A Comparison and Contrast of Jesus and Muhammad
Introduction
One of the key premises of the Quran is to respect God (Allah) and conform to the
words of His messenger, who Muslims believe to be the Prophet Muhammad. Quran
33:21: Indeed in the Messenger of Allâh you have a good example to follow for him who
hopes for (the Meeting with) Allâh and the Last Day, and remembers Allâh much. For
Muslims, The Prophet Muhammad is the last prophet of Allah and the paradigmatic
figure of the Islamic faith. For this reason the studying of the life and actions of
Muhammad is a quintessential component of Muslim life. However, like the search for
the Historical Jesus, it is very difficult for Islamic scholars to completely isolate
Muhammad from the array of cultural myths, miracles, and presuppositions that surround
him as a religious figure. According to Ibn Ishaq's Sirat Rasul Allah:
Behind the legendary Muhammad there lies one of the great figures of history, and,
although very little is known about his early years – the first certain date being that of the
migration from Mecca to Medina, which took place in AD 622 – it is possible to build up
the events of his real, as distinct from his symbolic life. 1
The most primitive of written information about the life of the Prophet Muhammad are
found within the Qur’an. However, other than the incidental allusions to and hidden data
about his life, the Qur’an itself gives very little detailed information about the behavior
and life of Muhammad. Within this paper I will compare and contrast the stories of
Muhammad and Jesus by examining the writings of the New Testament Gospels, Fred
Donner, and the English translations of the oldest surviving biographies of the Prophet
that were written by Ibn Ishaq. The paper will survey differing interpretations,
perspectives, and reoccurring themes in both Muhammad and Jesus’ personal, cultural,
and historical narratives while taking into account the hearsay that surrounds them.
The Basic Narratives of the Prophet Muhammad and Jesus
The earliest surviving biography of the Prophet Muhammad is a two-part recession
written by Ibn Ishaq. Ishaq was a devote Muslim who lived from 704-767 AD. Although
the biography no longer exists in its original form, it is respected as one of the closets
depictions of the prophet because it was written just one hundred and twenty to one
hundred and thirty years after the death of the Prophet. Ibn Ishaq used a collection of
written oral traditions and anecdotes to form Muhammad’s first biography, which is
usually called the Sirat Rasul Allah ("Life of God's Messenger").
Before we directly confront the actual prophetic narrative, I want to discuss the
methodology of Ibn Ishaq’s writing. Ibn Ishaq is known for his chronological
arrangement of Muhammad’s life that centers on the periods prior to, during, and after
the Prophet’s revelation. He writes with a sense of Islamic superiority, especially when it
comes to describing Muhammad’s call that was greatly influenced by Judaism and
Christianity.
It is also valuable to note that Ibn Hisham has heavily edited the current editions
that we have of Ibn Ishaq’s biography of Muhammad. Hisham chose to omit the writings
1Ibn
Ishaq's Sirat Rasul Allah; translated by Michael Edwards, The Life of Muhammad (London,
1964), pp. 32
Comment [JB1]: Iwasgladthat
thisclassallowedyoutofinally
makethecomparisonyouhad
wantedtodobasedonsome
earlierstudiesandclasses.
Comment [JB2]: Butasyounote,
nottheonlyone.
Comment [JB3]: Thisofcourse
comesmuchlaterwiththehadith
literature.
Comment [JB4]: AsIoftenwrite,
Isometimesdon’twantalotof
commentsonthosesectionofa
paperthataregoodsummariesof
historicalorhermeneutical
questionwhenIthinktheyare
welldone,astheyarehere.
Comment [JB5]: Justasthe
ChristiandidfortheJewsandthe
Baha’ishavedoneinturnfor
Islam.
in the original biography that were not supported by the Qur’an. However, within these
narrative changes there exists a large quantity of contradictions that neither Ibn Ishaq’s
nor Ibn Hisham sought to reconcile. The composers/editors are apparently not bothered
by their contradictions. For instance, Ibn Ishaq writes about the conversion of Umar Ibn
al-Khattad in two different accounts one right after the other. The two stories are
mutually exclusive and Ibn Ishaq does not even comment on their blatant contradictions
towards each other. 2 In many ways these contradictions are also rooted in the Ibn Ishaq’s
need to mystify the prophetic figure. Fred Donner, an Islamic scholar and Professor of
Near Eastern History at the University of Chicago, responds to the contradictions in Ibn
Ishaq miracle writings with the following statement:
The vast ocean of traditional accounts from which the preceding brief sketch of
Muhammad’s life is distilled contains so many contradictions and so much dubious
storytelling that many historians have become reluctant to accept any of it at face value.
There are for example, an abundance of miracle stories and other reports that seem
obviously to belong to the realm of legend, such as an episode similar to the “feeding the
multitudes” story in Christian legends about Jesus. The chronology of this traditional
material about Muhammad, moreover, is not only vague and confused, but also bears
telltale signs of having been shaped by a concern for numerological symbolism. 3
In Ibn Ishaq’s writings, the stories of the Muhammad figure are arranged and
written in an apologetic form because it proves that He was the greatest and last of God’s
prophets. His writing validate the Prophet’s divine nature with his supernatural
abilities/miracles and even his mother’s prenatal experiences. Ibn Ishaq’s version of the
Muhammad biography portrays the prophet in a variety of ways. For instance, (1) he is
depicted as a man of honesty because of his strategy towards the rebuilding of the
Ka’bah; (2) there are several accounts that portray him as a warrior i.e. the Battles of
Badr and Uhud; (3) and finally, but most importantly, he is portrayed as a prophet whose
prophetic career begins at the age of forty. 4 This is the where Donner’s and Ibn Ishaq’s
portrayals of the prophet Muhammad differ greatly. Donner’s account is a “very
condensed summary of the traditional biography of Muhammad, setting aside those
reports that are clearly legendary”. 5 For Donner, the main issue with the Ibn Ishaq’s text
is that it is a mystified account of the prophet’s personal narrative that was not written
during his actual era but centuries later. 6
Although one would like to think that Ibn Ishaq’s account is without controversy
because of its time-honored historic value, there are those who challenge its depictions.
For instance, while the Qur’an itself seems to reject the need to prove such a claim, i.e.
Q2: 23; 29: 50, it is believed that Ibn Ishaq may have written his works during a time
2Donner, Fred. Muhammad and the Believers: At the Origins of Islam. Cambridge, Mass: The Belknap
Press of Harvard University Press, 2010. Pp. 51.
3Donner, Fred. Muhammad and the Believers: At the Origins of Islam. Cambridge, Mass: The Belknap
Press of Harvard University Press, 2010. Pp. 51.
4Ibn Ishaq's Sirat Rasul Allah; translated by Michael Edwards, The Life of Muhammad (London, 1964),
pp. 18.
5
Donner, Fred. Muhammad and the Believers: At the Origins of Islam. Cambridge, Mass: The Belknap
Press of Harvard University Press, 2010. Pp. 39.
6
Donner, Fred. Muhammad and the Believers: At the Origins of Islam. Cambridge, Mass: The Belknap
Press of Harvard University Press, 2010. Pp. 50.
Comment [JB6]: Aconsistent
featureofIslamicscholarship:the
Qur’analwayscomesfistand
foremost.
Comment [JB7]: MyMuslim
friendsalwaystherealmiracleof
Islamistherevelationofthe
Qur’anitself.
