas. Significant habitat expansion is not a reality. The survival of these creatures
and their habitat therefore depends on the maintenance of the integrity of forests. The
species occur in three boundaries of relatively small blocks of forest. For this case they
must be protected equally effectively from all three sides. Similar approaches must be
applied and authorities must concert their efforts in order to ensure that management and
conservation are effective.
The Virunga Bwindi forests are not only important for the gorillas in the region but an
important water catchment and hence ensure the protection of soil stability in the region.
They are not only important for biodiversity of wild life including endangered species but
also for maintaining the ecological processes necessary for the agricultural livelihoods of
the people in the region. As the forests are shared by three countries, it is necessary for
the three governments (Rwanda, DRC and Uganda) to work together to ensure that
management and conservation are effective.
51
The focus of International Gorilla Conservation Programme has been primarily on the
park authorities of the three countries. The emphasis has been on strengthening the
capacity of each of the three states to effectively manage the forested parks as a regional
ecosystem. The differences in park management styles, institutional capacity and budgets
and this has led to IGCP to focus on the development of harmonized approaches and
collaborative mechanisms for management as well as funding of the parks. Once these
mechanisms are active, all three countries will operate on similar bases, with similar
potential, profiles and requirements.
8.2 The Objectives of transboundary resources management
Below are some of the objectives of transboundary resources management. The overall
aim is to put together the parties involved in the use of certain resources so that the
resource in question is well treated i.e used sustainably
(a) Cooperative conservation of biodiversity and other natural and cultural values
across boundaries
(b) Promotion of landscape level ecosystem management through integrated
bioregional land use planning and management
(c) Sharing of biodiversity and cultural resources management skills and experience
(d) Greater effectiveness and efficiency of cooperative management programs
(e) Access to and equitable and sustainable use of natural resources, consistent with
national sovereignty
(f) Enhancement of the benefits of conservation and promoting benefit sharing across
boundaries among stakeholders
(g) Cooperative research and information management programs
52
Study questions
1. What is the rationale for transboundary resource management? Use gorilla from
Virunga-Bwindi forest as example
2. Why is transboundary resource management necessary?
53
LECTURE NINE
PROTECTED AREAS
9.0 Introduction
According to International Union for Conservation Nature (IUCN) protected areas are
defined as areas of land and/or sea especially dedicated to protection and maintenance of
biological diversity and of natural and associated cultural resources and managed through
legal or other effective means. Although all protected areas meet the general purposes
contained in this definition, in practice the precise purposes for which protected areas are
managed differ greatly.
Lecture objectives
At the end of this lecture you should be able to;
1. Explain the term protected areas
2. List and explain the 7 categories of protected areas as per IUCN
54
9.1 Categories of protected areas
IUCN has defined a series of six protected area management categories, based on primary
management objective. Consider the table below that has attempted to define protected
areas basing on their precise purpose
Category
1A
Description
Definition
Strict Nature Reserve:
Area of land and/or sea possessing some
protected area
outstanding or representative ecosystems,
managed mainly for
geological or physiological features and/or
science
species, available primarily for scientific research
and/or environmental monitoring.
1B
Wilderness Area:
Large area of unmodified or slightly modified
protected area
land, and/or sea, retaining its natural character
managed mainly for
and influence, without permanent or significant
wilderness protection
habitation, which is protected and managed so as
to preserve its natural condition.
II
National Park:
Natural area of land and/or sea, designated to (a)
protected area
protect the ecological integrity of one or more
managed mainly for
ecosystems for present and future generations, (b)
ecosystem protection
exclude exploitation or occupation inimical to the
and recreation
purposes of designation of the area and (c)
provide a foundation for spiritual, scientific,
educational, recreational and visitor opportunities,
all of which must be environmentally and
culturally compatible.
