By the end of this workshop, you’ll be able to
•
•
•
Create a lab report that adheres to the IMRAD
format.
Apply pre-writing, writing, and re-writing
strategies in order to develop well-structured,
objective, clear, and concise scientific
documents.
Locate various forms of on-campus writing
support to help you with your next assignment.
© 2013 The Writing Centre,
Student Academic Success Services
• Essay writing
• Lab report writing
• Thesis writing
• Grammar
• General writing tips
sass.queensu.ca
613.533.6315 Stauffer Library
An Overview
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What does science writing do?
Writing effective lab reports
Tackling a writing project in the sciences
Principles of science writing
A brief introduction

Communicate results and their importance

Be accurate and precise

Allow for repeatable experiments



Demonstrate the author’s understanding of
theories, phenomena, and procedures behind
the data
Show that the author can think critically
Indicate that the author can communicate
effectively in a particular discipline
The IMRAD structure
1) The title
 should
not be too vague or too short
• Rule of thumb: 10-12 words
 may
relate to the main objective, species
involved, and location (if relevant)
 may
be derived from the x/y axis of the
main figure in the lab report
Examples:
Wolverine (Gulo gulo) hunting behaviour in the
Claire Lake watershed, Yukon Territory
includes main topic, species involved, and location
Heart Mountain fault systems: architecture and
evolution of the collapse of an Eocene
volcanic system, northwest Wyoming
includes location, geological feature, and age

Provides the right amount of detail
 Avoids jargon and abbreviations

Avoids wasted words
• A study of . . . / An investigation of . . . / Observations
on . . .
• A, an, and the (at the beginning of the title)
2) The Abstract

Summarizes the purpose of the study, the
methods, the results, and the significance of the
results

Is a single paragraph that stands alone

Is written in complete sentences
• Usually devotes one sentence each to purpose, methods,
results, and significance
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Reason for writing – What is the importance of the research?
Why would the reader be interested in the work?
Problem – What problem does this work attempt to solve?
Methodology – What models or approaches were used in the
study?
Results – What specific data help us to understand the results
of the project?
Implications – How does this work add to the body
of knowledge on the topic?
Sample Abstract
This study was undertaken to determine the wavelengths of light
that are most effective in promoting photosynthesis in the aquatic
plant Elodea canadensis since some wavelengths are generally more
effective than others. Rate of photosynthesis was determined at
25ºC, using wavelengths of 400, 450, 500, 550, 600, 650, and 700
nm and measuring the rate of oxygen production for 1-h periods at
each wavelength. Oxygen production was estimated from the rate of
bubble production by the submerged plant. We tested 4 plants at
each wavelength. The rate of oxygen production at 450 nm
(approximately 2.5 ml O₂/mg wet weight of plant/h) was nearly 1.5x
greater than that at any other wavelength tested, suggesting that
light of this wavelength (blue) is most readily absorbed by the
chlorophyll pigments. In contrast, light of 550 nm (green) produced
no detectable photosynthesis, suggesting that light of this
wavelength is reflected rather than absorbed by the chlorophyll.
(from Jan A. Pechenik, A Short Guide to Writing about Biology, 2010)

References to other works

Information not contained in the report itself

Definitions of terms
HINT: For more sample abstracts,
take a look at journals in your field.
Section
Purpose
Answers these
questions
Introduction
Explains central question
Gives context for the
investigation
Cites any relevant literature
Names chosen approach
States primary results
What did you do?
Why did you do it?
Who else has done related
work?
How did you do it?
What happened?
Materials and Methods
Details the experimental
procedure step by step
How could someone else
replicate your experiment?
Results
Reports, in detail, the results of
the investigation
What actually happened?
Discussion
Comments on the significance
of the results
Suggests refinements,
applications
Offers possibilities for further
study
Did the experiment do what you
expected it to? Why or why not?
How might the experiment be
improved or adapted?
What next?
3) The introduction