Comment [JB8]: Thebattlesover
thehadithliteraturehasgoneon
forthewholehistoryofIslamic
scholarship.
when Christian criticisms of Muhammad was at an all-time high. Many original texts
about Muhammad “offer miracle stories or improbable idealizations and seem to belong
to the realm of legend or religious apologetic”. 7 This is just one way of viewing Ibn
Ishaq’s writings, but it is not intended to devalue its sacredness to Muslim believers. In
the words of Michael Edwards:
The miraculous is always present and is given the same weight as mundane descriptions
of the prophet’s actions. Because tales of miracles may be unacceptable today, this does
not mean that other parts of the biography are untrustworthy. The facts are there, and the
miraculous is that essential embroidery of faith, which the life of no religious leader –
from Christ to the Buddha – is without. 8
This mystification of the prophet continues throughout the Ibn Ishaq narrative. It
can particularly be seen in his version of Muhammad’s birth. Parallel to the Matthew
narratives of Jesus, and many other messianic narratives of that age, the mother of
Muhammad became aware of her pregnancy by way of a vision. During this supernatural
experience, a declaration was made to her by a divine being saying, “Thou art pregnant
with the prince of this nation. When he is born on this earth, thou must say, ‘I place him
under the protection of the only One, from the wickedness of every envious person.’ And
thou must name him Muhammad.” 9 On the night that Muhammad was born, a Jew
standing on a roof said: “This night the star has risen, under which the apostle is born.” 10
After which, Muhammad’s mother sends out words, to his father, that: “An infant is born
to you; come and see him.” 11 A large portion of Muhammad’s narrative is similar to that
of the birth narrative of Jesus. For instance, like the narrative of Muhammad, in Luke and
Mathew Mary is told of her pregnancy by an angelic figure. According to Matthew 1:21
the angel said “and you shall call his name Jesus, for he will save his people from their
sins.” Additionally, there was a host of angels appearing to shepherds and the star of
Bethlehem guiding them bringing gifts to Mary and the infant Christ. It could be argued
that the parts of Muhammad narrative that are likened unto the story of Jesus are strategic
efforts made by Ibn Ishaq to mystify the prophet. If such a hypothesis were true, such
would have intentionally intercepted an idea of divineness into the minds of Islamic
believers who were reading the sacred texts to learn about the Prophet.
According to Ibn Ishaq’s account, these miraculous experiences continued
throughout Muhammad’s childhood. According to one particular story, Muhammad and
his brother were tending to their father’s sheep behind their tents when the young prophet
fainted. His brother ran for help saying that something was wrong with Muhammad.
When Muhammad’s mother asked what was wrong, Muhammad, “standing up with a
livid face” said, “Two men in white raiment came and threw me down and opened my
7
Donner, Fred. Muhammad and the Believers: At the Origins of Islam. Cambridge, Mass: The Belknap
Press of Harvard University Press, 2010. Pp. 39.
8
Ibn Ishaq's Sirat Rasul Allah; translated by Michael Edwards, The Life of Muhammad (London, 1964),
pp. 12.
9
Ibn Ishaq's Sirat Rasul Allah; translated by Michael Edwards, The Life of Muhammad (London, 1964),
pp. 17.
10
Ibn Ishaq's Sirat Rasul Allah; translated by Michael Edwards, The Life of Muhammad (London, 1964),
pp. 17.
11
Ibn Ishaq's Sirat Rasul Allah; translated by Michael Edwards, The Life of Muhammad (London, 1964),
pp. 18.
Comment [JB9]: True;just
becauseweliveinatimeand
culturethatdoesnottreasure
miracles,thishasnotalwaysbeen
thecase.
Comment [JB10]: Makessense
tome,butthenIammodern
scholarswhobelievesthattexts
arealwayspartoftheirhistorical
context.
belly and searched therein for I know not what.” His father said, “I’m afraid that this
child has had a stroke.” Muhammad’s mother asked her other son if he feared that a
demon had possessed Muhammad and he answered yes. Muhammad’s mother replied
“no demon had any power over her son who had a great future before him” 12 Similarly,
there are also narratives, like those of Ibn Ishaq’s accounts of the experiences of
Muhammad’s childhood, where Jesus’ childhood is also accounted for.
One of the ideas that both Ibn Ishaq and Fred Donner seem to agree with is the
notion that Muhammad’s religious ideology was likely influenced by Meccan culture.
“Mecca was a town whose inhabitants were heavily involved in two activities: commerce
and religion”. 13 It is thought that Muhammad was probably a merchant of some sort. He
managed his wife’s “caravan trading ventures”. 14 The tribe of Quraysh organized various
trading fairs, which made Muhammad’s surroundings a sort of religious melting pot. In
addition to organizing these fairs:
The Quraysh tribe’s role as stewards of Mecca’s religious rituals, centered on the Ka’ba
and other holy sites around Mecca, also gave them contacts with many groups who came
to the Ka’ba to do their devotions there, particularly by performing ritual
circumambulations in the open area surrounding it. 15
Like, Ibn Ishaq’s writings that attempt to mystify the Muhammad figure in an
apologetical form, some scholars believe that the writers and composers of the New
Testament likewise mystified the messianic figure Jesus for the same reasons. For the
sake of brevity in proving this point I would like to centralize my examination of Jesus on
the Gospel according to Matthew. Matthew is a unique gospel account because it seeks to
establish, as its premise, the claim that in Jesus Christ, God dwells among the people and
eventually the New Testament Church. These claims can be seen in passages like: 1.23;
16.16 and 28.20. According to the Oxford Annotated Bible, “The purpose of its message
is to summon the reader or hearer to perceive that God is uniquely present in Jesus and to
become Jesus' disciple”. 16 The premise of proving that Jesus was in fact the unique
presence of God on earth begins with the genealogical connection that traces the line of
Abraham, the symbolic father of Israel, down to Jesus himself. Throughout its chapters,
the gospel of Matthew spends a great deal of time on the teachings of Jesus. Matthew
often expands the Markan miracle stories. 17 The other feature that contrasts Matthew's
style to that of Mark’s is that his commentary is more precise in its rabbinic quality than
12
Ibn Ishaq's Sirat Rasul Allah; translated by Michael Edwards, The Life of Muhammad (London, 1964),
pp. 20.
13
Donner, Fred. Muhammad and the Believers: At the Origins of Islam. Cambridge, Mass: The Belknap
Press of Harvard University Press, 2010. Pp. 40.
14
Donner, Fred. Muhammad and the Believers: At the Origins of Islam. Cambridge, Mass: The Belknap
Press of Harvard University Press, 2010. Pp. 40.
15
Donner, Fred. Muhammad and the Believers: At the Origins of Islam. Cambridge, Mass: The Belknap
Press of Harvard University Press, 2010. Pp. 40.
16
Jack Dean Kingsbury "Matthew, The Gospel According to” The Oxford Companion to the Bible. Bruce
M. Metzger and Michael D. Coogan, eds. Oxford University Press Inc. 1993. Oxford Reference Online.
Oxford University Press. Harvard University Library. 1 May
2011 <http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html?subview=Main&entry=t120.e0470
17
Wansbrough, Henry . "The Four Gospels in Synopsis." In The Oxford Bible Commentary. Oxford
Biblical Studies Online. 01-May-2011. <http://www.oxfordbiblicalstudies.com/article/book/obso9780198755005/obso-9780198755005-div1-402>.
Comment [JB11]: Andhedid
marryawomanwhowasa
merchant.
Comment [JB12]: Abetterchoice
thanJohn—justtryingalittle
humorthere.Math.‘sgospeldoes
havealotofthismaterialtosay
theleast.
many of the other gospels. 18 It was written for a community of Christian-Jews like those
at Antioch.
According to Mark Powell, the Robert and Phyllis Leatherman Professor of New
Testament at Trinity Lutheran Seminary in Columbus, Ohio, “Matthew’s implied readers
are expected to regard whatever the narrator says as reliable”. 19 Powell substantiates his
claim with the argument that by Matthew telling the account of Jesus’ birth, the reader is
suppose to believe that “Joseph is indeed a righteous man as the text says that he is”. 20
The technique that Matthew uses to recount the birth narrative would suggest and cause
the reader to believe, just as Ibn Ishap‘s writings would about Muhammad, that Jesus was
indeed the unique presence of God. “Matthew's Christology is theocentric, presenting
God's rule as manifest in the life of Jesus as an alternative to the sovereignty and power
of this-worldly rulers”. 21 Matthew also believed that Jesus was the fulfillment of Jewish
scripture and that he was the foretold messianic figure. According to the Oxford Bible
Commentary:
Matthew sees the message of Jesus as bringing the teaching of Judaism to completion.