III
Natural Monument:
Area containing one, or more, specific natural or
protected area
natural/cultural feature which is of outstanding or
managed mainly for
unique value because of its inherent rarity,
conservation of
representative or
specific natural
55
features
IV
Habitat/Species
Area of land and/or sea subject to active
Management Area:
intervention for management purposes so as to
protected area
ensure the maintenance of habitats and/or to meet
managed mainly for
the requirements of specific species.
conservation through
management
intervention
V
Protected
Area of land, with coast and sea as appropriate,
Landscape/Seascape:
where the interaction of people and nature over
protected area
time has produced an area of distinct character
managed mainly for
with significant aesthetic, ecological and/or
landscape/seascape
cultural value, and often with high biological
conservation and
diversity. Safeguarding the integrity of this
recreation
traditional interaction is vital to the protection,
maintenance and evolution of such an area.
VI
Managed Resource
Area
containing
Protected Area:
natural systems, managed to ensure long term
protected area
protection
managed mainly for
diversity, while providing at the same time a
the sustainable use of
sustainable flow of natural products and services
natural ecosystems
to meet community needs.
and
predominantly
maintenance
of
unmodified
biological
Source: http://www.unep-wcmc.org/protected_areas/categories/index.html (Accessed on
23rd May 2009)
56
9.2 The importance of protected areas
Protection of resource use in the protected areas aims at;
1) Limiting as necessary, particular exploitative uses of terrestrial and aquatic
resources or linked areas that influence these places i.e preventing the mining of
living coral reefs to maintain their value to fisheries and to protect the coast from
natural hazards
2) Protecting particular parts with crucial role in the ecosystem, i.e protection of
critical habitats
3) Restoring earlier conditions (for example, closing areas to enable recuperation of
damaged habitats or depleted stocks or prohibiting activities that are physically
damaging or polluting
4) Obtaining and transferring information for example through research, education
and interceptive programmes
Study Questions
1. What is the importance of protected areas
2. IUCN has defined protected areas basing on precise purposes of such areas.
Substantiate
57
LECTURE TEN
EVOLUTION OF THE CONCEPT OF PROTECTED AREAS
10. Introduction
Protected areas are civilized society’s strongest signs of prosperity
foresightedness and greatness of spirits
-Carl Safina
The primary motivation for establishing natural or protected areas was to limit adverse
impacts of resource and economic development on natural resources for common good.
In the 700 B.C Assyrian noblemen created reserves for hunting. Rome and medieval
Europe likewise reserved for exclusive use of the ruling classes. Introduction of protected
areas is a very old discipline that has been advocated for in various parts of the earth. The
succinct account of the emergence of the concept of protected areas is given below.
10.1 Historical evolution of concept of protected areas
As pressure on natural resources increases, there is a continuing need to implement
conservation and management policies to ensure sustainable use of the resources in
question. Global recognition of the problems of environmental degradation began in the
1960s amid growing evidence of the adverse human effects on the natural environment.
A number of high profile ecological disasters against a background of technology
facilitating more extensive spatial and temporal analysis of the environmental condition
forced debates on the international political stage.
The 1972 UN Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm led to the creation of
a specialised UN body, the Environment Programme, which joined two major post WW2
non-governmental organizations: IUCN (the International Union for the Conservation of
58
Nature) and WWF (World Wildlife Fund). Collectively, these organizations played a
role in lobbying national governments to consider the need for conservation, and develop
appropriate policies. Dominant paradigms, underpinned by modernism, saw humans as
discrete from nature, and thus focused on the need to separate their activities. A primary
tool for this was the designation of protected areas.