introduces the topic and conveys why it is
important or interesting
provides a short review of relevant, current
research
• also explains any theories or formulas readers need
to know

is sometimes understood as a miniliterature review OR a mini-essay that leads
up to your statement of purpose
A good introduction also clearly states
the objective of the experiment.
Example:
The purpose of this experiment was to
identify the specific element in a metal
powder sample by determining its crystal
structure and atomic radius. These
were determined using the DebyeSherrer (powder camera) method of
X-ray diffraction.
HINT: The objective can appear
at the beginning or end of the introduction.
general statement  more specific statements specific
research objectives
Example: It is well known that plants can use sunlight as an energy
source for carbon fixation (Ellmore and Reed 1993). However, all
wavelengths of light need not be equally effective in promoting such
photosynthesis. Indeed, the green coloration of most leaves
suggests that wavelengths of approximately 550 nm are reflected
rather than absorbed so that this wavelength would not be expected
to produce much carbon fixation by green plants.
During photosynthesis, oxygen is liberated in proportion to the
rate at which carbon dioxide is fixed (Ellmore and Reed 1993). Thus,
relative rates of photosynthesis can be determined either by
monitoring rates of oxygen production or by monitoring rates of
carbon dioxide uptake. In this experiment, we monitored rates of
oxygen production to test the hypothesis that wavelengths of light
differ in their ability to promote carbon fixation by the aquatic plant
Elodea canadensis.
(Pechenik 2010)
The essential elements:
◦ Which materials and equipment did you use?
 Be as detailed as possible.
◦ How did you physically set up the experiment?
◦ What was the experimental design?
 e.g., treatments, controls, etc.
◦ What was the step-by-step process of the
experiment?
Remember: Readers must be able to replicate your
experiment based on this information.
5) Results

includes several sentences that summarize the
results of the study



(also known as Observations or
Measurements)
a description of what happened
Start with the most important finding, and then move on to
secondary ones.
includes figure(s), graph(s), and/or table(s)
5
Series 1
Series 2
0
Series 3
A
B
C
D
DOs:


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Do use the past
tense.
Do write in full
sentences, not point
form.
Do use charts/graphs
when possible.
Do avoid redundancy
between text and
graphs.
DON’Ts:
o
o
o
o
Don’t omit any relevant
results.
Don’t include irrelevant
results.
Don’t include any
references.
Don’t forget axis labels
and units.
Example:
Each time we subjected sample A to this pressure,
we heard a loud explosion inside the anvil. Despite
this, we were able to recover the entire samples,
which were still surrounded by their pyrophilite
rings. They were disk-shaped, with a diameter 1mm
and height 0.1 mm. They were brittle, and cracked
and broke with handling, giving rise to faces with
sharp dendrites. The samples became transparent,
with an amber or reddish-brown hue. A small
amount of black powder remained on the surface
and on the boundary of the pyrophilite sample.
(from David Porush, A Short Guide to Writing about Science, 1995)
6) Discussion




