BCTF/CIDA Global Classroom Initiative 2006
CRITICAL CHALLENGE: THE BLACK
DEATH AND HIV/AIDS: WHICH IS THE
WORSE PLAGUE?
by Clay McLeod
Subject:
Social Studies 8/ English 8
Grade level:
Grade 8—This lesson can be used for students in Grades 8–
12, although it is designed to meet Grade 8 curricular
outcomes.
Lesson title:
Critical Challenge: The Black Death and HIV/AIDS: Which is
the Worse Plague?
Brief overview:
This lesson is a critical challenge, designed to engage
students in a process of thinking critically about an issue
while researching and writing a persuasive essay. The idea
of critical challenges has been taken from the work of TC², or
the Critical Thinking Consortium. One can read about critical
thinking at public.sd38.bc.ca:8004/~TC2/abt, and
public.sd38.bc.ca:8004/~TC2/IntroTC2. (In that regard, the
first part of this particular critical challenge is very similar to
one which was developed independently from and previous
to this one and can found in Joan of Arc and the Hundred
Years’ War published by the Critical Thinking Consortium.)
Moreover, it embodies an approach to learning history that poses
two important questions: What does history have to do
with the present? How will studying history help us to shape our
future?
The activities in this lesson plan have been designed to help
students to learn to be knowledgeable, understanding, thoughtful,
responsible, and active citizens. Such citizens are able to contribute
positively to the various communities that they are a part of,
including the global village.
This lesson plan involves studying aspects of the history of various
civilizations in different parts of the world during the period from 500
CE (Common Era)—1600 CE, with a view to understanding what
that history has to do with the present and what lessons this period
offers us as we develop our understanding of our world, our
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relationships with other people, places, and times, and the impact
that we can have on the future.
This approach resonates with what Graham Pike and David Selby
call the “temporal dimension” of global education which stresses
that the past, present, and future are interactive and embedded
within one another. They argue, “Our present thoughts and actions
are shaped not only by our experiences and understandings of the
past but also by our visions and aspirations for the future… In our
view, a temporal dimension – integrating past, present, and future –
is necessary for a profound understanding of any curriculum topic
or subject” (See Pike & Selby, In the Global Classroom 2. Toronto:
Pippin Publishing:2000, pp 13–14).
CIDA development theme:
• Health
BC Ministry of Education prescribed learning outcomes:
It is expected that students will:
• explore the learning outcomes found in the BC Social Studies 8-10 Integrated
Resource Package 1997 and the BC English Language Arts 8-10 Integrated
Resource Package 1996 as listed below.
Social Studies
It is expected that students will:
• assess a variety of positions on controversial issues (Applications of Social
Studies; Grade 8)
• identify and clarify a problem, an issue, or an inquiry (Applications of Social
Studies; Grade 8)
• plan, revise, and deliver written and oral presentations (Applications of Social
Studies; Grade 8)
• identify factors that influence the development and decline of world civilizations
(Society and Culture: Civilizations from 500 to 1600; Grade 8)
• assess the impact of contact, conflict, and conquest on civilizations (Politics and
Law: Civilizations from 500 to 1600; Grade 8)
• locate and describe current and historical events on maps (Environment:
Civilizations from 500 to 1600; Grade 8).
English Language Arts
It is expected that students will:
• locate, access, and select relevant information from a variety of sources
(including technological sources) for defined purposes (Communicate Ideas and
Information, Composing and Creating; Grade 8)
• compose or create works of communication for specific audiences and purposes,
including to entertain, persuade, or inform (Communicate Ideas and Information,
Composing and Creating; Grade 8)
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Time required: For the first part: four–five hours or four 70-minute classes.
The time required for the second part will depend on how deep you
and your students want to go down the rabbit hole.
Required materials:
• copies of the Black Death and AIDS handout (Appendix one), one for each student
• copies of the Website Evaluation handout (Appendix two), one for each student
• copies of the Bibliography handout (Appendix three), one for each student)
• copies of the Critical Challenge Rubric handout (Appendix four), one for each
student
• ideally, access to the library and the Internet for students to do some research of
their own.