Although the land areas under protection experienced rapid growth in the 1970s, the idea
of protected areas had originated much earlier, albeit involving slightly different
priorities. Up until that point, the existence of protected areas had largely reflected an
isolationist and protectionist ideology based on the preservation of “wilderness” on
aesthetic and moral grounds. Yellowstone National Park in the USA was the first such
effort at exclusionary conservation, and the trend continued under imperialism when
areas of land were set aside to preserve mega-fauna, particularly in the African colonies,
following the 1933 London Convention on African Wildlife. A report used in this
convention concluded that the nature of human-wildlife relations was so complex that the
only way to preserve mega-fauna was through its isolation. Thus when translated into
practice, these policies often involved the forcible expulsion of local populations from
their homelands, often with inadequate financial compensation and significant social and
cultural upheaval. Such exclusionary policies were largely designed to satisfy the
recreational needs of the dominant elite classes. More recent retrospective analyses of
protected area designation in post-colonial states have also recognized varying legacies of
these political power relations, good examples are found in Thailand and Indonesia.
59
Although the dichotomy between humans and nature persisted, a new concept
highlighting the existing and potential utilitarian value of nature drove the expansion of
protected areas in the 1960s and 1970s. As environmental economists attempted to place
values on nature and natural resources, their importance to human welfare became
apparent. The need for protection of nature was thus predicated on the idea that natural
resources can sustain human life, linking human needs and biodiversity for the first time.
In practice this led to calls for a worldwide network of protected areas. There are now
protected areas in 169 countries spanning 7,734,900km2, or 5.2% of the earth’s land
surface. In most cases, governments needed to expropriate private and communally-held
property in order to fulfill these conservation goals, thus affecting access rights to
resources by local populations.
10.2 Criteria for identifying areas for protection
Below are some specific criteria that are used to decide priorities for protected areas
whose goals are social, economic or ecological. All the three goals are compatible and all
can be achieved within single large protected area. The criteria can be used both to select
the site and to zone the protected area for specific uses. Large protected areas with
different units are preferred due to the fact that;
It requires managing only a single unit (that has several component zones). This
reduces legal, administrative and operating costs
It enables management of larger units that are more likely to contain complete
functional units and hence are more ecologically self-sustaining
60
It enables continuity of ecological linkages and processes, many of which may not
have been identified and enables uninterrupted flow of propagules and nutrients
and movement of organisms among the component habitats
10.3 Criteria for selection of areas to be protected
10.3.1 Social criteria
Social acceptance, this is the degree to which the support by the lo9cal people is ensured.
When an area is already protected by local traditions or practices, it should be encouraged
and the area should receive higher rating. An official’’ protected area may not be
necessary if local support is high.
Public health, the degree to which the protected area may serve to diminish pollution or
other disease agents that contributes to public health problems. Granting protected status
of contaminated areas such as shell fish beds and bathing beaches, may result in reduced
pollution as the polluting source is recognized and controlled
Recreation, the degree to which an area is/could be used in recreation by the residents.
Areas like thick forests and nice beaches with unique scenery that provide the local
community opportunity to use, enjoy and learn about their local natural environment
should receive high rating for social benefits they provide.
Culture the religious, historic, artistic and other cultural values rank an area high in
protection. Natural areas that contain important cultural features should be given high
ratings as their protection may help to maintain the integrity of the adjacent ecosystems.
Aesthetics a seascape, landscape or other areas of unique scenic beauty are places of high
rank in consideration for protection. Natural areas that also contain features of natural
61
beauty are highly considered in protection since integrity of features in such areas need
maintenance. When species diversity and biological conservation value are, low and the
site is picturesque, it retains a high value for recreation
Conflict of interest, the degree to which protection affects the activities of local residents.
If the area is to be used for recreational; purposes, for example the site should be a major
fishing area and should have few dependent fishermen. In some instances, careful zoning
can minimize such conflicts.
Safety, the degree of danger to people from strong currents and floods of an area may
necessitate protection. The principal users will often be swimmers, snorkelers, divers and
boaters. It is important that they are able to pursue their activity safety.
Accessibility this is the ease of access across both land and sea. Areas to be used by
visitors, students and researchers and fishermen must be accessed by them. The more
accessible the greater the value, but the greater likelihood of conflicting interests (such as
between mining and fisheries or fisheries and diving) and greater impact of users.