Thus on twelve occasions he shows Jesus acting ‘in order to fulfill’ the scripture (1:23;
2:6; 15, 18, 23; 4:15–16; 8:17; 12:18–21; 13:35; 21:5; 26:56; 27:9–10 ) as though with no
other motive for action. He sees the miracles of Jesus as the fulfillment of Isa 61 (Mt
8:17; 11:5–6) and the resurrection of Jesus as the sign of Jonah (Mt 12:39; 16:4 , whereas
Mk 8:12 misses this significance, saying that no sign will be given). He sees Jesus as the
new Moses, reflecting Moses' career in his infancy (this is the chief theme of Mt 2), in his
lawgiving (Mt 5:1), and in his final charge on the mountain (Mt 28:16 ). Consequentially,
the people of Jesus form the new Israel, replacing the old. In Mt 16:18 ‘my church’ (or
more exactly ‘my community/congregation’) mirrors the people whom God called to
himself in the desert, and they are the nation to which the kingdom will be given when it
is taken away from the unresponsive tenants (22:43). The repeated promise of his
presence among them (1:18; 18:20; 28:20) corresponds to the presence of God among the
people of Israel. 22
The excessive apologetic discourse used by Matthew to demonstrate and validate the
divinity of Jesus was important because “Scholarly opinion holds that the church for
which Matthew was written was made up of Christians of both Jewish and gentile
origin”. 23 The message and story of Jesus needed defending because the church, which
18
Wansbrough, Henry. "The Four Gospels in Synopsis." In The Oxford Bible Commentary. Oxford Biblical
Studies Online. 01-May-2011. <http://www.oxfordbiblicalstudies.com/article/book/obso9780198755005/obso-9780198755005-div1-402>.
19
Powell, Mark A. Chasing the Eastern Star: Adventures in Biblical Reader-Response Criticism,
Louisville: Westminster John Knox 2001.
20
Powell, Mark A. Chasing the Eastern Star: Adventures in Biblical Reader-Response Criticism,
Louisville: Westminster John Knox 2001.
21Boring, M. Eugene. "Matthew's Narrative Christology: Three Stories." Interpretation (Richmond, Va.)
64.4 (2010): 356-367. Humanities Full Text (H.W. Wilson). Web. 6 Dec. 2011.
22
Wansbrough, Henry. "The Four Gospels in Synopsis." In The Oxford Bible Commentary. Oxford Biblical
Studies Online. 01-May-2011. <http://www.oxfordbiblicalstudies.com/article/book/obso9780198755005/obso-9780198755005-div1-402>.
23
Jack Dean Kingsbury "Matthew, The Gospel According to” The Oxford Companion to the Bible. Bruce
M. Metzger and Michael D. Coogan, eds. Oxford University Press Inc. 1993. Oxford Reference Online.
Oxford University Press. Harvard University Library. 1 May
would have been the primary readers of Matthew, were living in extremely hostile
environments that were full of religious and social tension. 24 The imagery that Matthew
uses to describe Jesus not only validates the purpose of Matthew’s writings about Jesus,
but it also validates the actions of Jesus. Matthew's Christology promotes its premise by
utilizing a plurality of titles that have “an obvious focus on royal titles: Christ, king, and
son of David are dearly in this category, and both Son of God and Son of Man have royal
overtones elaborated in Matthew's narrative.” 25 This proves that Jesus was indeed
mystified by writers and composers of the New Testament just as Muhammad was by the
writings of Ibn Ishaq.
One of the advantages to the Muhammad narratives is that they give a great deal of
information about how the Prophet developed into a great thinker. This is one of the
disadvantages of the Christ narrative in the Bible. Other than the fact that he was a Jew
and visited the synagogue once when he was twelve, the Bible give very little insight on
where and what Jesus learned or his affiliations that could have influenced his
viewpoints. Even in the story about Jesus’ visit to the temple as a boy the reader is not
afforded the opportunity to see Jesus learning but rather we only see him teaching.
According to Donner, Muhammad entered into the commercial and cultic life of Mecca at
an early age. After marrying a wealthy and older widow, Khadija, he gained great respect
amongst his Quraysh associates. Unlike many of the other merchants of his time,
Muhammad did not spend the majority of his time trading with the Jews, Christians, or
other traders passing though the community. Instead, he saw being a merchant as a
chance for him to listen and learn from the religious traditions of others. Muhammad
would spend hours contemplating and comparing the religious views of others against his
own tradition. Because of his level of respect for religious diversity, even at that stage in
his life he was revered and most known for his unusual level of astuteness and rectitude.
Muhammad was extremely spiritual and clear about his understanding of moral authority.
“He also began to feel a periodic need for meditation and took to secluding himself now
and then in order to contemplate his life”. 26 Because of the influence that the Jews and
Christians had on him coupled with his experiences with Arabian ancestral polytheism,
Muhammad started having strange dreams and bright visions. One of the visions caused
him to dedicate his life to the work of Allah. According to Ibn Ishaq:
One day, Muhammad said that while he was sleeping, Gabriel came to him with
something that had writing on it, and said, “Read!” According to Muhammad, “I said,
‘What shall I read?’ He pressed me with it so tightly that I thought it was death; then he
let me go and said, ‘Read!’ I said, ‘What shall I read?’ He pressed me with it again so
that I thought it was death; then he let me go and said ‘Read!’ I said, ‘what shall I read?”
He pressed me with it the third time so that I thought it was death and said, “Read!’ I
said, ‘what then shall I read? —And this I said only to deliver myself from him, lest he
would do the same to me again. He said, “Read in the name of thy Lord who created,
who created man of blood coagulated. Read! Thy Lord is most beneficent, who taught by
24
Jack Dean Kingsbury "Matthew, The Gospel According to” The Oxford Companion to the Bible. Bruce
M. Metzger and Michael D. Coogan, eds. Oxford University Press Inc. 1993. Oxford Reference Online.
Oxford University Press. Harvard University Library. 1 May
25
Boring, M. Eugene. "Matthew's Narrative Christology: Three Stories." Interpretation (Richmond, Va.)
64.4 (2010): 356-367. Humanities Full Text (H.W. Wilson). Web. 6 Dec. 2011.
26
Donner, Fred. Muhammad and the Believers: At the Origins of Islam. Cambridge, Mass: The Belknap
Press of Harvard University Press, 2010. Pp. 40.
Comment [JB13]: Again,good
summariesofimportantdatafor
yourargumentandalsoaboutthe
hostileenvironmentthatprobably
causetheauthor/stousethiskind
ofnarrative.
Comment [JB14]: Likethe
BuddhaandConfuciushedidlivea
lotlongerthanJesus.Thishelps
suchnarrativesalot.
Comment [JB15]: Agoodpoint
thatIhadnotreallythoughtabout
butshould.
the pen, Taught that which they knew not unto men.’ So I read it and he departed from
me. And I awoke from my sleep, and it was as though these words were written on my
heart...When I was midway on the mountain, I heard a voice from heaven saying, "O
Muhammad! Thou are the apostle of God and I am Gabriel." I raised my head towards
heaven to see, and lo, Gabriel in the form of a man with feet astride the horizon, saying,
"O Muhammad! Thou art the apostle of God and I am Gabriel." I stood gazing at him,
moving neither forward or backward; then I began to turn my face away from him, but
towards whatever region of the sky I looked, I saw him as before. 27
After this experience with Gabriel, Muhammad’s theology changed significantly. He
“began to preach publicly the message that was being revealed to him: the oneness of
God, the reality of the Last Judgment, and the need for pious and God-fearing
behavior”. 28 His earliest followers were his relatives, wife, and people from theologically
feeble clans of Quraysh and “marginal social groups”. 29
When the apostle began to spread Islam among his people as Allah had commanded him,
they did not gainsay him until he began to abuse their idols; but when he had done this,
they accused him of seeking power, denied his revelation, and united to injure him.
...Several nobles of the Quraysh, including Utba and Abu Sufyan, went to Abu Talib and
said, 'your nephew has insulted our gods and condemned our religion. He considers our
young men to be fools, and our fathers to have erred. You must either restrain him or
allow us free action against him, since your religion is the same as ours, opposed to his.'
But the apostle continued to preach the religion of Allah and to seek conversions, and
the people hated him. 30
This spiritual experience takes place while he is meditating in a cave in the month of
Ramadan. Ibn says: “Every year the Apostle of Allah spent a month praying at Hira and
fed the poor who came to him; and when he returned to Mecca he walked round the Kaba
seven or more times, as it pleased Allah, before entering his own house”. 31 Ibn uses this
story to convey the message that Muhammad was called to preach/prophesy to the
citizens of Mecca, about being prepared for the Day of Judgment.
HEALINGS
Unlike Jesus, it is uncertain as to whether or not the Prophet Muhammad actually
performed healings and miracles. Muslims accept the idea of Jesus performing miracles
as a given fact because it is supported by the Qur’an. However, Muslims tend to disagree
on whether Muhammad performed miracles or not. The central conflict around this
subject matter has to do with the contradictions between the Qur’an and the hadith. The
hadith are the recorded teachings and actions of Muhammad and the Qur’an is
27
Ibn Ishaq's Sirat Rasul Allah; translated by Michael Edwards, The Life of Muhammad (London, 1964),
pp. 36.