analyzes/interprets the results of the
study; provides possible explanations
suggests sources of errors and how the
experiment could be improved
provides support from sources
may suggest how the experiment could be
applied
Example 1: The discrimination of worker bees against
worker-laid eggs could result from three possible
factors: the workers somehow “knew” the relatedness of
eggs; they preferred queen-laid over worker-laid eggs;
or they detected colony odors despite the double screen
we used to separate them.
(Pechenik 2010)
Example 2: Since none of the samples reacted to the
Silver foil test, therefore sulfide, if present at all, does
not exceed a concentration of approximately 0.025 g/l.
It is therefore unlikely that the water main pipe was the
result of sulfide-induced corrosion.
(from “The Lab Report,” Writing at the University of Toronto website)
One possible arrangement of the Discussion:
1) Discuss your most significant result and the accuracy of your
hypothesis in the first paragraph.
2) Analyze the data.
3) Explain problems in the data or suggest improvements to
your experimental process.
4) Make conclusions with regard to your hypothesis.
5) Create connections between your conclusions and larger
issues.
An example of how to explain problems in the data:
Although the water samples were received on 14 August 2012,
testing could not be started until 10 September 2012. It is normally
desirable to test as quickly as possible after sampling in order to
avoid potential sample contamination. The effect of the delay is
unknown.
(“The Lab Report”)
Making good use of other studies
in the Discussion
•
•
To integrate sources effectively, be sure
that the studies you use are relevant to
your experiment.
Use citations, not quotations, when you
are referring to others’ research.
Example: I find the small number of species represented
in our sample surprising, since the pond is fed by
several streams that might be expected to introduce a
variety of different species into it, assuming that the
streams are not polluted. It appears that the conditions
in the pond at the time of our sampling were especially
suitable for one species in particular out of all those
that are most likely to have access to it. Perhaps the
physical nature of the pond is such that the number of
niches is small, in which case competition would
become very keen; only one species can occupy a given
niche at any one time (Ricklefs and Miller 2000). The
reproductive pattern of the fishes might also contribute
to the observed results. Possibly Lepomis macrochirus,
the dominant species, lays more eggs than the others,
or perhaps the young of this species survive better, or
prey on the young of other species.
(Pechenik 2010)
7) Conclusion

may or may not be included in the report
•
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
If not, put this information in a short summary
paragraph at the end of the Discussion.
provides an answer to the problem raised
in the Introduction
concisely restates the result (i.e., what you
know) with a brief justification
8) References
Some tips for handling references
 Always acknowledge sources of specific information
with citations in the text of your report and
references at the end.

General knowledge = material discussed in class
 Doesn’t need to be cited

Avoid paraphrasing the source too closely: use your
own words.
Referencing Styles
In-text references:
 The name-and-year system
• (Semple and Messenger 2005).

The alphabet-number system:
 numbers each reference in an alphabetical list



. . . attributed to cardio-pulmonary distress⁷.
. . . attributed to cardio-pulmonary distress [7].
The citation-order system:
• Numbers each reference sequentially
•
•
1 = first reference in the report, 2 = second, . . .
In-text references look like the alphabet-number system above.
The References page
provides the full
publication information for the source.
Semple I, Messenger D. 2004. False positives
for the defibrillator: the effects of stress on
cardio-pulmonary distress in emergency room
patients. Emergent care. 201(3): 147-156.
Tips on documentation:



Check with your instructor or TA to find out
the required style.
If no particular style is required, use a
source’s References page as a guide.
Above all, be consistent.
Strategies that work
Section
Purpose
Answers these
questions
Introduction
Explains central question
Gives context for the
investigation
Cites any relevant literature
Names chosen approach
States primary results
What did you do?
Why did you do it?
Who else has done related
work?
How did you do it?
What happened?
Materials and Methods
Details the experimental
procedure step by step
How could someone else
replicate your experiment?
Results
Reports, in detail, the results
of the investigation
What actually happened?
Discussion
Comments on the significance
of the results
Suggests refinements,
applications
Offers possibilities for further
study
Did the experiment do what
you expected it to? Why or
why not?
How might the experiment be
improved or adapted?
What next?
(from James Hanmer,
http://jwhanmer.blogspot.ca/2009/11/mindmap.html)
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
You don’t have to start with the Abstract and
work straight through to the Conclusions.
A more effective model
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Materials and Methods
Results
Introduction
Discussion
Conclusions
Abstract
(from Margot Northey and Patrick von Aderkas, Making Sense: Life Sciences, 2011)
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