Lesson Resources:
• Roland Case and LeRoi Daniels, Introduction to the TC² Conception of Critical
Thinking. public.sd38.bc.ca:8004/~TC2/IntroTC2
• Required materials, as listed above
Procedure:
1. Part I: The critical challenge
Explain that the students will be learning about how to conduct research and
then will write a critical challenge comparing the Black Death (the historical
Black Plague) to HIV/AIDS. Review the information sheets in the “Black Death and
HIV/AIDS” handout that contain summary information
about the Black Death and HIV/AIDS.
Allow the students to discuss similarities and differences between the Black
Death and HIV/AIDS. If students do not have background knowledge about
these topics, you may wish to allow them to conduct some independent
research before proceeding. You may wish to pose these questions to the
students:
• What makes a plague or epidemic bad?
• What aspects make an epidemic worse:? The number of people who die, the
symptoms, the social impacts of the disease, or the lack of cure?
• How is the current spread of HIV/AIDS similar to the Black Death in the midfourteenth century?
• Would you rather have HIV now, or the bubonic plague 650 years ago?
• Would you rather be the family member of someone with HIV now, or of
someone with the bubonic plague 650 years ago?
• Are there places in the world that have been impacted more severely by
either of these plagues?
• How does the number of people who died from the Black Death and the
number of people who have died from AIDS compare to the overall
population
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•
•
•
•
•
Are the effects of HIV/AIDS likely to get better or worse?
What is life like for patients suffering from both of these diseases?
What are the symptoms?
How long does the disease last?
How do people treat those who are contracted with the disease?
Explain that students are going to write an essay answering the critical
question: Which is the worse plague, the current spread of HIV/AIDS or the
Black Death (Black Plague) in the mid-fourteenth century?
It is crucial for students to develop some background knowledge about the history of
the Black Death and the current context of HIV/AIDS in order to consider this
question. Perhaps even more crucial for students, is the notion and process of
developing criteria for a bad epidemic. They won’t be able to decide which plague
was worse unless they develop a clear idea of what constitutes a bad plague. By
making notes about each topic (the Black Death and HIV/AIDS), either by using the
web diagram in the “Black Death and HIV/AIDS” handout or by some other method,
students can start to develop background knowledge. This note-taking process, as
well as some whole-class discussion, can help students start to see some of the
similarities between these two plagues and start to discern what elements might
make justifiable criteria for a bad plague. Then, they can take their individual notions
of a bad epidemic and use that to support the argument that they make in order to
answer the critical question.
Because of the nature of much of the information on the Internet about HIV/AIDS in
particular, before allowing students to do Internet research, you may wish to conduct
a lesson teaching them how to evaluate the trustworthiness of web sites. You can
use the “Web site Evaluation” handout (Appendix two) to facilitate this discussion
and then, use the questions that it poses to evaluate a specific web site as a class.
The Media Awareness Network has written a lesson plan entitled “Deconstructing
web pages” that can be found on-line at www.mediaawareness.ca/english/resources/educational/lessons/secondary/Internet/deconstruct
_web_pages.cfm.
You may wish to teach the students how to record information about their sources of
information and how to write a bibliography, using the “Bibliography” handout
(Appendix three) as a guide.
Allow the students time to read about the topics of the Black Death and HIV/AIDS,
conduct some research, complete the “Black Death and HIV/AIDS” handout pages
(appendix one), and work through the writing process in relation to an essay
answering the critical question.
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2. Part II: Taking action today: Addressing the global scourge of HIV/AIDS
Now that your students have learned about the Black Death and HIV/AIDS, you may
wish to take that knowledge and use it to address contemporary issues related to
HIV/AIDS.
This activity is designed to get students involved in addressing the HIV/AIDS
pandemic in today’s world. In the process of doing so, they will learn about
conditions experienced by people in other parts of the world, practice
research, write documents for authentic purposes, and experience the
practical reward of getting involved in their community.
Discuss with your students the nature of the HIV/AIDS pandemic.
• Where is it most widespread? Why?
• What factors lead to its spread?
• What can be done to improve this situation?
• Who needs to take action to improve this situation?
• How are people living with HIV treated differently in different parts of the
• world? Why?
• Are there medicines that can help people living with HIV/AIDS?
• Are these medicines available to everyone equally? Why or why not?
• What can be done to improve this situation?
• Who needs to take this action?
