Ministry of Education, Science, Youth and Sports of Ukraine
Sumy State University
3152
METHODOLOGICAL INSTRUCTIONS
on the topic “Cultorology:
Ukrainan and foreign culture”
on Cultorology
for foreign students
Sumy
Sumy State University
2011
Metodological instructions on the topic “Culturology:
Ukrainian and foreign culture” / compilers: V. A. Klymenko,
N. V. Lobko. – Sumy : Sumy State University, 2011. – 90 p.
History Depatment
2
CONTENTS
Instruction……………………………………………………
4
Thematic plan of lectures ……………………………………
5
Thematic plan of seminars …………………………………..
8
Theme 1. The notion of culture. Primeval Culture ………….
11
Theme 2. Culture of Ancient East (Mesopotamia, Ancient
Egypt, China, India) ……………………………………………. 16
Theme 3. Culture of Ancient Greece and Rome ……………
24
Theme 4. Middle Age culture ………………………………
32
Theme 5. Renaissance ………………………………………
37
Theme 6. Baroque culture …………………………………..
44
Theme 7. The Enlightenment in Europe …………………….
50
Theme 8. Cultural process of the second half of the XIX –
beginning of the XX century ………………………………..
55
Theme 9. Culture of the XX century ………………………..
61
Theme 10. Culture in the second half of the XX – beginning
of the XXI century ………………………………………….
65
Test ..........................................................................................
68
Glossary ………………………………………………………
77
Control questions …………………………………………….
87
References ……………………………………………………
89
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Introduction
The history of foreign and Ukrainian culture is a universal
property.
This course in higher education gives the opportunity to
become acquainted with the cultural achievements of the world in
general and the Ukrainian people in particular.
Programme of this course includes the study of the
phenomenon culture, issues of cultural development from ancient
civilizations to modern times, focusing on the most important
achievements of culture.
Also this paper focuses on the history of Ukrainian culture, its
relationship to world culture.
While studying the subject students should understand:
a) the basic laws of cultural and historical process;
b) the characteristics of world civilizations and cultures;
c) artistic styles;
d) the types and genres of art;
e) stages of development of Ukrainian culture;
f) the most important events of the Ukrainian culture;
g) the specific nature of Ukrainian culture.
These metodological instructions are worked out for Englishspeaking foreign students.
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THEMATIC PLAN OF LECTURES
1. The Theory of Culturology (2).
1.1. Subject and Aim of the Course.
1.2. Essence and Structure of Culture.
1.3. Typology of Culture.
2. Ancient Culture (2).
2.1. Prehistory and the Birth of Civilization:
a) Paleolithic Era;
b) Mesolithic Era;
c) Neolithic Era.
2.2. The Ancient Near East (2).
1. Ancient Africa.
2. Ancient Egypt: Gods and Art.
3. Mesopotamia.
4. The Hebrews.
5. Ancient India.
3. The Classical Legacy (2).
3.1. The Aegean Civilization.
3.2. Ancient Greece: Cultural Identity.
3.3. The Art of Etruscans.
3.4. Culture of Ancient Rome.
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4. Culture of the Middle Ages (2).
4.1. Basic tendencies of the development of culture of the Middle
Ages.
4.2. Western European culture.
4.3. Byzantine culture.
4.4. Culture of Eastern peoples.
4.5. Islamic Art.
5. The Renaissance (2).
5.1. The Early Renaissance.
5.2. The High Renaissance in Italy.
5.3. North Renaissance.
5.4. Reformation and its influence on Europe.
6. European Culture in the XIX century. (2).
6.1. The Baroque Style in Western Europe.
6.2. Rococo and the XVIII century.
6.3. Neoclassicism. Romanticism.
6.4. Realism of the XIX century.
6.5. Impressionism and Post-Impressionism.
7. Culture of the XX century (2).
7.1. Modernism and its Development.
7.2. Innovation and Continuity.
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7.3. National Construction.
8. Ukrainian Culture from the Middle Ages to the XIX century. (4).
8.1. Ukrainian Culture in the XV – XVIII centuries.
8.2. Ukrainian Culture in the XIX century.
8.3. Ukrainian National Revival.
9. Ukrainian Culture in the end of the XIX – XXI centuries. (2).
9.1. Problems of Ukrainian culture in the context of world
development.
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THEMATIC PLAN OF SEMINARS
1. Essence and structure of culture. Primeval culture. Culture of
Ancient Greece (2).
1.1. The notion of culture.
1.2. Culture of Primeval Society.
1.3. Culture of Ancient East Society.
2. Culture of Ancient world (2).
2.1. The Ancient Near East:
a) Mesopotamia;
b) Ancient Iran;
c) Persian Empire;
d) Ancient Egypt.
2.2. Ancient Greece.
2.3. Ancient Rome.
3. The Middle Ages Culture (2).
3.1. Early Christian Art.
3.2. Byzantine Art.
3.3. Islamic Art.
4. The Medieval West (2).
4.1. Romanesque Art:
a) Architecture;
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b) Sculpture;
c) Mural Painting.
4.2. Gothic Art:
a) Architecture;
b) Sculpture.