28
Donner, Fred. Muhammad and the Believers: At the Origins of Islam. Cambridge, Mass: The Belknap
Press of Harvard University Press, 2010. Pp. 41.
29
Donner, Fred. Muhammad and the Believers: At the Origins of Islam. Cambridge, Mass: The Belknap
Press of Harvard University Press, 2010. Pp. 41.
30Ibn Ishaq's Sirat Rasul Allah; translated by Michael Edwards, The Life of Muhammad (London,
1964), pp. 18.
31Ibn Ishaq's Sirat Rasul Allah; translated by Michael Edwards, The Life of Muhammad (London,
1964), pp. 36.
Comment [JB16]: Againthereis
aparalleltoearlyChristianhistory
aswell.
Comment [JB17]: Inotedthis
above.
Muhammad’s documentation of the revelations that he had with the angel Gabriel. Thus,
since Muhammad did not have control over hadith it opens up his personal narrative for
his followers to contribute different dynamics that may or may not have been true. This
situation is quite similar to the quest for the historical Jesus. For the sake of brevity we
will not be able to examine all of Jesus’s accounts of healing and miracles but I have
included a brief overview in the form of a list.
• A man who was deaf and unable to talk (Mark 7:31-37 NRSV)
• A man with a shriveled hand (Matthew 12:9-13; Mark 3: 1-6; Luke 6:6-11 NRSV)
• A man with dropsy (or edema) (Luke 14:1-6 NRSV)
• A woman who was bent over and crippled (Luke 13:10-17 NRSV)
• An official's son who was dying (John 4:48-52 NRSV)
• Blind men (Matthew 9:32-34; 20:29-34; Mark 8:22-25; 10:46-52; John 9:1-38;
18:35-43)
• Calming the storm as he and the disciples crossed a lake (Matthew 8:23-27; Mark
4:35-41; Luke 8:22-25)
• Causing a fig tree to wither (Matthew 21:18-22; Mark 11: 20-25)
• Feeding crowds with small amounts of food (Matthew 14:13-21; 15:32-38; Mark
6:34-44; 8:1-9; Luke 9: 12-17; John 6:1-15)
• Fever of Peter's mother-in-law (Matt. 8:14-15; Mark 1: 29-3 1; Luke 4:38-39
NRSV)
• Finding money for taxes in the mouth of a fish (Matthew 17:24-28)
• Invalid at the Pool of Bethesda (John 5:1-15 NRSV)
• Large catches of fish (Luke 5:1-11; John 21:1-14)
• Men with leprosy (This disfiguring skin disease was often fatal.) (Matthew 8:1-4;
Mark 1:40-45; Luke 5: 12-19; 17:11-19)
• Paralyzed man (Matthew 9:1-8; Mark 2:1-12; Luke 5:18-26)
• Raised a ruler's daughter from the dead (Matthew 9: 18-26; Mark 5:21-43; Luke
8:40-56)
• Raised his friend Lazarus from the dead out of his grave (John 11:1-44 NRSV)
• Raised widow's son from the dead (Luke 7:11-17 NRSV)
• Restored the ear of the high priest's servant after Peter struck him with a sword
(Luke 22:49-51 NRSV)
• Roman army officer's sick servant (Matthew 8:5-13; Luke 7:2-10)
• Turning water into wine at a wedding (John 2:1-11)
• Walking on water during a storm (Matthew 14:22-33; Mark 6:45-52; John 6:16-21)
• Woman with menstrual problem (Matthew 9:20-22; Mark 5:24-34; Luke 8:43-48)
Unlike Muhammad, Jesus never wrote or documented anything about himself or his
ministry. The mystery around the life events of the two religious figures are similar
because there is also a great deal of concern in the academic study of the New Testament
pertaining to how much of the gospels are myth verses historical accounts. “In current
historical Jesus scholarship, an especially sharp divide centers on two issues: how best to
categorize the core of Jesus' speech, and how to understand the essential nature of the
narrative Gospels and what one can reasonably take as reliable historical reportage in
Comment [JB18]: Oneofthe
problemsforallthegreatreligious
leadersofanyage.Iknowthatthe
DaliLamaisalwaysamusedwhen
hehearsstoriesabouthisgreat
powers.OnceIheardhimsaythat
hehadenoughtrouble
rememberingwhathehadfor
breakfastmuchlesswhatwenton
inhispreviouslives.
Comment [JB19]: Againusefulto
remindusoftheimportantof
miraclesfortheChristian
narrative.
them.” 32 One of the more popular questions in the field is concerning the messianic
identity of Jesus. Most critical twentieth century scholarship will contend that Jesus did
not claim to be the Messiah. According to Michael F. Bird, lecturer in theological studies
at Bible College of Queensland in Toowong, Australia, Jesus did not use the title of
Messiah to describe himself. 33 This is an example of how the writers of the accounts of
both Jesus and Muhammad could apply any title or idea that they wanted on to the
figures, whether it was true or not.
Arguably, the gospels often used the narratives of Jesus working miracles as a form
of apologetics. For example, in Matthew 11:2-5 Jesus says that he performed miracles for
the sole purpose of revealing to people that he was the Son of God.
1 Now when Jesus had finished instructing his twelve disciples, he went on from there to
teach and proclaim his message in their cities. 2 When John heard in prison what the
Messiah was doing, he sent word by his disciples 3 and said to him, "Are you the one who
is to come, or are we to wait for another?" 4 Jesus answered them, "Go and tell John
what you hear and see: 5 the blind receive their sight, the lame walk, the lepers are
cleansed, the deaf hear, the dead are raised, and the poor have good news brought to
them. 6 And blessed is anyone who takes no offense at me." Matthew 11:2-5
Comment [JB20]: Whata
contestedfield.Oneofthereasons
IsometimeslikemyConfucian
studiesisthatwehavealotmore
earlyresourcescomparedtothe
Christiantexts.
Comment [JB21]: Walls,the
greatmissionscholar,hasargued
thatthetermChristwasfirstused
inAntiochtotranslatetheterm
MessiahintoGreekforthenon‐
Aramaicspeakersthere.
However, according to the Qur’an Muhammad, unlike Jesus, had no need to work
miracles to prove that he was indeed a prophet. According to Quran. Muhammad was to
tell people:
"The signs are only with Allah, and I am only a plain warner." Is it not sufficient for them
that We1 have sent down to you the Book (the Quran) which is recited to them?
SURAH 29:50-51
And if Allah touches you with harm, there is none who can remove it but He, and if He
intends any good for you, there is none who can repel His Favour which He causes it to
reach whomsoever of His slaves He wills.
SURAH 10:107
Muhammad: "Who then has any power at all (to intervene) on your behalf with Allah, if
He intends you hurt or intends you benefit?"
SURAH 48:11
Muhammad: I have no power over any harm or profit to myself except what Allah may
will.
SURAH 10:49 (SEE ALSO SURAH 7:188.)
In other words, the signs were for Allah to perform, not the prophet. Muhammad also
believed that the Quran was sign enough.
32
Carvalhaes, Claudio, and Paul Galbreath. "The Season Of Easter: Imaginative Figurings For The Body
Of Christ." Interpretation (Richmond, Va.) 65.1 (2011): 5-16. Humanities Full Text (H.W. Wilson). Web. 6
Dec. 2011.
33Chilton, Bruce. "[Are You The One Who Is To Come? The Historical Jesus And The Messianic
Question]." Interpretation (Richmond, Va.) 65.3 (2011): 308-310. Humanities Full Text (H.W. Wilson).
Web. 6 Dec. 2011.
Comment [JB22]: Good
summary.
Muhammad rejects this notion of a prophet and affirms that a prophet is neither an angel,
nor does he have an angel dwelling in him. He is only a man, who speaks to men (Cf.
6:8-9). Muhammad is ordered by God to speak with no pretention and with no authority
of his own. He emphatically states that he, himself, has no "knowledge of the un- seen"
(7:188), nor is he an angel (6:50). In the Qur’an the Quraish appear to be desperate for
"signs" (2:118; 3:183): "if only a por- tent were sent down upon him from his Lord!"
