Contrasts in the Definition of Freedom:
1. Acts Parliament Passed:
Parliament passed the Wool Act (1699), the Hat Act (1732), and the Iron Act (1750)
which prohibited the manufacture of these goods in the colonies. The colonists were now forced
to import these goods from England. These acts caused clashes between Parliament and the
colonists. They were producing these profitable exports and Parliament was ordering them to
ship them over to England. Parliament was basically telling the colonies to ship their wealth over
to England even though it was rightfully theirs. The colonies felt that England was trying to
undermine their freedom.
These acts forced the colonies to become more dependent on England and reasserted
the Parliaments belief that a colonies chief responsibility to the mother empire was to help it
make a profit. However the colonies viewed themselves as allies because they had fought
alongside the English during the French and Indian War. They believed that they had the right
to govern themselves. This caused more conflicts because Parliament and the colonist’s had
different views on a colony’s role. The Colonists identify themselves as the equals to England
however in England’s eyes the colonists are below them and therefore they have the right to
control them.
The Stamp Act passed in 1765, caused many political conflicts. It was a direct tax and it
affected every colonist especially merchants, business owners, intellectual writers, artisans, and
masters. This act required that all printed materials carry a British stamp purchased from the
authorities on it. This act angered colonists immensely because Parliament was directly taxing
them and they did not even have representation in the English government. Also the tax was
open ended, meaning it did not have a termination date. As a result nine colonies united and
created the Stamp Act Congress. Twenty seven delegates from the colonies gathered together
to oppose and appeal to the Parliament for the Stamp Acts repeal.
The Tea Act was also passed in 1773. Parliament placed taxes on Dutch tea and lowered
the price of the Chinese tea that the East India Company had large holdings of. Many colonists
felt that, if it paid this new tax then they were acknowledging Britain’s right to tax them. They
were angry that Britain was basically trying to control who they purchased tea from. This act
angered colonists to the point where on December 17, 1773, colonists disguised as Native
Americans boarded three ships filled with tea imports in the Boston harbor and dumped over
three hundred chests in the water. The colonists’ disguising themselves as Native Americans is
very important because it’s a turning point; colonists no longer view themselves as Englishmen
but Americans. They are beginning to gain a national identity and are starting to separate
themselves from their mother country. Parliament passed the Coercive acts to punish the city. It
closed the port until the city paid them back for the loss of revenue. Also the Parliament now
gave British commanders the power to lodge soldiers in private homes. These acts caused the
colonies to unite together against Britain who they felt was seriously trying to undermine their
freedom. Colonists were further outraged when Parliament passed the Quebec Act which gave
the Roman Catholics there the same rights as the Protestants who lived in the thirteen colonies.
Tensions ran even higher because colonists were upset because their rights were being
restricted, while the Roman Catholics were receiving more rights.
These Acts severely damaged relations between Britain and America. The colonists felt
that Britain was infringing upon their freedom and they grew tired of it. The Acts limited the
colonies economical freedom and made them even more dependent on England. The colonists
thought they were allies to England while in Parliament’s opinion they were subordinates to the
crown. Their job was to help the mother country earn money. The acts caused the colonies that
once thought they were separate entities unite together. The colonists formed a Second
Continental Congress because of the acts and declared their independence from England.
2. Ben Franklin-Observations Concerning the Increase of Mankind, Peopling of Countries, etc.
In Benjamin Franklin’s pamphlet, he primarily wrote about who he felt belonged in the
colonies. He felt that the only true Caucasian people were the Saxons and the English. He felt
other Europeans were not Caucasians because they had a swarthy complexion. Slaves and
Germans were a danger to the American society because he worried that the large German
population would not adopt American culture and instead assimilate the Americans. Because
slaves did all the intensive labor their master’s children were becoming lazy and spoiled. He felt
that slaves destroy white children’s sense of work and industry and in his opinion good work
ethic offered people freedom. According to Franklin the British were superior and instead of
increasing the population of the blacks and tawny, there should be a population increase of the
British and the Native Americans. He felt that some populations were better suited for freedom
than others and if you gave those who were not suited then they would abuse it. Freedom
should be given to those could use it correctly. In his opinion, in order to receive freedom you
had to fit the mold. Blacks, Asians and all Europeans except the British did not fit the mold and
they did not belong in America.