Accessibility weighs high for goal one (social), fairly high goal two (economic) and low
for goal three (ecological)
Benchmark the degree to which an area may serve as ‘‘control group’’ in the scientific
sense, an unmanipulated area used to measure changes elsewhere. Benchmark areas are
essential to an ecological monitoring programme and should receive a higher rating.
Education, the degree to which the area represent various ecological characteristic and
serve for research demonstration of scientific methods. Areas that clearly demonstrate
different habitat types and ecological relationships and area sufficiently large both to
62
serve conservation and to accommodate teaching (i.e field trips or on-site learning
centers) should receive a higher rating.
63
LECTURE ELEVEN
CRITERIA FOR DESIGNATION OF PROTECTED AREAS
11.0 Introduction
Lecture ten introduced you to historical evolution of the concept of protected areas.
Further it introduced to the social criteria as one of the parameters used to designate
protected areas. In this lecture the criteria for designation of protected area is expounded.
Protected areas as well face a number of problems as discussed towards the end of this
lecture.
11.1 Economic criteria
Importance to species, the degree to which certain commercially important species
depends on such area. Reefs or wetlands, for example may be critical habitats for certain
species that breed, rest, shelter or feed there and that form the basis of local fisheries in
adjacent areas. Such habitats need management to support these stocks
Importance to fisheries, the number of dependent fishermen and the size of fishery yield.
The greater the dependence of fishermen on an area, and the greater its yield of fishes, the
more important it becomes to manage the area correctly and to ensure sustainable harvest.
Nature of threats, the extent to which changes in use patterns threaten the overall value
to people. Habitats may be threatened directly by destructive practices, such as fishing
with explosives and certain bottom trawls, or by overexploitation of the resources. Areas
traditionally harvested by local people become important to manage. The numbers of
fishermen on local area may increase bringing extra pressure to bear on stocks and
habitats. Even if the numbers do not change, the traditional capture methods may be
replaced by others that yield more per unit effort (an extreme example example is the use
64
of explosives). The stocks of some species may not be capable of withstanding such
increased drains on their breeding populations. In this way whole species have
disappeared from fishing grounds or have become exceedingly rare.
Economic benefits, the degree to which protection will affect local economy in the long
term. Initially, some protected areas may have short lived disruptive economic effect.
Those that have obvious positive effects should have higher ratings (for example,
protecting feeding areas of commercial fishes or areas of recreational value).
Tourism, the existing or potential value of the area to tourism development. Areas that
lend themselves to forms of tourism compatible with aims of conservation should receive
a higher rating.
11.2 Ecological criteria
The values of ecosystems and their species are measured in the following terms;
Diversity the variety or richness of ecosystems, habitats, communities, niches and
species. Areas having the greatest variety should receive higher ratings. However, this
criterion may not apply to simplified ecosystems, such as some pioneer or climax
communities, or areas subject to disruptive forces, such as shores exposed high energy
wave action.
Naturalness the lack of disturbance or degradation. Degraded systems will have little
value to fisheries or tourism, and make little biological contribution. A high degree of
naturalness scores highly. If restoring degraded habitats is a priority, a high degree of
degradation may score highly.
Dependency the degree to which a species depends on an area, or the degree to which an
ecosystem depends on ecological processes occurring in the area. If an area is critical to
65
more than one species or process or to a valuable species or ecosystem, it should have
high rating.
Representativeness the degree to which an area represents a habitat type, ecological
process, biological community, physiographic feature or other natural characteristic. If a
habitat of a particular type has not been protected, it should have a high rating.
Uniqueness whether an area is ‘‘one of a kind.’’ Habitats of endangered species
occurring only in one location are an example. The interest in uniqueness may extend
beyond country boarders, assuming regional or international significance. To keep
visitors impact low, tourism may be prohibited but limited research and education
permitted. Unique sites should always have a high rating.