(10:21; 6:37; 13:27). In the demand for a "portent" God confirms to Muhammad that he
is not getting any; "Thou art a warner only, and for every folk a guide" (13:7). 34
For this reason, many Muslim scholars contend that Muhammad’s followers invented the
miracle stories in the Hadith after the prophet’s death to validate Muhammad’s prophetic
nature. As stated above this is also a suspicion in Christian scholarship. However, this
particular statement of Muhammad in Surah 29:50-51, is one example of how the
Muhammad and Christ figures somewhat differ. Although there are accounts in the
gospels where Jesus put more of the focus on God rather than himself; i.e. Mark 10:18
And Jesus said to him, "Why do you call Me good? No one is good except God alone;
Jesus is depicted in the scriptures as possessing supernatural powers.
One of the earliest authorities of hadith Ibn Sa'd (764-845) wrote a book entitled,
Kitäb at- Tabaqat (Book of Classes). 35 The legendary book is revered as a basic source
of narratives on the life of the Prophet Muhammad, his wives, and his children. 36
According to Abu Qurra, “The section of his work that is devoted to the miracles of
Muhammad……….sound as if they are being offered as responses to such Christians as
and they bear an amazing resemblance to miracles of Jesus found in the Gospels”. 37
Below I have listed Abu Qurra’s selective list of characteristically equivalent themes 38 :
 Muhammad's command causes trees to be uprooted after then returned to their
place. [Cf. Lk. 17:6]
 Muhammad ascends into heaven sitting on a branch of a tree with Gabriel sitting on
another. [Cf. Lk. 24:50-51 and Mt. 4:6]
 Muhammad is protected from his enemies. [Cf. Lk. 20:19; Jn. 7:20- 46, esp. 7:30]
 Muhammad turns water into milk and fresh goat cheese. [Cf. Jn. 2:1 -11]
 A wolf addresses a shepherd and bids him to go where the Prophet is preaching.
[Cf. Jn. 1:43 -49?
34"The
Greek Orthodox Theological Review 27 No 2-3 Sum-Fall 1982. Other Matter." Greek Orthodox
Theological Review 27.2-3 (1982): ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials. Web. 6 Dec. 2011.
35The Greek Orthodox Theological Review 27 No 2-3 Sum-Fall 1982. Other Matter." Greek Orthodox
Theological Review 27.2-3 (1982): ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials. Web. 6 Dec. 2011.
36The Greek Orthodox Theological Review 27 No 2-3 Sum-Fall 1982. Other Matter." Greek Orthodox
Theological Review 27.2-3 (1982): ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials. Web. 6 Dec. 2011.
37The Greek Orthodox Theological Review 27 No 2-3 Sum-Fall 1982. Other Matter." Greek Orthodox
Theological Review 27.2-3 (1982): ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials. Web. 6 Dec. 2011.The
anti-Islamic works of Abu Qurra are in the form of dialogues between a Christian and a Muslim. We must
assume that in these dialogues the interlocutors are fictitious characters. However such dialogues, which
were written as easy manuals for the sake of Christians, reflect real circumstances, and imply actual
confrontations. 38Ref.tothetextinA.GuillaumeAReaderonIslam,pp.309-30.For reasons of a better accounting I have
numbered each miracle as it begins with a new isnâd, or chain of transmitters.
Comment [JB23]: Thisisoneof
thosestatementsthatmakemany
scholarsthinkthataveryJewish
notionofJesusmakessenseand
notthefullblownTrinitarian
theoriesthatwinoutmuchlater.
OnlyGodisgreat;whichis
somethingaMuslimwouldagree
withdoubtlessly.
Comment [JB24]: Notlikingfist
thatmuch,Ipreferthisversion
withthegoatcheese,whichIdo
love.
 Muhammad raises his gaze to the sky and then to the ground while exhorting his
listeners against sensuality. [Cf. Jn. 8:1 -11]
 Muhammad reveals to his Jewish challengers four hidden matters. [Cf. Jn. 4:4-19]
 Muhammad reveals the names of those 'hypocrites' who had been speaking against
him. [Cf. Lk. 13:10-17 and Mt. 9:3 -4]
 Muhammad causes water or food to multiply, wherefrom many people either
perform ablutions or feed themselves. [Cf. Mt. 14:13-21; Mk. 6: 32-44; Lk. 9:1017; Jn. 6:1-13]
 Muhammad heals a man with a bad eye. [Cf. Mk. 8:22-26 and else- where]
 Muhammad causes a tree branch to become a steel sword. [Cf. Lk. 22:35-38?]
 Muhammad foretells the destruction of prejudicial documents of the Quraish
against the Banu Hashim. [Mark 13:1-4}
In a text addressed to his Muslim interlocutor 39 , Abu Qurra also claims:
My father has taught me to accept a messenger (only) if he has been fore- told by a
previous one, and if he has proven himself reliable through signs. Your Muhammad,
however, is completely deprived of and irrelevant to both. For neither an old prophet preannounced him as a prophet, nor did he prove himself reliable through sign. 40
Another persuasive writing on the subject matter of miracles as it pertains to Jesus
and Muhammad is the letter "Emir at Damascus " which is attributed to Arethas,
Archbishop of Caesaria (850-early tenth century). In the portion of his letter that
compares Jesus, in terms of miracles to Muhammad, he says:
We Christians were informed from many prophets who pre-announced the presence on
earth of Christ, the Son of God and God, and we learned of him and believed in him
through the deeds this same Jesus Christ did on earth. For, everything that the
prophets...pre-announced about Christ was accomplished by him, that he will be born of a
virgin and that he will perform many miracles on earth, he will raise men from the dead,
will expel demons from men, and will heal sick men, and that he will be crucified by the
lawless Jews. 41
39T
The Greek Orthodox Theological Review 27 No 2-3 Sum-Fall 1982. Other Matter." Greek Orthodox
Theological Review 27.2-3 (1982): ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials. Web. 6 Dec. 2011.PG he
anti-Islamic works of Abu Qurra are in the form of dialogues between a Christian and a Muslim. We must
assume that in these dialogues the interlocutors are fictitious characters. However such dialogues, which
were written as easy manuals for the sake of Christians, reflect real circumstances, and imply actual
confrontations.
40The Greek Orthodox Theological Review 27 No 2-3 Sum-Fall 1982. Other Matter." Greek Orthodox
Theological Review 27.2-3 (1982): ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials. Web. 6 Dec. 2011.PG
97:1544CD. Progressively Byzantine writers challenged the prophethood of Muhammad on the basis of
five criteria, not necessarily in that order: testimonies of revelation, testimonies of previous prophets,
proofs of prophetic ability, proof of miracles, and examination of his personal character. Cf. A. Th. Khoury,
La Controverse byzantine avec l'Islam (VIIe Cahier d'Etudes Chrétiennes orientales, Foi et Vie (Paris,
1969), pp. 38-40. The his- tory of the Muslim-Christian dialogue shows a systematic response on the part
of the Muslims to each one of these challenges and a reversion of the Christian criticism. It seems to me,
however, that this exercise resulted in the gradual exaltation of Muhammad and contributed to a change in
the religion from Islam to Mohammedanism.
41
P. Karlin-Hayter, "Arethas' letter to the Emir at Damascus," Byzantion, 29-30 (1979-60), 293.
I want to briefly recount a few of the accounts of healings on both characters. The
first documented healing of Muhammad began with a vision. The Angel Gabriel came to
the Prophet Muhammad in a dream and told him that the Quraysh was devising a plot to
stab him while he was sleeping. On the night of the assassination, Muhammad ordered
for his cousin `Ali ibn Abi Talib to sleep in his bed while Muhammad and Abu Bakr hid
in a cave for three days. While in the cave many historians claim that Abu Bakr was
bitten by a poisonous snake and began to suffer intensely. Supposedly Muhammad said,
"Don't be sad, Abu Bakr, because Allah is with us." And then Abu Bakr miraculously
recovered. This healing narrative is quite similar to the spoken healing of the lame man at
the pool of Bethzatha in the Biblical story of St. John chapter five.
After this there was a festival of the Jews, and Jesus went up to Jerusalem. 2Now in
Jerusalem by the Sheep Gate there is a pool, called in Hebrew Beth-zatha, which has five
porticoes. 3In these lay many invalids—blind, lame, and paralyzed. 5One man was there
who had been ill for thirty-eight years. 6When Jesus saw him lying there and knew that he
had been there a long time, he said to him, “Do you want to be made well?” 7The sick
man answered him, “Sir, I have no one to put me into the pool when the water is stirred
up; and while I am making my way, someone else steps down ahead of me.” 8Jesus said
to him, “Stand up, take your mat and walk.” 9At once the man was made well, and he
took up his mat and began to walk. Now that day was a Sabbath. 10So the Jews said to the
man who had been cured, “It is the Sabbath; it is not lawful for you to carry your mat.”