3. The Declaration of Independence( liberalism’s role in the declaration)
The Declaration of Independence was written by the delegates of the Second
Continental Congress. America declared itself an independent nation on July 2, 1776. The
Congress claimed that they had the right to get rid of the English government because
Parliament was not protecting the colonists’ rights. The delegates felt that the governed made a
social contract with its government and if it was not upheld then they had the right to abolish or
alter it. In England, however the government was permanent. The government received its
power from the people and it could be taken away from if the government failed to protect their
rights. The Declaration also depicted the shift in the idea of where a person received his
freedom from. According to the English, a person received his freedom from the law however
the colonists now felt that they received their freedom from nature and God. Liberty became a
universal entitlement instead of a privilege. Mankind was entitled to Life, Liberty and the pursuit
of happiness according to the declaration.
The delegates felt that the governed gave up some of its rights to the government and
the government had to secure their rights not deny them. The Declaration also indicated the
shift from the idea that there was a hierarchical society and that others enjoyed more liberties
than others. The Declaration stated that all men were equal (really only white landowners). This
was a new idea, because England’s government was based on inequality. People were not equal,
some people enjoyed more rights than others.
The Declaration was not created on a whim. The Congress decided that declaring
independence was its only option if it wanted to be free. Parliament was continuing to restrict
the colonies freedom and their plea to George II had fallen on deaf ears. The colonies economy
was falling apart because it could not manufacture virtually any goods. The relations between
England and America were deteriorating. The local elites in the colonies resented Parliament
because they were threatening their authority. The Declaration of Independence showed
another major shift in the American definition of freedom as the rights of mankind not just
Englishmen.
4. The Revolutionary War- Americans believed that England was a tyrant and that it was taking
away their freedom. They wanted equality and the power to govern themselves and they felt
the only way to attain this was to become its own independent nation. However the
Revolutionary War did not guarantee equality to all people living in America, slaves, women and
Native Americans freedoms were still restricted. The war only established freedom for white
men. In fact it only threatened Native American freedom. White settlers were already
encroaching on Native American land and the Indians knew that if America won the war then
they would lose even more land because Americans would claim control over the land. Native
Americans tried to remain neutral however tribes still split into pro English and pro American
factions. After the war Native Americans were forced to give up even more land and were
forced into New York, the Ohio Valley and the southern backcountry. The Revolutionary war
caused freedom to become a major word in Native American vocabulary. Freedom to them
meant defending their own independence and preserving control over their land.
At first the war did not mean anything to the slaves because the war would not change
their status, they were still property and had no voice in their government. However when Lord
Dunmore’s 1775 proclamation promised slaves freedom if they joined the British army,
thousands of slaves escaped and joined British troops. The British encouraged slaves to escape
because they needed the extra support and because they knew the southern economy
depended on slaves and if they escaped then the economy would be disrupted. Initially George
Washington refused to allow black recruits in his army but he changed his mind after Dunmore’s
proclamation. Slaves joined state militias and fought in intergraded militias alongside whites.
Because Rhode Island’s population primarily consisted of slaves, it offered slaves their freedom
if they enlisted. Rhode Island formed black regiment. Southern colonies excluding South
Carolina and Georgia enlisted blacks free and enslaved to fight. Although they were not
promised their freedom overtly, many did gain their freedom after the war. The Revolutionary
War offered slaves bargaining power. It gave them an opportunity to gain their freedom.
African Americans tried to get Caucasian Americans to understand that freedom was a universal
entitlement and they should not be denied theirs. Slavery stripped them of all their rights. They
wanted the Caucasians to live up to their decree that liberty was a universal entitlement.
However many patriots argued that white freedom was only possible with black slavery because
slaves provided Caucasians with economic freedom.
Even though women actively participated in the war by raising funds for the troops,
making homespun goods and passing along information about where the British army was
moving to, their roles did not really change after the war. However more women began to
become educated about political affairs and began to participate in discussions. Women were
slowly becoming more involved in politics which was traditionally seen as a male’s realm. The
Revolutionary War did not bring any changes to women’s rights. Their husbands still had
control over their person, property and choices.
5. The treaty of Paris(1783)
The treaty recognized American independence and gave the U.S. control over the land
between Canada and Florida and east of the Mississippi River. However it also removed the
British from the territory which was bad for the Native Americans because the British allowed
the Native Americans to retain their land. Now the Americans controlled the land and they
planned on moving into the territory and establishing more states.
6. Articles of Confederation
Congress wrote the first constitution in 1777, it was called the Articles of Confederation.