Here are links to the Stephen Lewis Foundation web site and to a description
of some of the projects that it is engaged in:
Stephen Lewis Foundation: Easing the Pain of HIV/AIDS in Africa:
www.stephenlewisfoundation.org
Projects:
www.stephenlewisfoundation.org/what_projects.htm.
Discuss with your students some of the facts about the HIV/AIDS pandemic,
particularly how it relates to conditions in the global South, the continent of Africa,
and in Asian countries. You may wish to provide them with some information or have
them do some research using the following web sites (or web sites in the BCTF’s
Global Education Webliography in the “Reports and Studies on Global Issues” and
“United Nations Global Issues Resources” sections):
Stephen Lewis talking about hospital conditions in Lesotho:
www.youtube.com/watch?v=YYI2__TYtzA
Stephen Lewis talking about food and nutrition:
www.youtube.com/watch?v=_7FEuy4ygHA
An informational video about HIV/AIDS:
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www.youtube.com/watch?v=qaKzWARCLYQ
UN AIDS epidemic update December 2005:
www.unaids.org/epi/2005/doc/EPIupdate2005_pdf_en/epi-update2005_en.pdf
The Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS:
www.unaids.org/en
The UN Millennium Development Goals:
www.un.org/millenniumgoals.
Have your students discuss possible ways of raising awareness about issues
surrounding the HIV/AIDS pandemic in the global South or influencing government
policy and spending in relation to HIV/AIDS.
Encourage your students to make a plan and put it into action. Some of the things
that you may want to consider doing include:
• Writing a letter to the editor of the local paper with information about HIV/AIDS
issues in Africa, Asia, and the world
• Creating informational posters advocating action addressing the HIV/AIDS
pandemic
• Writing articles for school or community newspapers about HIV/AIDS and its
impacts in the global South and its relationship to poverty and government policy
in the global North
• Creating print ads for school or church/temple/mosque/synagogue newsletters
informing people about what you have learned about the HIV/AIDS pandemic
• Producing a video about the HIV/AIDS pandemic and actions that people can
take to improve the situation in places like Africa and Asia
Your imagination, and that of your students, is the limit when it comes to taking
effective action. The important thing is to do something and to remember that no
action is too small.
A great print resource to use when facilitating youth action is Craig Kielburger and
Marc Kielburger, Take Action! A Guide to Active Citizenship, Toronto, Gage
Learning Corporation, 2002.
Assessment strategies:
Criteria for written work responding to the critical challenge, see the critical challenge
rubric (Appendix four) for more detail.
• Essays should clearly answer the question and consist of several paragraphs
supporting the student’s position.
• Writing should be clear, use a variety of sentences, use appropriate language to
describe the concepts discussed, spell words correctly, and be grammatically
correct.
• Essays should describe and explain the student’s argument by providing reasons,
describing details that support the student’s position, and explaining connections
and conclusions that the student has drawn as he or she considered the question.
• The argument articulated by the essay should represent a good understanding of the
topics addressed by the question and should be supported and justified by the
student’s writing.
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Appendix one
Name _________________
The Critical Challenge: The Black Death and HIV/AIDS:
Which is the worse plague?
Task:
You are going to write a short essay (a multi-paragraph composition) that answers the
question: Which is the worse plague, the current spread of HIV/AIDS or the Black Death
(Black Plague) in the mid-fourteenth century?
Plague: a highly-infectious, usually fatal, rapidly-spreading disease (also called
pestilence)
Steps:
To do this, you are going to have to perform several steps.
• Review and read information about the Black Death in the mid-fourteenth century
(also called, the Black Plague or the bubonic plague) and HIV/AIDS. See also the
following web site: webmd.com/content/article/16/1624_50365.htm .
• Use a graphic organizer to organize the information that you gather and to help you
compare and contrast the Black Death with HIV/AIDS.
• Create a list of criteria for a terrible epidemic or plague. (What factors make an
epidemic bad?)
• Apply the criteria for a bad epidemic to the Black Death and then to HIV/AIDS.
• Decide what you think (which was worse), and then write a rough draft of your
essay.
• Revise and edit your essay.
• Publish a final copy of your essay.
Criteria:
• You will be marked in relation to the following criteria.
• Your essays clearly answers the question. You are encouraged to answer the
question using a thesis statement. A thesis statement declares what you believe and
what you intend to prove
• Your essay consists of at least four paragraphs, including an introduction, a
conclusion, and at least two paragraphs in the body of the essay.