11
But he answered them, “The man who made me well said to me, ‘Take up your mat and
walk.’” 12They asked him, “Who is the man who said to you, ‘Take it up and walk’?”
13
Now the man who had been healed did not know who it was, for Jesus had disappeared
in the crowd that was there. St. John 5
In both of these healing narratives the miracles take place because of words that Jesus or
Muhammad spoke. Muhammad said: "Don't be sad, Abu Bakr, because Allah is with us"
and Jesus said “Stand up, take your mat and walk.” Both instances claim that the sick
person was immediately healed. John’s biblical account says: “9At once the man was
made well, and he took up his mat and began to walk” and supposedly Abu Bakr
miraculously recovered. “In this narrative, reminding ourselves of the distinction made
by the Muslims between the words of the Qur’an and of the words of the Prophet, it is
Muhammad's own words that result in a miracle!” 42 Another more popular healing story
of Muhammad is about:
...The Apostles of Allah—upon whom be Allah's blessing and peace — was at al-Hajûn
and was in grief and distress. He said: 'Allahumma, show me this day a miracle, after
which I will not care who among my people treats me as false.9 Now there was a tree
ahead on the road leading to Madina, so he summoned it, and, separating itself from the
earth, it came till it was before him and salaamed to him. Then when he commanded it it
returned [to its place]. He said: 'After this I care not who among my people treats me
false. 43
42"The
Greek Orthodox Theological Review 27 No 2-3 Sum-Fall 1982. Other Matter." Greek Orthodox
Theological Review 27.2-3 (1982): ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials. Web. 6 Dec. 2011.
43Ibn Sa'd (764-845), Kitàb at-Tabaqàt al-Kabìr (Leiden, 1907), 1. The section of the Miracles has been
translated by A. Jeffery, ed., in his A Reader on Islam ('S-Gravenhage, 1962), p. 309. The entire book has
been translated into English by S.M. Haq and H.K. Ghazanfar (2 vols., Leiden, 1967-72).
According to Daniel J. Sahas, professor of Religious Studies at the University of
Waterloo
Following this one, there are two more similar miracles, in a rather amusing context.
Muhammad, out of modesty, orders two trees to join together in order to satisfy his
physical needs in private! Is this an effort on the part of the earliest Muslims, who might
have heard of those words of Jesus, to depict Muhammad as the true man of faith whom
Jesus was longing for, in vain, among his con- temporaries? Is this, perhaps, an effort to
show the fulfillment of Jesus' words in Muhammad, "the seal" of the Prophets? What
were the causes and the stimulus for the emergence of power and of the embellishment of
the life of Muhammad with miracles? 44
Comment [JB25]: Againavery
goodlistandcommentarythat
doesnotreallyneedmy
commentary.ButDanielSahaswas
andisagoodfriendofminefrom
mydaysinCanada.Hedidgreat
workinMuslim‐Christiandialog
andIamhappytoseeyourcitation
here.
However as I stated earlier, “Muhammad rejected such a notion and disavowed for
himself any such power.” 45 He believed that the message of the Quran itself (6:125) and
the Scripture (29:50) 46 to be the only sign that any prophet could possibly need to depict
themselves as a true man of faith. He also argued that
Not even the pronouncement of a Qur’an is able to cause an extraordinary event for the
unbeliever to believe: "Had it been possible for a Qur'än10 to cause the mountains to
move, or the earth to be torn asunder, or the dead to speak, (this Qur'än would have done
so)" (13:31). This statement seems to be in tension with Jesus' words "If you have faith as
a grain of mustard seed, you will say to this mountain, 'Move from here to there,' and it
will move; and nothing will be impossible to you" (Matt. 17:20), and "If you had faith as
a grain of mustard seed, you could say to this sycamore tree, 'Be rooted up, and be
planted in the sea,' and it will obey you" (Lk. 17:6). 47
The second healing story from the hadith is a recount that is supposedly narrated by
Muhammad's second wife Aisha 48 . According to her: “Muhammad used to pray for
healing for his wives and other sick Muslims, touching them with his right hand as he
prayed”. 49 However, Muhammad had two sons who died in their childhood, but there are
no records of him healing them. 50 Thus, since Aisha is the only person who ever told
about Muhammad’s house-call healings it is suspected that these stories are not true. 51
The casting out of demons
The gospels and the Quran talk about Muhammad and Jesus’s thoughts about
44The
Greek Orthodox Theological Review 27 No 2-3 Sum-Fall 1982. Other Matter." Greek Orthodox
Theological Review 27.2-3 (1982): ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials. Web. 6 Dec. 2011.
45"The Greek Orthodox Theological Review 27 No 2-3 Sum-Fall 1982. Other Matter." Greek Orthodox
Theological Review 27.2-3 (1982): ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials. Web. 6 Dec. 2011.
46"The Greek Orthodox Theological Review 27 No 2-3 Sum-Fall 1982. Other Matter." Greek Orthodox
Theological Review 27.2-3 (1982): ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials. Web. 6 Dec. 2011.
47"The Greek Orthodox Theological Review 27 No 2-3 Sum-Fall 1982. Other Matter." Greek Orthodox
Theological Review 27.2-3 (1982): ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials. Web. 6 Dec. 2011.
48The Correct Books of Muslim, bk. 26, no. 5432.
49The Correct Books of Muslim, bk. 26, no. 5432.
50
The Correct Books of Bukhari, vol. 2, bk. 23, no.390. Narrated by Anas bin Malik.
51The Correct Books of Muslim, bk. 26, no. 5432.
Comment [JB26]: Therearea
numberofcaseswhereAisha’s
wordhasbeendoubtedinthe
Muslimworld.Ijustheardavery
goodpaperaboutthisbyamodern
Muslimwomanscholar.
demons. However, their teachings, reactions and relationships to demons were different.
For instance, Jesus casted out demons on several occasions but Muhammad did not. In
the Bible there are several stories of Jesus casting out demons. For instance: the man in
the synagogue which is found in Mark 1:23-28; Luke 4:33-37 NRSV; the daughter of a
Canaanite woman in Matthew 15:21-28; Mark 7:24-30 NRSV; the boy who suffered
from convulsions in Matthew 17:14-21; Mark 9:14-30; Luke 9:37-43; the mute man in
Matthew 9:32-34 NRSV and the blind and mute man in Matthew 12:22 NRSV. In order
to continue our comparison and contrast between Jesus and Muhammad we must put two
of their demoniac stories into dialogue with one another: Matthew 8:28-34 NRSV and
Ibn Kathir’s story as narrated by Ibn Abass.
28 When he came to the other side, to the country of the Gadarenes,* two demoniacs
coming out of the tombs met him. They were so fierce that no one could pass that way.
29
Suddenly they shouted, ‘What have you to do with us, Son of God? Have you come here
to torment us before the time?’ 30Now a large herd of swine was feeding at some distance
from them. 31The demons begged him, ‘If you cast us out, send us into the herd of swine.’
32
And he said to them, ‘Go!’ So they came out and entered the swine; and suddenly, the
whole herd rushed down the steep bank into the lake and perished in the water. 33The
swineherds ran off, and on going into the town, they told the whole story about what had
happened to the demoniacs. 34Then the whole town came out to meet Jesus; and when
they saw him, they begged him to leave their neighborhood. Matthew 8:28-34 NRSV
A Muslim woman came to him and told him, "These unclean ones---demons---possess me
and torment me and torture me." Muhammad said, "If you are patient in what you are
walking through, you will come in Resurrection Day before Allah clean from any sin, and
there will be no judgment against you. She said, "I swear in the name of the one who sent
you that I will have patience until I meet Allah, but I am afraid that this demon will come
and make me take my clothes off (in public)"[that I will be sinning]. Then Muhammad
told her, "Every time you feel the demon on you, you must go to Al-Ka'ba and wrap
yourself in the fabric that is draped over the Black Stone." Then Muhammad prayed for
her. 52
Let’s begin our exegesis of these texts with a consideration of their similarities. Within
both sacred texts the demoniacs are said to have approached the prophet to discuss their
condition. After which, the prophets then replied to them with instructions. It is important
to note that neither Jesus nor Muhammad touched the demoniac(s). In the Biblical
narrative, Jesus’ words heal the demoniac. However, in Ibn Kathir’s prose Muhammad
simply instructs the Muslim woman on how to live with her demons until Allah returns. It
is obvious that Jesus and Muhammad had different motives in their engagements with the
demoniacs. Furthermore, when Jesus addresses the demoniac he speaks to the demons
and not the individual, whereas Muhammad spoke to the Muslim woman not the demon
that she believed to be living in her. Lastly, Jesus’ instruction was for the demons to
leave the demoniac’s body while Muhammad’s instruction was for the woman to protect
her nakedness by going to Al-Ka'ba’s and wrapping herself in the fabric that was draped
over the Black Stone.