¼ to ¾ of a double-spaced page (with some
variations)
best to avoid short transitional paragraphs
Each paragraph must have a single controlling
idea.
◦ works best as the topic (first) sentence of the paragraph
◦ Example: Two standards were used to measure these
changes.
REMEMBER: 1 paragraph = 1 idea
Transitions needed:
The energy needs of a resting sea otter are 3 times those of
terrestrial animals of comparable size. The sea otter must eat
about 25% of its body weight daily. Sea otters feed at night as well
as during the day.
(Pechenik 2010)
With transitions:
The energy needs of a resting sea otter are 3 times those of
terrestrial animals of comparable size. To support such a high
metabolic rate, the sea otter must eat about 25% of its body
weight daily. Moreover, sea otters feed continually, at night as
well as during the day.
HINT: Don’t put a transition to a new idea
at the end of a paragraph.
Identify and revise organizational problems in
this paragraph:
Singer and Nicolson found, in 1972, that cell membranes are
composed of a lipid bilayer in which proteins are randomly
distributed. Scientists discovered that biomembranes have
heterogeneous regions called microdomains or rafts. Clusters of
sphingolipids and cholesterol typify these zones. Cell membranes
have been the subject of much research for many decades. But
developments in the field since Singer and Nicolson’s discovery in
1972 are even more significant.
(based on a sample in Northey and von Aderkas 2011)
One possible revision:
Researchers have studied cell membranes for
many decades (topic sentence). In 1972, Singer and
Nicolson found that cell membranes are composed
of a lipid bilayer in which proteins are randomly
distributed (transitional phrase). Later, biochemists
discovered that biomembranes have heterogeneous
regions called microdomains or rafts, typified by
clusters of sphingolipids and cholesterol (transitional
word, more precise subject, combined sentences).
But developments in the field since Singer and
Nicolson’s discovery in 1972 are even more
significant. . . . (transition moved to start of new
paragraph)
And how to apply them

You may not be allowed to use the firstperson pronouns “I” and “we.”
 HINT: Always check with your marker.

Learn how and when to use the passive
voice.
 Active: The researcher diluted the samples with 100 ml of
H20.
 Passive: The samples were diluted with 100 ml of H20.
 HINT: Some experts recommend the passive voice for
Materials and Methods and Results, but not for the
Introduction, Discussion, or Conclusions.
Avoid generalizations.
 Focus on the particular study at hand.
Avoid vague language.
 NOT “Several of the rods got very cold.”
 BUT “Twenty of the rods cooled to -20º C.”


Use plain language to support jargon and
discipline-specific vocabulary.
Avoid wordiness and elaborate expressions.
◦ NOT “make an assumption” BUT “assume”
◦ NOT “at this point in time” BUT “now”

Limit use of noun clusters.
◦ NOT experiment plan revision summary
◦ BUT summary of the revised experiment plan

Allow for a degree of uncertainty.

Avoid definitive conclusions.
◦ Results “suggest,” “indicate,” or “are significant.”
◦ Results do NOT “prove,” “show,” or “demonstrate.”

Avoid using the overly familiar and informal
personal pronoun you.
You can see . . .  Smith’s findings suggest that . . .

Avoid contractions in formal writing.
can’t  cannot
isn’t  is not
doesn’t  does not

Avoid colloquialisms (informal language).
a lot of  many
does a good job  effectively
sass.queensu.ca/writingcentre/
613.533.6315
Queen’s Learning Commons
Main Floor, Stauffer Library
Upcoming Writing Centre Workshops
 Writing Effective Thesis Statements
Oct. 9, 1:30-2:20 p.m., Stauffer 121
 Constructing Clear and Focused Paragraphs
Oct. 23, 2:30-3:20 p.m., Stauffer 121
 Using Sources Effectively and Avoiding Plagiarism
Oct. 29, 10:30-11:20 a.m., Stauffer 121
 Perfectionism in Writing
Nov. 14, 11:30 a.m.-12:20 p.m., Stauffer 121
This workshop makes use of material from the
following sources:
•
•
•
•
•
Hanmer, James, http://jwhanmer.blogspot.ca
/2009/11/mindmap.html
“The Lab Report,” Writing at the University of
Toronto website, www.writing.utoronto.ca
Northey, Margot and Patrick von Aderkas, Making
Sense: Life Sciences, 2011
Pechenik, Jan A., A Short Guide to Writing about
Biology, 2010
Porush, David, A Short Guide to Writing about
Science, 1995