• The paragraphs in the body of the essay describe and explain your argument. This
means that they provide reasons, describe supporting details, and explain
connections and conclusions that you have drawn as you considered the question.
• Your writing is clear, uses a variety of sentences, contains appropriate language to
describe the concepts being discussed, and adheres to correct grammar and
spelling for all words and terms used.
• Your argument represents a good understanding of the topics addressed by the
question and that it is supported and justified by your writing.
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The Black Death of 1347-1351
In October, 1347, some Genoese trading
ships returned from the Black Sea to Sicily. The
ships were filled with sailors, who were dead or
dying, and they had black swellings in their
groins and armpits. Although there is some
doubt, most historians think that they carried the
bubonic plague, and from that ship, whatever
disease they had, had spread across Europe
and killed between one third and one half of
Europe’s population at the time. It is estimated
that 34 million died in Europe over the next four years, and plague epidemics hit Asia
and the Middle East at the same time period, killing more people there and making the
plague a multi-regional pandemic; it is estimated that up to two-thirds of China’s
population may have died—approximately 25 million deaths. In Europe, the plague
started in shipping-port cities and traveled along both land and sea trading routes to
other centres. Although it had its most massive impact between 1347 and 1351 (the
mid-14th century), the plague returned to Europe periodically until the last major
outbreaks in the 17th and 18th centuries. In total, the Black Death is thought to have
killed 237 million victims.
The plague came to be called the “Black Death” because patients’ skin turned
black from bruising. It is thought that fleas feeding on black rats had the disease, and
when the rats died off, the fleas transferred to human hosts, passing the disease on to
them. The disease spread rapidly. The patients experiences fever, diarrhea, headaches,
and the formation of buboes, or swollen lymph nodes that ooze pus and blood. It can
also proceed to the bloodstream and the lungs, after which point, it can be spread by
coughing. Death was rapid, with most people dying within 4–7 days. Sometimes, people
died died within 24 hours of contracting the disease. Many people thought that the
plague was punishment from God. The Pope had said that God had sent the pestilence
to affect the Christian people. During the infectious period of the Black Death, people
persecuted Jewish people and lepers, blaming them for the spread of the disease.
Jewish people were forced out of cities by anti-Semitic rioters. Many Jewish
communities were destroyed; many Jewish people were massacred.
Before the Black Death struck, Europe had already suffered from famine, so
many people were susceptible to disease because of malnutrition and a weakened
immune system. Once the Black Death struck, the impact was disastrous. Entire
villages were abandoned, and with fewer people left to labour, Europeans experiences
crop failures and further food shortages. As a result, prices rose, and the economy
changed, along with social structures and the role of the church. For instance, with
fewer people left to labour in fields, landowners had to offer the remaining peasants
greater wages and freedoms, leading some to argue that the Black Death improved
conditions for the surviving peasants. Another result of the Black Death was a turn
towards morbidity in European culture. Much artwork and literature depicted death, and
there was a sense of pessimism among the people.
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Resources consulted include web sites relating to the Black Death:
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_death
www.historyguide.org/ancient/lecture29b.html
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HIV/AIDS in Africa and the rest of the world
HIV stands for Human immunodeficiency virus and AIDS stands for Acquired
immunodeficiency syndrome. HIV is the virus that causes AIDS, the end stage of the
infection. HIV is spread when there is contact between the mucous membrane or the
bloodstream of an uninfected person and the blood, or other bodily fluids (semen,
vaginal fluid, or breast milk) from a person infected with HIV. Such contact can occur
through sexual contact, blood transfusion, the sharing of contaminated needles, or
exchanges between mother and child during pregnancy, childbirth, or breastfeeding.
HIV damages the immune system, making a person susceptible to “opportunistic
infections.” An uninfected person’s immune system would be able to fight off these
infections. These infections, and not AIDS itself, are what lead to the deaths of AIDS
patients.
The transmission of HIV can be prevented, but studies show that many
people around the world continue to engage in high-risk activities that enable the
transmission of the HIV virus. Reasons are varied, and they range from ignorance about
the ways that HIV can be transmitted and what methods can be used to prevent its
transmission, to religious and cultural rules related to methods of reducing the chances
of becoming infected (i.e. condom use), to myths about the transmission of HIV. Some
people mistakenly believe that only gay people can get HIV and AIDS.