52Ibn
Kathir in Arabic, The Beginning and the End, vol 3, pt. 6, p. 154. Narrated by Ibn Abass.
Comment [JB27]: Nowthisisan
interestingparallelsetofstories.
Comment [JB28]: Interesting
pointactually.AgainMuhammadis
focusedontheperson’sownfaith
andnotwhatthedemonmightor
mightnotbeabletodo.
how The Era after muhammad’s death LIKENS The era of Jesus’ Death
Muhammad died in the hands of his wife Aisha and Jesus died on a Roman cross.
Unlike Muhammad, the followers who succeeded Jesus believed that God resurrected
him from the dead and that he had ascended to heaven with his physical body.
Nevertheless, despite the different types of deaths and beliefs about their present realities
and whereabouts, after the deaths of the prophet Muhammad and Jesus, their
communities of believers faced a great deal of challenges. For instance, Muhammad did
not appoint a successor because the era of the prophetic had ceased and Muhammad had
established himself as the last and greatest to hold the office. Muhammad’s followers
sought out on the difficult task of institutionalizing and continuing the disciplines and the
political system that he had established. They did such by establishing a state that
represented a sort of political unity. This initial governmental structure in Islam was
similar to what modern persons would refer to as constitutional. It consisted of a leader,
also known as a Caliph, officials that represented the people of the government, and a
system of laws and republic. Eventually the system of political governance became
known as a Caliphate in 632. 53 “The Caliphate (632-1258) has traditionally been divided
up into three periods: the ‘Rightly Guided Calips’ (632-661), the Umayyad empire (661750), and the Abbasid empire (750-1258)”. 54
The first Caliph in Islam was Muhammad’s father-in-law, Abu Bakr. Abu Bakr was one
of Muhammad’s companions and he was one of initial non-family converts to Islam. He
was also responsible for converting and introducing many people to the Islamic faith. In
many ways Abu Bakr was the ideal person to lead the new Islamic World because he was
not an old man and “he made the journey with Muhammad from Mecca to Medina at the
time of the Hijra and it had been Abu Bakr who led the prayers during the Prophet’s last
illness”. 55 After the reign of Abu Bakr, Umar ibn as Khattab, Uthman ibn Affan, and Ali
ibn Abi Talib served as Islamic Caliphs. Up until this point, the Caliphs were mostly
elected or selected on the wishes of their predecessor. However, after the first four
caliphs, also known as the Khulafah Rashidun, the Caliphate was claimed by dynasties
such as the Umayyads and the Abbasids. Caliphs were the protectors and defenders of the
faith charged with extending the rites of Islam. They believed, as was dictated in the
letter of al-Walid II, that:
The caliphs are the legatees of Prophets. From Abraham they have inherited every
treasury and every prophetic book, and they fight with the swords of prophethood, by
right of prophethood, above all, of course, the prophethood of Muhammad, whose
covenant they implement. But through Muhammad if now clearly invoked to legitimate
the caliphate, it is to God on the one hand and Utman on the other that the caliphs are
directly indebted for their authority. ‘The earth belongs to God, who has appointed His
khalifa to it’, as al-Farazdaq put it, echoing Mu’awiya. “God has garlanded you with
caliphate and guidance’, as Jarir said. The caliph is God’s trustee (amin Allah), God’s
governor, and a governor on behalf of truth. He is God’s chosen one, as several poets
state. But the reason why God chooses Umayyads rather than others is that the Umayyads
53Esposito,
J., ISLAM: THE STRAIGHT PATH, Oxford University Press, 4th edition, (1998) pg. 40
J., ISLAM: THE STRAIGHT PATH, Oxford University Press, 4th edition, (1998) pg. 40
55
Kennedy, Hugh. The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates: The Islamic Near East from the Sixth
Century to the Eleventh Century. London: Longman, 1986.
54Esposito,
Comment [JB29]: Whichcausea
majorcivilwarandthetheological
splitinthecommunitythatwesee
playedouteventoday.
Comment [JB30]: Whichmakes
senseforalotoftribalsocieties
actually.TheMongolsdidmuch
thesamethingwhentheyfounded
theirempire.
are kinsmen of Uthman. 56
Their initial idea of the Caliph was that he was a deputy, trustee, and an imam of
guidance. They saw them as governors and they aggrandized the position of Caliph with
materialistic possessions. Many of their customs mirror what Catholic traditions
established as norm behavior in the presence of Popes. For instance:
The ruler’s exalted status was further reinforced by his magnificent palace, his retinue of
attendants, and the introduction of court etiquette appropriate for an emperor. Thus,
subjects were required to bow before the caliph, kiss the ground, a symbol of the caliph’s
absolute power. 57
After the death of Jesus, like the communities of Muhammad, the apostles of Jesus
were left to carry out the mission of Jesus and to establish doctrines, like hadiths, to
institutionalize Jesus’ movements. For this section of our discussion I would like to
reflect on the Lucian books of Acts. “The book of Acts is a survey of the history of the
early Church that covered about 30 years”. 58 Luke’s account in the book of Acts reveals
the structural and theological struggles of the early Christians and their relationships with
each other and the Gentiles. “Luke has a central motif that he illustrates through the
healing ministry of the early Church that is presented as being similar to that of Jesus. It
is to show the presence of Jesus despite his bodily absence.” 59 With in the book the
religious leaders use performed miracles and theological parallels to the words of Jesus
alleviate the tensions between the Jewish Christians and new converts who argue over
their obligations to Jewish law and how they found Gentile salvations to be questionable.
“Notwithstanding the value of the above, a foundational reason may be identifiable in the
rationale of Luke that meets with his overall aim of identifying the ministry of Jesus with
the ongoing ministry of the Church.” 60 Furthermore, there is a motif throughout the New
Testament that seeks to like certain religious leaders in the post-Christ movements and
establishment of the church that sought to liken certain persons to Jesus. For instance,
“There are a number of similarities between Jesus, Peter and Paul may be identified in
Acts and Luke”. 61 For instance: Lk.4.38, Acts 28.8;Lk.6.19, Acts5.15-16, 19.12. Peter
and Paul could be see as somewhat like the Caliphs that took over after the death of
Muhammad.
It could also be argued that Peter was appointed to be the head of the church by
Jesus himself. According to Matthew chapter sixteen Jesus said:
56Crone,
Patricia & Martin Hinds. God's Caliph: Religious Authority in the First Centuries of Islam.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986. Pg 31
57Esposito, J., ISLAM: THE STRAIGHT PATH, Oxford University Press, 4th edition, (1998) pg. 55
58Warrington, K. "Acts And The Healing Narratives : Why?." Journal Of Pentecostal Theology 14.2
(2006): 189-217. New Testament Abstracts. Web. 8 Dec. 2011.
59Warrington, K. "Acts And The Healing Narratives : Why?." Journal Of Pentecostal Theology 14.2
(2006): 189-217. New Testament Abstracts. Web. 8 Dec. 2011.
60Warrington, K. "Acts And The Healing Narratives : Why?." Journal Of Pentecostal Theology 14.2
(2006): 189-217. New Testament Abstracts. Web. 8 Dec. 2011.
61Warrington, K. "Acts And The Healing Narratives : Why?." Journal Of Pentecostal Theology 14.2
(2006): 193. New Testament Abstracts. Web. 8 Dec. 2011. A.J. Mattill,'The Jesus- Paul Parallels and the
Purpose of Luke-Acts: H.H. Evans Reconsidered', Novum Testamentum 17 (1975), pp. 15-46 (28-29)
Comment [JB31]: Itdoescross
one’smind.