The constitution was ratified in 1781. In the Articles of Confederation, the state held more
power than the national government. The delegates feared a centralized national government
which they felt for certain would result in a tyranny similarly to what happened to Britain. The
Articles of Confederation was more like a firm league of friendship instead of a common
government. The thirteen states still retained their sovereignty. State delegates did not want to
give up any of their power however the national government managed to get some states to
give up their land claims in the west (VA, PA and CT) and allow the government to control it. The
Articles of Confederation did not establish a judiciary or executive branch. The national
government was given the power to declare war, conduct foreign affairs, coin money and make
treaties with other governments. However it could not levy taxes or regulate commerce. In
order to pass laws nine votes had to be in favor. Every state was allowed one vote but they
could send any amount of representatives. The national government had to rely on the states
to help it bring in revenue and pay off the large war debt. However when the national
government asked the states for funds to pay off its debt, it barely received any money because
the states had their own debts to clear. The national government decided to sell western lands
to bring in more revenue. The Articles of Confederation only lasted seven years (1781-1788)
because it was ineffective. The national government’s powers were too limited had democracy
became too excessive. There had to be a balance.
7. State constitutions
The state constitutions had many differences such as voting rights. Voting rights varied
from state to state. In order to vote in Massachusetts, South Carolina, New Jersey or Virginia
you had to meet property qualifications. In other states such as Pennsylvania, you had to be
over twenty one and had to pay taxes to vote. Vermont was the only state that expelled
property and taxpaying qualifications for voting. But the state constitutions generally expanded
the amount of people allowed to vote. Men with less property assumed political offices.
However, southern states were less democratic and their legislatures were dominated by gentry
which kept the hierarchy in place. All the states excluding Pennsylvania, Georgia and Vermont,
had two house legislatures. The states where property qualifications were dropped signified the
end of colonies restricting voting rights to those who were “economically independent” because
they owned land. Although the state constitutions were very different from each other they
had one thing in common. All states granted people their religious freedom.
8. Constitution
A new constitution was written because the Articles of Confederation was a complete failure.
Delegates realized that democracy could be excessive. The definition of liberty has once again
changed, now liberty needs authority to regulate it and make laws. Delegates felt that if a new
constitution was not created then an anarchy or monarchy would occur. The Articles of
Confederation did not help pay off the national government’s debt. The national government
needed more power. The new Constitution established three branches of government: the
judiciary, the executive branch and the legislature. During the meeting three plans were
proposed. In the end the delegates decided to use the Connecticut Plan. It proposed that a two
house legislature be established with a house of representatives and the senate.
The Constitution is based on two principles: federalism and the check and balances
system. The Constitution gave Congress the power to levy taxes, regulate commerce, declare
war, borrow money, and deal with foreign nations and Native Americans. The states power was
also limited. States could not issue money, impair contracts, interfere with interstate commerce
and levy import and export duties.
The checks and balances system was created to ensure that the balance of power
between the branches of government were equal. For example the congress can make laws but
the president can veto them.
The delegates did not trust the ordinary men. They felt that they did not fully
understand the government and that they could ruin it. They placed limits on democracy
because of their fears. Most elections were indirect; the House of Representatives was the only
part of the government where the people directly elected them. The senators were elected by
the state assemblies. Representatives were elected every two years so they had to do their job
well in order to get re-elected however senators were elected every six years and could consider
things more. The senators acted as blocks. The president and the vice president were not
elected by popular vote instead they were elected by the Electoral College.
9. The Bill of Rights
Most people felt that the bill of rights were meaningless however the Anti-federalists
felt that the Constitution did not defend their rights effectively so James Madison wrote the Bill
of Rights and presented it to congress. Madison felt that the checks and balances system was
more important and that amendments could not predict the ways Congress might function in
the future. The Bills Of Rights were generally ignored during this time. People already knew
they were granted the right to practice their religion freely, bear arms, freedom of speech and
assembly, etc. The Bill of Rights was created so satiate the Ant-Federalists so they would stop
complaining. The Bill of Rights just stated what the inalienable rights that the people could enjoy
without governmental interference.
10. Thomas Jefferson vs. Alexander Hamilton’s differing views on freedom
Thomas Jefferson and Alexander Hamilton both had different views on which direction
America’s future was headed to. Alexander Hamilton felt that America should become a
powerful commercial republic. He felt that ‘city air breeds free’. He meant that a person
received true freedom in cities because cities offered endless opportunities. Hamilton believed
in meritocracy, meaning that people with merit should run the society. He felt that those who
rose the highest were the best and therefore were qualified to run the country. Alexander H. felt
that American freedom meant the right to compete. Life was a competition and if you worked
hard then you would rise if not keep trying or follow those who are rising. Alexander Hamilton’s
supporters included financiers, manufacturers and merchants. They formed a political party
named the Federalists. The Federalists were merchants, lawyers and established farmers who
grew cash crops such as indigo, tobacco, rice, etc. They were the elitists of the society.