Since the discovery of the AIDS in 1981, myths and stigma have become
associated with the disease. When it was first discovered, it was called GRID (Gayrelated immunodeficiency disease). This was because it was first identified in a group of
gay men. Even though scientists later discovered that anybody could get HIV, some
people continue to believe that only gay people and intravenous drug users could
contract the disease. This has led to stigmatization (mistreatment, discrimination
against, and rejection) of gay people and those living with HIV. Some people mistakenly
believed that gay people were the source of HIV, just by virtue of being gay, and people
living with HIV had done something wrong in order to contract the virus.
AIDS is thought to have started in sub-Saharan Africa sometime in the twentieth
century, and now it is considered to be a pandemic. Since the discovery of AIDS in
1981, it is thought to have killed more than 25 million people; this does not include the
40 million people (as of the end of 2003) that currently have HIV, 26 million of these
people live in Africa. In 2005 alone, AIDS killed between 2.8 million and 3.6 million,
more than 570,00 of those were children. Africa has been particularly hard hit by AIDS.
In 2003, 2.3 million people died in sub-Saharan Africa; that’s one person every 13.7
seconds, 263 people every hour, and over 6000 people per day. AIDS is the number
one cause of death in Africa, number four worldwide. AIDS has impacted people in
Africa in many ways including increased costs (i.e. health care for society and families
with patients), decreased food production (i.e. farmers stop working as much because
of illness as to care for a sick family member), and the decimation of families and the
creation of AIDS orphans (i.e. parents, wives, husbands, or children die from the
disease).
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Resources consulted include web sites relating to HIV/AIDS:
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AIDS
www.avert.org
www.aidsinafrica.net/
www.unaids.org/en/default.asp
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The Black Death
Numbers
Others
Spread
Impacts
The Black
Death of
1347–1351
Symptoms
Social
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HIV/AIDS
Numbers
Others
Spread
HIV/AIDS
(particularly in
present-day
Africa)
Impacts
Symptoms
Social
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Just Black Death
Both Black Death and
HIV/Aids
Just HIV/AIDS
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
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Appendix two
Web site evaluation
Questions to ask regarding the 5 “W”’s of online sources of information (including emails and web sites):
1. Who sent or posted the information?
• Is this person or organization clearly identified?
• Is there contact information for the person or organization?
• Is there information about the background of the person or organization?
• Does the person or organization have the credentials, background, knowledge,
and experience to be qualified to make claims about the topic?
2. When did they send or post it?
• Is this information recent?
• Is there time-sensitive information in the e-mail or on the website?
• Are times and facts that are mentioned consistent with things you know to be
true?
3. What is the nature and tone of the information in the e-mail or on the website?
• Does the writer or organization use emotional language to try to persuade you of
the truth of his, her, or their claims?
• Does the e-mail or website seem hateful or discriminatory?
• What kinds of images are associated with the piece of writing that you are
evaluating?
4. Where does the website exist in cyberspace?
• What is the nature of other websites or pages associated with the same domain
name?
5. Why has this information been sent to you or posted on the Internet?
• What does the person or organization hope to gain by writing, distributing, or
posting the information that you are evaluating?
• Does the person or organization have an agenda that might motivate him, her, or
them to try to mislead people or overstate their case?
Once you have analyzed the information in relation to the above questions, consider
how it compares to things that you know or think already and items that you can read on
other websites, or that you can learn about in books and other sources of information.
No single one of the above factors should lead you to discount the reliability and
trustworthiness of an information source. In the end, whether, and to what extent, you
will choose to trust the information that you read in an e-mail or on the Internet is a
matter of judgement. Consider all the above factors, as well as any others you might
think of.
Appendix three
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Bibliography
Books:
James Cross Giblin and David Frampton, When Plague Strikes: The Black Death,
Smallpox, AIDS. New York, Harpercollins, 1995.
Don Nardo, ed. The Black Death. Turning Points in World History series, San Diego,
Greenhaven Press, 1999.
Barbara Taylor. Everything You Need to Know About AIDS, New York, The Rosen
Publishing Group, 1988.
