The Psychology of Ecological Habits:
From Overt Behavior to Mental Events
Bas Verplanken
University of Bath
SPONSORS
PEOPLE
Henk Aarts
Adrian Davis
Naomi Fisher
Oddgeir Friborg
Michaela Jurasek
Anja Moonen
Sheina Orbell
Debbie Roy
David Trafimow
Ad van Knippenberg
Yonne Tangelder
Ruth Velsvik
Ian Walker
Catharina Wang
Wendy Wood
Kristin Woolf
The Key Problem
<< Whilst I do acknowledge that the issue of
climate change is probably the most important
problem humanity has faced, I surprise myself
in my own ability to ignore this. >>
(Anonymous participant, June 2012)
Environmental Behavior
Individuals
Social Environment
Social structures, physical
environment,
political culture
Environmental Behavior
Using public transport . Installing insulation . Recycling .
AWARENESS &
Buying local . Taking the train to domestic destinations
.
PERCEPTIONS
ATTITUDES
& VALUES
Reading
energy labels . Switching off appliences at night .
Cycling to work . Installing a smart energy meter . Waste less
food . Ethical spending . Protesting against
SOCIAL
nuclear
INFLUENCE
power .
Buying organic food . Using a shopping bag . Eco-driving .
MOTIVATION
Avoiding overseas flights . Washing at 30 degrees Celcius .
Switching off lights . Buying energy efficient products . Signing
pro-green petitions . Taking shorter showers . Car pooling .
HABITS
Composting . Saving energy
. Walking instead of driving short
distances . Lowering the thermostat by one degree .
<< Most of the time, what we do is what
we do most of the time >>
(Townsend & Bever, 2001)
<<… between a third and a half of all
behaviors listed were classified as habits,
given that they were performed just
about every day and usually in the same
location >>
(Wood, Quinn, & Kashy, 2002)
Habit
1. Things we do regularly.
2. A practice or custom.
3. A dominant disposition.
4. Addiction.
5. Bad behavior.
Three Pillars of Habit
Repetition
Repetition
§  Frequency of past behavior: ”the
psychologists’ definition of habit”
§  Cumulative impact of repetition
§  Problem 1: How frequent is ”habitual”
§  Problem 2: Frequent behavior is not
necessarily habitual
§  A history of repetition is a necessary, but
not a sufficient condition for a habit
Three Pillars of Habit
Repetition
Automaticity
Automaticity
§  The ”fluency” of habitual behavior
”The Four Horsemen of Automaticity”
(Bargh 1994)
§  Minimal awareness
§  Lack of conscious intent
§  Difficulty of control
§  Mental efficiency
”The Four Horsemen of Automaticity”
(Bargh 1994)
§  Minimal awareness (ON/OFF)
§  Lack of conscious intent (ON/OFF)
§  Difficulty of control (ON/OFF)
§  Mental efficiency (ON/OFF)
”The Four Horsemen of Automaticity”
(Bargh 1994)
§  Minimal awareness (ON/OFF)
§  Lack of conscious intent (ON/OFF)
§  Difficulty of control (ON/OFF)
§  Mental efficiency (ON/OFF)
Three Pillars of Habit
Repetition
Automaticity
Context-Cued
Habits are Context-Cued
§  Habits are triggered by specific cues
Time
Location
Specific situations or objects
Specific people
Mood
Physiological states
Social and cultural practices
Other habits
Habits are Context-Cued
§  Habits are triggered by specific cues
§  Control of behavior is delegated from
’willpower’ (i.e., intention, motivation) to
the behavioral environment (i.e., cues)
Habits are Context-Cued
§  Habits are cued in stable contexts
§  Control of behavior is delegated from
’willpower’ (i.e., intention, motivation) to
the behavioral environment (i.e., cues)
§  Not in line with models of behavior in
social, health, consumer, and
environmental psychology
Theory of Planned Behaviour
Self-Determination Theory
Value-Belief-Norm Theory of
Environmentalism
Measuring Habit
How often do you perform behavior ’X’
Never O
O
O
O
O
Always
Conceptual and psychometric problems
Measuring Habit
How often do you perform behavior ’X’ by force of habit
Never O
O
O
O
O
Always
Even more conceptual and psychometric problems
Self-Report Habit Index
Behavior ’X’ is something…
… I do frequently.