Federalists believed that America had a commercial future. They wanted to ally themselves with
Britain because they wanted to build positive foreign relations with the country because of
trade. Britain produced most of the goods America imported. Britain also controlled most of the
West Indian market. It was one of the strongest empires of the world during this time and it was
logical to try to become an ally Britain.
Thomas Jefferson had a completely different view from Hamilton. In his opinion
America’s future was in the country and should be based on agriculture. He wanted to establish
a more rural society. He envisioned America to be a republic where yeoman farmers were
independent and could support their families. Yeoman farmers would be completely
independent from the cash economy. He did not want to promote manufacturing or urban
growth. When Alexander Hamilton, the secretary of treasury, proposed that the national
government pay off all the states debts, he was met with opposition from Thomas Jefferson, the
secretary of state. Alexander Hamilton also wanted to establish a national bank which Jefferson
also opposed. Jefferson felt that if a national bank was established and if the government
assumed state debts then the country would become like England. Hamilton and Jefferson were
able to reach a compromise. Jefferson would allow the national government to solve the debt if
the capital was moved to the south on the Potomac River between Maryland and Virginia.
Hamilton agreed because it did not matter to him where the capital was. Jefferson wanted the
capital to be moved because he wanted to balance the power between the north and the south.
New York was the political capital and it was becoming the financial capital as well. Jefferson
feared that the north would have too much power. He wanted the south to have the political
power. Jefferson was an anti-Federalist; his supporters included wealthy southern planters,
ordinary farmers, etc. They formed the Democratic - Republican Party in opposition to the
Constitution, which they felt undermined true freedom because it had a centralized
government. The Democratic-Republicans had more faith in self government and felt that the
state and the local governments should have more power than the national government. They
felt that the power should not be concentrated on the elites. Also the Democratic- Republicans
felt that the U.S. should establish good foreign relations with France because it was the only
republican country in the east. They felt that France shared more similar political and
philosophical views to America than Britain.
Both men had different views over where America’s future should lie. This lead to a split
and the first political parties are formed. The Northern states think that America had a
commercial future while the southern states felt that America had an agricultural future. Before
delegates were arguing over how the government should look, now they are arguing over who
should control it. When the Federalists were in power in the government they tried to pass laws
to destroy the Democratic Republicans. Congress passed three acts, The Naturalization Act, the
Alien Act and the Sedition Act. The Naturalization Act extended the amount of years an
immigrant had to live in America before he could petition for citizenship. Immigrants had to live
in America for fourteen years before they could be qualified to become citizens. Congress
passed this act because most Democratic-Republicans were immigrants. In 1796, the Alien Act
was passed. This act gave the government the right to deport immigrants who they felt were a
danger to the America. Congress also passed the Sedition Act in 1798, which prohibited public
assemblies and the press (especially the Republican press) from printing anything negative
about the government. If you criticized the government then you would be prosecuted. John
Adams, the president at the time felt that these acts were going too far and attempted to veto
them however Alexander Hamilton pressured Congress and they over ruled him. This led to a
split in the Federalist Party. The more modest Federalists sided with Adams while the radicals
sided with Alexander Hamilton and Congress. This split lead to the end of the Federalist Party.
11. Louisiana Purchase
Thomas Jefferson purchased the Louisiana territory from France in 1803. Thomas Jefferson
wanted to establish an agricultural society however in order to do that he needed transportation
and land. America had already received permission from Spain, who had gained control over the
territory, to use New Orleans to store their goods as well as the river so that goods could travel
through. However France retrieved the territory back from Spain because Napoleon Bonaparte’s
brother was the ruler of Spain. This worried Jefferson because without New Orleans his vision could
not come true and the Mississippi River would be useless. He sent negotiators to Paris to see if he
could purchase New Orleans. They offered Napoleon ten million dollars. Napoleon told them
that they could get the entire Louisiana territory if they gave him 15 million. Jefferson
needed to act quickly so he purchased the territory before congress could review the
decision. He completely overstepped his boundaries because the negotiators were only
authorized to offer buy New Orleans and offer France ten million dollars, however this was
a good bargain so he grabbed it Jefferson overstepped his boundaries for the sake of his
vision for America. His views on a centralized government had not changed.
Thesis statement- The contours of freedom have significantly changed during the course of
American history from the eighteenth century to the nineteenth century. America went through
many phases. As the years progressed the arguments changed from how our government should
look to who controlled it and finally where America’s future lied.