Web sites:
The Black Death: 1347–1350
www.insecta-inspecta.com/fleas/bdeath/index.html
The Black Death: Bubonic Plague
www.themiddleages.net/plague.html
Encyclopedia Resources:
Black Death. Medieval World. Vol. 1: 2001. p. 56
Plague. World Book Encyclopedia. Vol. 15: 2002. p. 505
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Appendix four
Name ______________________
Critical challenge rubric
Essay format:
Your essay
clearly answers
the question, and
it consists of
several
paragraphs
supporting your
position.
Writing:
Your writing is
clear, uses a
variety of
sentences, uses
appropriate
language to
describe the
concepts
discussed, uses
words that are
spelled correctly,
and is
grammatically
correct.
Unsatisfactory
1/4
Your essay fails
to answer the
question, and it
may not be
divided into
paragraphs
correctly, or the
paragraphs may
not serve a clear
purpose.
Satisfactory
2/4
Your essay
attempts to
answer the
question, and it
consists of a
number of
paragraphs,
which may
include an
introductory
paragraph, one
or two
paragraphs in
the body, and a
conclusion.
Very good
3/4
Your essay
clearly answers
the question, and
it consists of at
least four
paragraphs,
including an
introductory
paragraph, at
least two
paragraphs in
the body that
support your
position, and a
conclusion.
Excellent
4/4
Your essay
clearly answers
the question in a
thesis statement
that explains
your position,
and it consists of
five or more
paragraphs,
including an
introductory
paragraph that
introduces the
topic, at least
three paragraphs
in the body that
clearly support
the thesis, and a
conclusion.
Your writing is
difficult to
understand and
repeats simple
sentence
structures. It
does not use
appropriate
language to
describe the
concepts
discussed, and it
includes serious
errors in spelling
and grammar.
Your writing can
be understood,
but it sometimes
repeats simple
sentence
structures. Your
writing attempts
to use
appropriate
language to
describe the
concepts
discussed. It
includes some
errors in spelling
and grammar.
Your writing is
clear, uses a
variety of
sentence
structure, and
appropriate
language to
describe the
concepts
discussed. Most
words are
spelled correctly,
and your writing
is usually
grammatically
correct.
Your writing is
extremely clear,
uses a wide
variety of
sentence
structures, and
appropriate and
sophisticated
language to
describe the
concepts
discussed. Most
words are
spelled correctly
and your writing
is grammatically
correct.
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Argument:
Your essay
describes and
explains your
argument by
providing
reasons,
describing details
that support your
position, and
defines
connections and
conclusions that
you have drawn
as you
considered the
question.
Your argument
represents a
good
understanding of
the topic
addressed by the
question and is
supported and
justified by your
writing.
Marks
Unsatisfactory
1/4
Your essay fails
to explain your
argument. Your
writing provides
no clear reasons
for your position,
or it fails to
describe
supporting
details for your
argument, or it
contains several
factual errors.
Your essay
demonstrates
that you have not
yet understood
the topics
addressed by the
question.
Satisfactory
2/4
Your essay
explains your
argument. Your
writing provides
reasons for your
position and
may describe
supporting
details or
explain
connections and
conclusions that
you have drawn
as you
considered the
question, but it
may contain
some factual
inaccuracies.
Your argument
represents a
satisfactory
understanding
of the topics
addressed by the
question.
Very good
3/4
The paragraphs
of your essay
work together to
describe and
explain your
argument. Your
writing provides
reasons,
describes
supporting
details, and
explains
connections and
conclusions that
you have drawn
as you
considered the
question.
Your argument
represents a very
good
understanding of
the topics
addressed by the
question and is
supported by
your writing.
Excellent
4/4
The introduction,
paragraphs in
the
body of your
essay,
and your
conclusion work
together
smoothly
to describe and
explain your
argument. Your
writing provides
sound reasons,
describes
relevant
supporting
details,
and explains
insightful
connections and
conclusions that
you have drawn
as you
considered the
question.
Your argument
represents an
excellent
understanding of
the topics
addressed by the
question and is
supported and
justified by your
writing.
Essay format:
Writing:
Argument:
Total:
____
4
____
4
____
4
____
12
Something you did well.
Something you may want to try improving next time.
la:sdrive/Glob Ed lessons fldr.09
PC:mh/la:tfeu
The Black Death and HIV/AIDS: Which is the worse plague?
BCTF/CIDA Global Classroom Initiative 2006
18