Integrity the degree to which the area is functional unit – an effective self sustaining
ecological entity. The more ecologically self – sustaining the area is the more likely its
values can be effectively protected, and so a higher rating should be given to such areas.
Productivity, the degree to which productive processes within the area contributes
benefits to species or to humans. Productive areas that contribute most to ecosystem
sustainment should receive a high rating. Exceptions are Eutrophic areas where high
productivity may have a deleterious effect.
Vulnerability of the area to degradation by natural events or other activities of people.
Biotic communities associated with coastal habitats may have a low tolerance to changes
in environmental conditions, or they exist close to the limits of their tolerance (defined by
water, temperature, salinity, turbidity, or depth). They may suffer such natural stresses as
storms or prolonged emersion that determine extent of their development. Additional
stress (such as domestic or industrial pollution, excessive reductions in salinity and
66
increases in turbidity from watershed mismanagement) may determine whether there is a
total, partial, or no recovery from natural stress, or the area is totally destroyed.
11.3 Regional criteria
The contribution of an area to the whole ecosystem in the region or to regional network
of protected areas can be considered in terms of;
Regional significance, the degree to which the area represents a characteristic of the
region, whether a natural feature, an ecological or a cultural site. The role the area plays
in contributing nutrients, materials, or support for species (especially migratory ones) to
the region as whole should be evaluated. Both ecological processes and natural resources
are often shared among nations, so areas contributing to the maintenance of species or
ecosystem beyond national boundaries should have higher ratings
Sub-regional significance, the degree to which an area fills a gap in the network of
protected areas from the sub-regional perspective. This contribution may be assessed by
comparing the distribution of protected areas with sub-regional characteristics. If a type
of area is preserved in one sub-region, that type should also be protected in another subregion.
Awareness, the degree to which monitoring, research, education, or training within the
area can contribute knowledge and appreciation of regional values. Area that can
combine such activities as pollution monitoring and education should receive a higher
rating.
Conflict and compatibility, the degree to which the area help to resolve conflicts between
natural resource values and human activities, or the degree to which compatibilities
between them may be enhanced. If an area can be used to exemplify the resolution of
67
conflicts in the region, it should receive high rating. Protected areas that demonstrate the
benefits, value, or methods of protection or restoration should also have higher ratings.
11.4 Pragmatic criteria
The feasibility and appropriate timing protection can be measured basing on the
following;
Urgency the degree to which immediate action must be taken, lest values within the area
be transformed or lost. Lack of urgency should not necessarily be given a lower rating
since it is often the best, and least costly, to protect well in advance of the threat.
Size which and how much of various habitats need to be included in the protected area.
Size is an important factor in designing protected areas. It has Oftenly been overlooked in
the design process, resulting in severe degradation, even total destruction, of protected
area. The protected area must be large enough to function as an ecological unit to receive
high rating.
Degree of threat, present and potential threats from direct exploitation and development
projects. The farther the protected area is from potential sources of accidental poisoning
(such as large ports, petroleum deposits, heavy industry, or river mouths) the better are
the survival prospects of species and communities. However if an important habitat is
severely threatened, it may be important to implement a management plan to reduce the
threats to tolerable levels
Effectiveness the feasibility of implementing a management programme. A site that
satisfies many criteria, but cannot be adequately managed (i.e monitored, patrolled, and
defended) is not of much use. Higher ratings should go to sites that are manageable.
68
Opportunism, the degree to which existing conditions or actions are already underway
may justify further action. An extension of an established protected area should have a
higher rating.
Availability the degree to which the area is available for acquisition or can be managed
satisfactorily by agreement with the owners. The problem of tenure rarely applies to the
sea. Beaches also often belong to the government. Thus acquisition of aquatic areas,
wetlands, and seashores may not be necessary. However adjacent land and islands may
be privately owned or leased. Generally, to secure long term control over these areas, the
title or lease will need to be bought from current owners. Higher ratings should go to
areas owned by governments.
Restorability the degree to which an area may be returned to its former natural state.