… I do automatically.
… I do without thinking.
… that would require effort not to do.
… I do without having to consciously remember.
… that makes me feel weird if I do not do it.
… that belongs to my daily routine.
… I start doing before I realize I’m doing it.
… I would find hard not to do.
… I have no need to think about doing.
… that’s typically “me.”
… I have been doing for a long time.
Verplanken & Orbell (2003), Journal of Applied Social Psychology
Self-Report Habit Index
•  Facets:
–  Experience of repetition
–  Minimal awareness
–  Lack of conscious intent
–  Difficulty to control
–  Efficiency
–  Identity
Verplanken & Orbell (2003), Journal of Applied Social Psychology
Consequences of Habituation
§  Tunnel vision: lack of attention to
information
Attention to New Information
Information acquisition
4.50
3.75
4.50
*
3.75
3.00
3.00
2.25
2.25
1.50
1.50
0.75
0.75
0.00
0.00
weak car habit
*
strong car habit
Verplanken, Aarts, van Knippenberg (1997), European Journal of Social Psychology
Information acquisition
Attention to New Information
4.1
4.0
3.9
3.8
3.7
3.6
3.5
3.4
3.3
3.2
3.1
3.0
2.9
2.8
weak car habit
strong car habit
1 2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27
Imaginary travel mode choice situations
Verplanken, Aarts, van Knippenberg (1997), European Journal of Social Psychology
Information acquisition
Attention to New Information
4.1
4.0
3.9
3.8
3.7
3.6
3.5
3.4
3.3
3.2
3.1
3.0
2.9
2.8
weak car habit
strong car habit
1 2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27
Imaginary travel mode choice situations
Verplanken, Aarts, van Knippenberg (1997), European Journal of Social Psychology
Consequences of Habituation
§  Tunnel vision: lack of attention to
information
§  Disjunction between attitudes/intentions
and behavior
Intention-Behavior Relation
INTENTION
survey
BEHAVIOR
travel diary
Verplanken, Aarts, van Knippenberg, & Moonen (1998), British Journal of Social Psychology
Intention-Behavior Relation
1.00
strong car habit
actual car use
0.90
0.80
moderate car habit
0.70
0.60
0.50
weak car habit
0.40
0.30
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
intention to use the car
7
8
Verplanken, Aarts, van Knippenberg, & Moonen (1998), British Journal of Social Psychology
Promoting Sustainable Behaviors
Using public transport . Installing insulation . Recycling .
Buying local . Taking the train to domestic destinations .
Reading energy labels . Switching off appliances at night .
Cycling to work . Installing a smart energy meter . Waste less
food . Ethical spending . Protesting against nuclear power .
Buying organic food . Using a shopping bag . Eco-driving .
Avoiding overseas flights . Washing at 30 degrees Celcius .
Switching off lights . Buying energy efficient products . Signing
pro-green petitions . Taking shorter showers . Car pooling .
Composting . Saving energy . Walking instead of driving short
distances . Lowering the thermostat by one degree .
Value Priorities
National security
Respect for
tradition Social order
Social
power
Authority
Public image
Wealth
Family
Self-discipline security
Social Successful
Honor
recognition
Ambitious
parents
Intelligent
Devout
Loyal
Helpful
Honest
Friendship
Enjoying life
Exciting life
Wisdom
Social justice
Intelligent
Protecting the
environment
Equality Unity with
nature
Self-respect
Pleasure
Daring
Independent
Creativity
Freedom
Value Circumplex (Schwartz, 1992)
Value Priorities
National security
Respect for
tradition Social order
Social
power
Authority
Public image
Wealth
Family
Self-discipline security
Social Successful
Honor
recognition
Ambitious
parents
Intelligent
Devout
Loyal
Helpful
Honest
Friendship
Enjoying life
Exciting life
Wisdom
Social justice
Intelligent
Protecting the
environment
Equality Unity with
nature
Self-respect
Pleasure
Daring
Independent
Creativity
Freedom
Value Circumplex (Schwartz, 1992)
Value Priorities
7.00
6.00
5.00
mean
4.00
3.00
2.00
1.00
.00
Students in Norway, N = 138
Value Priorities
What do you see as important issues facing Britain today?