Comment [JB32]: Andtheswitch
fromMathewmakessensehere
becausewedogetLuke‐Acts;
whichisaboutmuch‘history’as
wegetinthegospels.Ihavecome
tolikeLukemuchbetteroverthe
lasttwodecades.Maybebecause
ofDanaRobert’sgreatworkin
missionhistory.
Comment [JB33]: Interesting
parallelIhadnotthoughtof
before;thisisonereasonIalways
enjoyreadingthisfinalpapers.
13 Now when Jesus came into the district of Caesarea Philippi, he asked his disciples,
"Who do people say that the Son of Man is?" 14 And they said, "Some say John the
Baptist, but others Elijah, and still others Jeremiah or one of the prophets." 15 He said to
them, "But who do you say that I am?" 16 Simon Peter answered, "You are the Messiah,
the Son of the living God." 17 And Jesus answered him, "Blessed are you, Simon son of
Jonah! For flesh and blood has not revealed this to you, but my Father in heaven. 18 And
I tell you, you are Peter, and on this rock I will build my church, and the gates of Hades
will not prevail against it. 19 I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven, and
whatever you bind on earth will be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth
will be loosed in heaven." 20 Then he sternly ordered the disciples not to tell anyone that
he was the Messiah. 21 From that time on, Jesus began to show his disciples that he must
go to Jerusalem and undergo great suffering at the hands of the elders and chief priests
and scribes, and be killed, and on the third day be raised. 22 And Peter took him aside
and began to rebuke him, saying, "God forbid it, Lord! This must never happen to you."
Matthew 16:13-22
In this passage of scripture Jesus is talking to his disciples about his death. He also
discussed with them the plan about the church and who would take over after his demise.
This is something that Muhammad never did which lead to a great deal of tension. For his
followers, the era of the prophetic had ceased because Muhammad had established
himself as the last and greatest to hold the office, thus it was even more difficult to
decipher who would be their new leader and what type of power they would have.
Similarly, the successor of the ministry of Jesus could not be seen as the Son of God as
was Jesus, but he did advise them about his eventual demise when he was alive.
Throughout the New Testament several equivalences may be drawn between the
ministries of Paul and Jesus" and between Peter and Jesus. 62 For instance, according to
A.J. Mattill 63 :

Jesus cast out demons
(Lk. 4.31-37), so did Paul
(Acts 16.16-18);

Both Jesus and Paul
cured fevers (Lk. 4.38; Acts
28.9)

Jesus heals a lame man
(Lk. 5.17- 26), so does Paul
(Acts 14.8-18);

Power
left
Jesus,
resulting in healings (Lk.
6.19), also Paul (Acts
19.11-12)

Jesus raised the dead (Lk.
7.11 -17), so did Paul (Acts
62M. Hengel, 'Between Jesus and Paul: The "Hellenists", the "Seven" and Stephen (Acts 6.1-15; 7.54-8.3)',
in M. Hengel (ed.). Between Jesus and Paul (Philadelphia: For- tress Press, 1983), pp. 1-29.
63
A.J. Mattill 'The Jesus- Paul Parallels and the Purpose of Luke-Acts: H.H. Evans Reconsidered', Novum
Testamentum 17 (1975), pp. 15-46 (28-29)
Comment [JB34]: Ihavealways
wonderedifMuhammadthought
hewouldrecoverformhisillness.
TheBuddhaalsodiedofillnessbut
knewhewoulddieandhence
spenttimeonorderingthesangha
forthetimeafterhisfinaldemise
inbodybutnotdharma.








20.7-12)
Touching Jesus' garment
achieved healing (Lk. 8.44),
also Paul (Acts 19.12).
Jesus (Lk. 19.45-48) and
Paul (Acts 21.26) enter the
temple on their entry into
Jerusalem
Both are seized by a mob
(Lk. 22.54, Acts 21.30)
Both are slapped by the
priest's
assistants
(Lk.
22.63-64, Acts 23.2)
Both are involved in four
trials (Lk. 22.26; 23.1, 8,13;
Acts 23; 24; 25; 26)
Both have a Herod
involved in their trials (Lk.
23.6-12; Acts 25.13-26.32)
Both have a centurion act
positively towards them
(Lk. 23.47; Acts 27.3, 43)
Both of their ministries
conclude in the context of
the fulfillment of Scripture
(Lk. 24; Acts 28)
The parallels between the two figures are quite fascinating. This would cause one to
wonder if Luke intentionally depicted Paul’s narrative in congruence with Jesus’ for the
sake of rendering Paul as the primary inheritor of Christianity. However, when
considering the fact that Jesus heals a lame man (Lk. 5.17-26), so does Peter (Acts 3.110); power left Jesus, resulting in healings (Lk. 6.19), so also Peter (Acts 5.15); Jesus
raised the dead (Lk. 7.11-17), so also Peter (Acts 9.36-43); Jesus east out demons (Lk.
4.31-37) 64 , so also Peter (Acts 5.16); perhaps it might be more appropriate to claim that
Luke was simply trying to portray that all of the apostles were inheritors of Christianity.
Although Luke's gospel presents Jesus as uniquely providing salvation whilst always
heading to Jerusalem, ending his gospel there (24.52-53) and Acts presents Jesus as
providing salvation through the Apostles, commencing the story in Jerusalem (1.4, 8, 12),
thereafter progressively moving away from Jerusalem, nevertheless through the journeys,
Jesus is revealed in his authority, the healings helping to establish him, not as a paradigm
but as a unique, inimitable phenomenon Luke deliberately portrays the mission of the
church in continuity with the pattern of Jesus' ministry in respect of healings. 65
64
65
L.T. Johnson, The Acts of the Apostles, (Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 1992), p. 72,
M. Turner, The Holy Spirit and Spiritual Gifts: Then and Now (Carlisle: Paternoster, 1996), p. 25
Comment [JB35]: Ialways
thoughtthiswasprettyclear
actually.
Nonetheless, there is tension around the subject matter of who is indeed the successor of
Jesus. Some Christian denominations believe Peter to be the successor and other argue
for the case of Paul. This dynamic of succession is different from that of the Islamic
transition because Muhammad’s father is considered to be the successor by all Muslims.
Conclusion
In conclusion, it is important to note that Donner culminates his argument with,
what he calls, an “alternative reading” of Muhammad’s life. His solution does not
completely accept nor discredit Ibn Ishaq’s entire work; he believes this to be going too
far. Instead, he supposes that the only way to get to near the true narrative is to constantly
wrestle with the text and the scholarship that succeeds the text. He says that’s the solution
is “to utilize the traditional narratives sparingly and with caution”. 66 Sadly, unlike the Q
source in Christian scholarship, there has yet to be a text discovered that is behind the Ibn
Ishaq text serving as its informant. Thus, I personally ascribe to Donner’s idea that: “the
truth must lie somewhere in between”. 67 Thus, it is my suggestion that the solutions
search for the narratives of both of the true historical Muhammad and Jesus also lies
somewhere in between the myths, narratives, meta-narratives, and hearsay that surrounds
the figures. Like Donner’s suggestion, I also find it extremely problematic for one to seek
to discover a true or correct narrative because such would also be flawed because the
intentions of the discoverer could potentially contaminate the lens through which truth is
conveyed. Furthermore, the labeling of one particular discovery as “the” correct version
would require a sort of re-indoctrination and cultivation towards a new doctrines that
could lead to a great deal of controversy and idealism. Thus, if Donner’s assertion that
the truth lies somewhere in between” 68 is true, there is no true way to completely separate
myth from truth. For this reason, it is my postulation that the closest that one can ever get
to knowing the true narrative of Jesus and Muhammad is for one to continuously wrestle
with the particulars that are at tension.
66
Donner, Fred. Muhammad and the Believers: At the Origins of Islam. Cambridge, Mass: The
Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2010. Pp. 52.
67
Donner, Fred. Muhammad and the Believers: At the Origins of Islam. Cambridge, Mass: The
Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2010. Pp. 52.
68
Donner, Fred. Muhammad and the Believers: At the Origins of Islam. Cambridge, Mass: The
Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2010. Pp. 52.
Comment [JB36]: Whichiswhat
everyreligionhasdonewithits
textscenturiesinandcenturies
out.
Comment [JB37]: Inscholarship
andinlifethisisoftenthecase.