Areas that can increase in productivity or value to important species and processes should
receive high ratings.
11.5 Problems facing protected areas
The protected areas in the world face a number of challenges as highlighted below;
The wetlands are threatened with external threats which are pollution and climate
change
Irresponsible tourism linked to poaching and uncontrolled hunting may impair the
ecosystems in the protected areas.
Infrastructure development i.e railway or road construction may impair the
protected areas by fragmenting its habitats
Ever-increasing demand for water and land resources may put immense pressure
on the resources in the protected areas
69
Many protected areas lack political support and have inadequate funding and
resources for their management
Lack of consistency in record keeping on the protected areas for different
countries has made protected areas not well known to international community
NOTE: Protected areas are established in areas where organisms are threatened by
various factors as explained below;
Critically endangered organisms, this include the species that face
extremely high risk of extinction in the wild in the near future
Endangered, this include all species that are not critically endangered but
are facing very high risk of extinction in the wild in the near future
Vulnerable, species facing high risk of extinction in the medium term
future
For each threat category five criteria A – E are used to classify species in the one of the
three categories
A) Declining population
B) Small population and decline or fluctuation
C) Small population size and decline
D) Very small population/very restricted distribution
E) Quantitative analysis (e.g population viability analysis)
70
Study Questions
1. Social aspect is one of the key aspects used to designate an area as protected.
Explain
2. Protected areas are open to various challenges. Explain
3. What is the importance of protected areas?
71
LECTURE TWELVE
PROPERTY RIGHTS
12.0 Introduction
The concept of property rights was developed by an English theorist John Locke (1632 –
1704). The theory was so detailed and it is on private ownership of property. According
to Locke, in the original state of nature, land (used here in a general sense to include
bodies of water) and its resources are unowned, but every person (human being) owns his
or her own body and the labour produced by the body. When a person mixes her or his
labour (which is privately owned) with unowned land or resources, then that person
comes to own the land or the resources derived from it. Thus by mixing the owned labour
of the body with the unowned material objects of nature come to be owned labour of the
body with unowned material objects of nature, the objects of nature come to be owned by
owner of the labour. A settler, who goes into wilderness, clears the land, builds a house
and plants crops and thereby becomes a property owner. This scenario tend to ignore any
indigenous people who may have occupied the land previously and it accords property
right only to humans and ignores the fauna and flora in the area concerned.
12.1 Property rights
A property right is the exclusive authority to determine how a resource is used, whether that
resource is owned by government or by individuals. All economic goods have a property rights
attribute. This attribute has three broad components
1. The right to use the good
2. The right to earn income from the good
72
3. The right to transfer the good to others
The concept of property rights as used by economists and legal scholars are related but distinct.
The distinction is largely seen in the economists' focus on the ability of an individual or collective
to control the use of the good. For example, a thief who has stolen a good would not be
considered to have legal (de jure) property right to the good, but would be considered to have
economic (de facto) property right to the good.
12.2 Property Rights Regimes
Property rights to a good must be defined, their use must be monitored, and possession of rights
must be enforced. The costs of defining, monitoring, and enforcing property rights are termed
transaction costs. Depending on the level of transaction costs, various forms of property rights
institutions will develop. Each institutional form can be described by the distribution of rights.
The following list is ordered from no property rights defined to all property rights being held by
individuals
1. Open access (res nullius)
2. State property
3. Common property
4. Private property
Open-access property
This is a property that is not owned by anyone. It is non-excludable (no one can exclude
anyone else from using it) and non-rival (one person's use of it does not prevent others
from simultaneously using it). Open-access property is not managed by anyone, and
access to it is not controlled. There is no constraint on anyone using open-access property
73
(excluding people is either impossible or prohibitively costly). The tragedy of the
commons is a misnomer. It should be called the tragedy of open access. 'Open-access
property may exist because ownership has never been established, because the state has
legislated it, or because no effective controls are in place, or feasible, i.e, the cost of
exclusion outweighs the benefits. The state can sometimes effectively convert open
access property into private, common or public property by legislating to define rights
and enforce them. Examples of open-access property are the atmosphere or ocean
fisheries.