5. Early Modern through the XIX century (2).
5.1. The Renaissance (2):
a) Italian Renaissance (Giotto di Bondone; Dante; Brunelleschi,
Botticelli; Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael, Gentile
Bellini Titian);
b) Reformation and its influence on the culture of Western Europe;
c) sixteenth-century painting in Northern Europe ( Bosch, Pieter
Brueghel the Elder, Dürer, Cranach, Hans Holbein the Younger).
5.2. The Baroque Style in Western Europe (2):
a) Baroque painting (Bernini, Caravaggio, Rubens, Rembrandt,
Velazquez);
b) Sculpture.
5.3. Rococo and Neoclassicism (2):
a) Rococo Age and the Enlightenment;
b) the art of Romanticism;
c) culture of America.
6. The Nineteenth-Century Culture. The Global Village of the XX
century (2).
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6.1. The Modernist Assault.
6.2. Totalitarianism and the Arts.
6.3. The Arts in the Information Age.
7. Ukrainian Culture (2).
7.1. Ukrainian culture in the XV – XVIII centuries.
7.2. Ukrainian culture of the XVIII – XIX centuries.
7.3. Culture of independent Ukraine.
Total: 20
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THEME 1.
THE NOTION OF CULTURE. PRIMEVAL CULTURE
1. Essence and structure of culture.
2. Culture of primeval society.
3. Culture of ancient East societies.
Basic categories and notions: Old Stone Age, mesolithic,
neolithic, animism, culture, culturology, totemism, fetishism, sacral,
magic, civilization.
1. Essence and structure of culture. The term "culture"
originated from Lat. cultura — till, education, development. Definite
clearness in the definition of the notion "culture" was done at the
World conference on cultural policy which was held under
UNESCO aegis in 1982. According to its declaration: "Culture is a
complex of special material, spiritual, intellectual and emotional
lineaments of society, that includes not only different arts and mode
of life, fundamental of human being, valuables systems, traditions
and beliefs". Speaking about the structure of phenomenon of culture
it should be mentioned that there are two kinds of it: material and
spiritual. But it is necessary to keep in mind, that this is a conditional
division.
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Material culture is the aggregate of productive means and
material commonwealth, that are created by human labour on each
stage of the development of the society.
The term "spiritual culture" is associated with the word
"spirit" which means non-material beginning. Spiritual culture
includes religious, intellectual, moral, legal, artistic and pedagogic
cultures.
Culture is divided into world and national one. World culture
is the aggregate of world cultures, that are determined by the system
of human values, which combine and develop the best lines of
national cultures.
World culture is a complex of society spiritual development,
general accomplishments of peoples of all continents, races, nations.
The definition of the term "national culture" should be started from
the definition of the notions "nation", "ethnos". National culture is
aggregate of ecological, political, domestic, ritual and moral factors.
According to the type of the creator, culture can be divided into elite,
folk and mass culture.
Elite (high) culture is created by society elite. Popular culture
is created by anonymous creators, it is named frequently as folklore.
Public culture is a popular culture, which is associated with
public consumption, for satisfaction of people's needs. Culture
civilization is not identical to notion “civilization”. The character of
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civilization is determined by productive relationships. Civilization is
considered to be the stage of social development, which comes after
barbarism and is characterized by creation of states, towns,
introduction of written language, art development.
2. Culture of primeval society. This question deals with the
general description of primeval epoch. A primeval culture is the
boundary, which separates human world from animals one.
According to the last data, primeval society came into existence over
2 mln years ago. Primeval culture should be considered as necessary
developmental stage of any culture.
The important place is occupied by historic division into
periods of primeval culture, which was offered for the first time by
American ethnographer L. Morgan. He divided a primeval culture
into epochs of savagery, barbarism and civilizations. A savagery
epoch is divided into lower, middle, and highest grades. Lower
savagery grade starts with the appearance of a man and an articulate
language, middle — with the appearance of fire and fishery, highest
— bow and arrows. Barbarism starts with diffusion of ceramics,
mastering of agriculture and cattle-breeding, and with use of iron.
Civilization starts to with the invention of an alphabet.
Archaeologically primeval society is divided into the
following periods: Stone period which is divided into Paleolithic
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(“Old Stone”) Era (about 40000 – 10000 B.C.), Mesolithic Era
(about 10000 – 8000 B.C.), and Neolithic Era (about 8000 – 2000
B.C.).
By the beginning of the Paleolithic era our own subspecies,
Homo Sapiens, had supplanted the earlier Neanderthal people, who
left no traces of any works of art. Paleolithic society was a culture of
hunters and gatherers who lived communally.
Many paintings and carvings on the walls of caves are
discovered in Europe, Africa, Australia, and North America.
3. In Paleolithic culture a woman played an important role.
She assumed a special importance: perceived as life-giver and
identified with the mysterious powers of procreation, she was exalted
as a Mother Earth. Perhaps the most famous Paleolithic sculpture is a
small limestone statue of a woman, the Venus of Willendorf. (This
little figure is called Venus after the Roman goddess of love).