1. Economy
2. Law and order
3. Unemployment
4. Immigration
5. Health care
6. Education
7. Inflation
8. Foreign affairs
9. Social security
10. Poverty
11. Morality
12. Housing
13. Elderly care
14. Wages
15. Drug abuse
16. Petrol prices
17. EU
18. Overpopulation
19. Public services
20.Taxation
21. Environment
22. Council tax
23. Public transport
24. Value of pound stirling
British adults, N = 956
C
Ipsos/MORI Polls 2011
Value Priorities
Environmentally friendly choices
+2.00
+1.50
+1.00
+0.50
0.00
-0.50
-1.00
-1.50
-2.00
no value
activation
value
activation
Verplanken & Holland (2002), Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
Environmentally friendly choices
Value Priorities
+2.00
Low environmental concern
+1.50
High environmental concern
+1.00
+0.50
0.00
-0.50
-1.00
-1.50
-2.00
no value
activation
value
activation
Verplanken & Holland (2002), Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
Environmentally friendly choices
Value Priorities
+2.00
Low environmental concern
+1.50
High environmental concern
+1.00
+0.50
0.00
-0.50
-1.00
-1.50
-2.00
no value
activation
value
activation
Verplanken & Holland (2002), Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
Promoting Sustainable Behaviors
Using public transport . Installing insulation . Recycling .
Buying local . Taking the train to domestic destinations .
Reading energy labels . Switching off appliences at night .
Cycling to work . Installing a smart energy meter . Waste less
food . Ethical spending . Protesting against nuclear power .
Buying organic food . Using a shopping bag . Eco-driving .
Avoiding overseas flights . Washing at 30 degrees Celcius .
Switching off lights . Buying energy efficient products . Signing
pro-green petitions . Taking shorter showers . Car pooling .
Composting . Saving energy . Walking instead of driving short
distances . Loweing the thermostat by one degree .
Habits are Bad News for
Information-Based Interventions
INFORMATION
ATTITUDE
INFORMATION
NORMS
INFORMATION
CONTROL
INTENTION
BEHAVIOR
Habits are Bad News for
Information-Based Interventions
INFORMATION
ATTITUDE
INFORMATION
NORMS
INFORMATION
CONTROL
INTENTION
BEHAVIOR
Why Not Start By Changing Behavior?
ATTITUDE
Legislation
Technical
solutions
Infrastructure
BEHAVIOR
NORMS
CONTROL
Some Good News: Prevention
Newly qualified drivers
Some Good News: Prevention
Newly qualified drivers
Habit Discontinuities
§  Habits may (temporarily) be broken
Moving house
Changing jobs
Starting a family
Retirement
Changes in infrastructure
Legislation
Economic downfall
Verplanken & Wood (2006), Journal of Public Policy and Marketing
Habit Discontinuities
§  Habits may (temporarily) be broken
§  Windows of opportunity for change
§  Re-orientation
§  Negotiating new behaviors
§  Need for information, deliberation
§  Interventions potentially more effective
Verplanken & Wood (2006), Journal of Public Policy and Marketing
Habit Discontinuities
§  Habits may (temporarily) be broken
§  Windows of opportunity for change
§  Some circumstantial evidence
Verplanken, Walker, Davis, & Jurasek (2008), Journal of Environmental Psychology
Sustainable Commuting
Sustainable commuting
0.80
0.70
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
High
Low
Environmental concern
Verplanken, Walker, Davis, & Jurasek (2008), Journal of Environmental Psychology
Sustainable Commuting
Sustainable commuting
0.80
0.70
Recently
moved
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
Not
moved
Recently
moved
Not
moved
0.10
High
Low
Environmental concern
Verplanken, Walker, Davis, & Jurasek (2008), Journal of Environmental Psychology
Habit Discontinuities
§  Habits may (temporarily) be broken
§  Windows of opportunity for change
§  Some circumstancial evidence
§  Field experiment: intervention to promote
sustainable behaviors among movers vs
non-movers
Habit Discontinuities
intervention
movers
non-movers
control
Habit Discontinuities
intervention
movers
non-movers
control
Habit Formation
§  Habitual features are desirable for
behaviors we want to promote
Frequent and automatic behavior
Cue-controlled
Difficult to change
Habit Formation
§  Habitual features are desirable for
behaviors we want to promote