State property (also known as public property) is property that is owned by all, but its
access and use is controlled by the state. An example is a national park
Common property is property that is owned by a group of individuals. Access, use, and
exclusion are controlled by the joint owners. True commons can break down, but, unlike
open-access property, common property owners have greater ability to manage conflicts
through shared benefits and enforcement
Private property is both excludable and rival. Private property access, use, exclusion, and
management are controlled by the private owner.
Study Questions
1. Write short notes on the tragedy of global commons
2. What is a common property and what impact does such connotation has on the
property in question?
3. Enumerate and explain any three regimes of property right.
74
LECTURE THIRTEEN
RESOURCE GOVERNANCE
13.0 Introduction
An overarching theme across the world is on the need to improve environmental
resources and strengthen incentives for behavioral changes and investments that lead to
better environmental quality and hence its resources. The most important governance
issues are access to environmental information, transparency and consultation for
responsible decision making, adequate institutional capacity for credible enforcement and
economic policies that promote improved environmental performance.
Lecture objectives
At the end of this lecture you should be able to;
1. Explain seven strategies used by the financial organs to ensure good resource
governance
2. Explain the concept of integrated natural resource management
13.1 Natural resource governance strategies
In order to strengthen natural resource management the projects that involve funds from
the global mega-sources of funds (World Bank), have devised various strategies to ensure
good resource governance. The strategies or interventions are highlighted below
a) Strengthening the management framework to support development assistance.
With high level of population density, there is a heightened need to mange
75
environmental risks and public perceptions of these risks, particularly in the
context of growing environmental awareness in an area concerned.
b) Providing knowledge support to governments in managing environmental issues.
The bank supports mainstreaming the environment by strengthening analytical
and empirical work to fill critical knowledge gaps in the areas concerned.
c) Focus on institution capacity building. The bank supports the efforts by countries
to strengthen the capacity of their environmental and sectoral agencies to address
the new challenges and provide incentives for compliance by expanding the
policy toolkit.
d) Assessing environment health risks. The bank works closely with governments to
develop strategic programmes that strengthen the capacity of environmental
agencies to identify and reduce ambient indoor and outdoor pollution levels. In
Bangladesh there is an expanding air quality management. There is an innovative
project in India that that aims at improving the capacity of environmental
institutions to mange pollution on industrial estates and in the small and medium
industrial sector.
e) Tackling environmental impacts of urban growth. The bank is addressing
environmental challenges of rapid and unplanned urban growth of the mega and
soon-to-be mega cities.
f) Improving sustainability of natural resource management. A sustainable land
management of resources like land, water or protected areas ensures longevity in
terms of the time these resources can yield maximum quality products. The bank
76
invest substantial amount of money in ensuring proper conservation of protected
areas.
g) Global climate change. Low carbon development will need significant shifts in
energy policy and regulation, modes of investment planning and openness to
energy trade. In this context world bank group is actively engaged in;
Providing and expanding support to energy sector governance, combined
with strategic investment in generation, transmission, distribution and enduse efficiency that will help to create an enabling environment for reforms.
Analytical support and dialogue that focus on the enhanced understanding
of the potential for energy trade within and beyond the territory.
Analytics work and dialogue on long-term energy security that will also
integrate low carbon options and considerations
Core operations in energy infrastructure, environment and rural sectors to
support sustainable development and climate change management
objectives, including the development and application of renewable
technology.
h) Global commons agenda. A significant global commons agenda has been
developed to (i) help countries implement Montreal protocol and (ii) improve the
sustainability of internationally shared fisheries.
13.2 Integrated natural resource management
Integrated resource management (IRM) is a planning and decision making process that
coordinates resource use so that the long term sustainable benefits are optimized and
77
conflicts among users are minimized. IRM brings together all resource groups rather than
each working in isolation to balance the economic, environmental, and social
requirements of society. IRM includes planning for minerals, forests, recreation,
wilderness, energy, wildlife, and parks
The overall purpose of integrated management is for decision makers responsible for
ocean-based activities to manage these activities in a manner that will sustain a healthy
marine environment and provide due consideration of other ocean users.
The aim of integrated management is to improve decision making to ensure that
decisions: Other purposes of integrated resource management are geared towards
improving decision making to ensure that decisions;
•
Are more effective in the long term;
•
Are not conflicting;
•
Are built upon a common knowledge base; and
•
Take into consideration the needs of the ecosystem as well as the needs of
humankind.
By implementing an integrated-management approach, resource managers will ensure the
users abide into agreed uses as highlighted in the importance of integrated resource
management below:
13.3 Importance of integrated resource management
i) Integrated resource management will help environmental managers and governments at
large to apply long term goals and set priorities based on information about all resources.
78
This will further maintain the health of our ecosystems in which resources are found
ii) Resource managers will be able to periodically plan, act, control, balance and report
on the actual consumption of all resources.
iii) Integrated resource management will create synergies and new efficiencies from all
resources working together
iv) Integrated resource utilization will integrate sustainability issues in all administration
departments
v) Integrated resource management is the approach that will support politicians in setting
priorities and steering local sustainability, as well as gaining a comprehensive overview
of available resources
vi) Integrated resource management will further reduce or eliminate resource user
conflicts
Study Questions
1. Proper resource governance is key strategy for the World Bank to ensure
sustainability of resources in question. Explain
2. What is the importance of integrated natural resource management
3. Lack of coordinated policies has put various resources at stake of degradation in
Tanzania explain.
79
REFERENCES
Cunningham, W.P. and Saigo, B.W. 2001. Environmental Science: A global concern.
McGraw-Hill Companies Inc; New York. 6th Edition. 646 pp.
Enger, E.D. and Smith, B.F. 2004. Environmental science: A study of interrelationships.
McGraw-Hill, New York.19th edition. 477.
Gjessing, J., 2002. Resource Geography: Conceptual Approaches. Centre for
Environmental Studies and Resource Management, Oslo.
Joseph, B. 2004 Environmental studies. The McGraw-Hill Companies.
http//higheredmcgraw-hill.com/sites/0070590923
. Lanjouw A., Kyitare, A., Rainer, H., Rutagarama, E., Sivha, M., Asuma, S and Kalpers,
J. 2001. Beyond boundaries: Transnational natural resource management for
mountain Gorrilass in the Virunga Bwindi Region. Washington D.C., USA:
Biodiversity Support program.
Lens, L.; Compton, P., Devuyst, D. and Bholeshwar, N. 1994. Environmental
Management: The Ecosystems Approach. VUB Press
McKinney, M.L. and Schoch, R.M. 1996. Environmental science: Systems and
solutions. West Publishing Company, ST. Paul/Minneapolis. 639 pp.
Mitchell, B. (1989). Geography and Resource Analysis, 2nd Edition: Longman, London.
Montgomery, C.W. 200. Environmental Geology. The McGraw-Hill companies Inc; New
York. 5th edition. 545 pp.
Omara – Ojungu P.H. 1992.
Resource Management in Developing Countries –
Longman. Essex.
Pratt, D. S. and Gwyne M. D. 1977. Rangeland Management and Ecology in East Africa.
80
Sierra, K., 2005 Environment matters at the World Bank: Good governance and
environmental management: Annual Review report July 2005 – June 2006.
United Republic of Tanzania – National Environmental Policy 1997 and other sector
specific policies.
United Republic of Tanzania –Environmental Management Act 2004, and other sector
specific acts.
Waugh, D. 1995. Geography an integrated approach. International Thomson publishing
company, UK. 2nd edition
81