§  Habituation as intervention goal
Habit Formation
§  Habitual features are desirable for
behaviors we want to promote
§  Habituation as intervention goal
§  Forming implementation intentions as
vehicle for habituation
Orbell & Verplanken (2010), Health Psychology
Habit Formation
§  Habitual features are desirable for
behaviors we want to promote
§  Habituation as intervention goal
§  Forming implementation intentions as
vehicle for habituation
§  Habit formation modeling
Modeling Habit Formation
(Lally et al., EJSP, 2010)
Habits of Thinking
Three Pillars of Habit
Repetition
Automaticity
Context-Cued
Mental Habits
Repetition
Automaticity
Context-Cued
Repetitive Thinking
For instance (see Watkins 2008):
§
§
§
§
§
§
§
§
Depressive rumination
Instrumental rumination
Positive rumination
Self-absorption
Mind wandering
Mental simulation
Counterfactual thinking
Negative self-thinking
Mental Habits
CONTENT
(”what”)
- beliefs
- attributions
- worries
- expectations
Questionnaires
Interview
Thought-listing
OUTCOME
- FEELINGS OF LOW
SELF-WORTH
- ANXIETIES
- RELATION PROBLEMS
- EATING PROBLEMS
PROCESS
(”how”)
HABITUAL QUALITY
OF THINKING
- repetition
- automaticity
- context-cued
Habit Index of
Negative Thinking
Habit Index of Negative Thinking (HINT)
Thinking negatively about myself is something…
… I do frequently.
… I do automatically.
… I do unintentionally.
… that feels sort of natural to me.
… I do without further thinking.
… that would require mental effort to leave.
… I do every day.
… I start doing before I realize I’m doing it.
… I would find hard not to do.
… I don’t do on purpose.
… that’s typically “me.”
… I have been doing for a long time.
Verplanken, Friborg, Wang, Trafimow, & Woolf (2007), Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
Mental Habits
Content of thinking
Outcome
variable
Mental habit
component
Self-Esteem
Self-Esteem
Content of negative
self-thinking
Self-Esteem
Mental habit
component
Verplanken (2006), British Journal of Social Psychology
Verplanken, Friborg, Wang, Trafimow, & Woolf (2007), Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
Implicit Self-Esteem (IAT)
Content of negative
self-thinking
Implicit
Self-Esteem
Mental habit
component
Verplanken, Friborg, Wang, Trafimow, & Woolf (2007), Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
Body Image
C Molly van der Weij 2000
Body Image
Content of negative
body image thinking
Body Image
Dissatisfaction
Eating Disorder
Propensity
Mental habit
component
Verplanken & Velsvik (2008), Body Image
Verplanken & Tangelder (2011), Psychology & Health
Self-Esteem
Habitual Worrying
Habitual Worrying
Anxiety
Content of worried
thinking
Test Anxiety
Generalized
Anxiety
Disorder
Mental habit
component
Verplanken & Fisher (2012), submitted
Ecological Worries
You want your polar bear here, isn’t it…?
Ecological Worries
Ecological Worries
Ecological Worries
Content of worried
thinking
Environmental
Attitudes
Sustainable
Behaviors
Mental habit
component
Verplanken & Roy (2012), unpublished data
Ecological Worries
Content of worried
thinking
Generalized
Anxiety
Disorder
Mental habit
component
Verplanken & Roy (2012), unpublished data
Ecological Worries
<< My worries are rational; climate change is not. >>
(Anonymous participant, June 2012)
Conclusions
§  Habit is an important psychological
construct, and should be measured
as such
§  Habits matter:
ü  information processing
ü  locus of behavioral control
§  Habits may form barriers for change
§  Habits may form opportunities for
change
Conclusions
§  We have mental habits too, and they
matter
§  Mental habits can be unconstructive
§  Habitual ecological worrying may be
constructive and promote sustainable
behaviors
§  Habitual ecological worriers are not
neurotic!
The Environment and the Self
<< To harm any part of the environment is to
harm one's self, as we are not separate or
other than the world in which we live >>
(Yahoo discussion forum on Buddhism
and the Environment, June 2012)
THANK YOU
b.verplanken@bath.ac.uk
Number of distressing pictures seen
Beneficial Effects of
Mindfulness Meditation
35
30
25
Low HINT
20
15
High HINT
10
5
0
control
mindfulness
Verplanken & Fisher (2012), submitted