Mesolithic Era . It coincided with the end of the Ice Age and
the development of a more temperate climate in about 8000 B.C.
Communities started to settle around bodies of water where fishing
became a major source of food. People began to cultivate cereals and
vegetables.
Neolithic Era. We have the change from hunting and
gathering to agriculture, and hence a less nomadic existence –
contributed to the development of a new art form: monumental stone
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architecture megaliths (from the Greek megas, meaning “big”).
Three distinctive stone structures regularly occur in these regions:
menhirs (from Celtic words meaning “stone” and “hir” meaning
“long”); dolmens (from the Celtic
dol
cromlechs (from the Celtic
meaning “circle” and
crom
meaning “table”); and
lech
meaning “place”).
The most famous Neolithic cromlech in Western Europe is
Stonehenge which was built in several stages from about 3000 to
1800 B.C.
Other Neolithic projects in Peru like Stonehenge may be
helped ancient farmers determine dates for planting crops, was used
for ritual celebrations, and thus for brining human needs into
harmony with the rhythms of nature.
Questions and tasks for self-control
1. What does the term “culture” mean?
2. What kinds of culture do you know?
3. Who is Homo Sapiens?
4. What is the Paleolithic Venus?
5. What is Cave Art?
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THEME 2. CULTURE OF ANCIENT EAST (MESOPOTAMIA,
ANCIENT EGYPT, CHINA, INDIA)
1. Ancient Africa. Egypt.
2. Mesopotamia. Hebrews.
3. Ancient India. China.
Basic categories and notions: polytheism, dynasty, fresco,
monotheism, papyrus, Ziggurat.
1. Antient Africa. Egypt. Throughout the history of Ancient
World, polytheism, the belief in many gods, prevailed. During the
second millennium B.C.E., a second kind of belief system emerged
among a small group of Mesopotamian people: monotheism, the
belief in one and only one god. The third belief system that emerged
among early civilizations was pantheism, best represented in the
Hindu faith of ancient India.
Dating back to about 8000 B.C. and located on the west bank
of the River Jordan in modern Israel, the Neolithic city of Jericho is
one of the world’s oldest fortified settlements. One of the largest
Neolithic cities (dates about 6800 – 6300 to 5500 B.C.) is Catal
Hüyük (modern Turkey).
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The most powerful and lasting civilization was Egypt. From
about 3000 B.C., Egypt was ruled by pharaohs (kings), whose
control of the land and its people was virtually absolute.
Ancient Egyptian culture is well known from hieroglyphic
texts in manuscripts and on paintings, sculptures, and buildings.
Hieroglyphs (from the two Greek words hieros meaning “sacred”,
and glipho meaning “I carve”) are a form of picture writing as
opposed to the more abstract cuneiform writing of Mesopotamia. The
hieroglyphic texts have revealed a great deal about Egyptian religion
and its influence on art and culture.
The most monumental expression of the Egyptian pharaoh’s
power was the pyramid – his burial place and point of entry into the
afterlife. Most of them were located on the western side of the Nile
with the sun rising to the east across the river.
The Giza pyramids were the most elaborate expression of the
Egyptian need to ensure a continued existence after death.
As durable and impressive as the tombs, Egyptian temples
provided another way of establishing the worshiper’s relationship
with the gods. Ancient Egyptian temples were considered a
microcosm of the universe, and as such they contained both earthly
and celestial symbolism.
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Egyptian painting and sculpture was used primarily in the
service of the ruler. Walls of Egyptian tombs and temples were
covered with sculpture and paintings – usually frescoes.
The Book of Dead, a collection of funerary prayers
originating as far back as 4000 B.C., guided and prepared the living
for judgment.
2. Mesopotamia. Mesopotamia (from Greek mesos meaning
“middle”, and potamos meaning “river”) is thus literally the “land
between the rivers”, and is bounded by the Tigris and the Euphrates.
In ancient Mesopotamian religion, the bull was worshiped as the
supreme male god under the name Anu. He was also the sky god, and
his roar was associated with the sound of thunder. Ninhursag was the
great mother goddess, who was identified with the Lady of the
Mountain. Enlil was the thunder god, Ea (or Enki) – the water god,
Namar (or Sin) – the moon god, Utu (later Shamash) – the sun god,
and Inanna (later Ishtar) – the goddess of love, fertility, and war.
The Ziggurat, derived from an Assyrian word literally
meaning “raised” or “high”, is uniquely Mesopotamian architectural
form. Mesopotamians believed that each city was under the
protection of a specific civic god who required a mountain as a
platform for a Shrine. Mountains in Mesopotamia were conceived of
as symbolizing the earth itself, in which the powers of nature were
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immanent. As a symbolic mountain, the Ziggurat satisfied one of the
basic requirements of sacred architecture, namely the creation of a
transitional space between people and their gods.
The earliest Ziggurat dating from between 3500 and
3000 B.C., supported a Shrine, the “White Temple”.
The use of seal impressions to designate ownership
contributed to the development of writing. Some time between about
3500 and 3000 B.C., abstract wedgeshaped characters began to
appear on clay and stone tablets. It is called cuneiform from the Latin
word cuneus, meaning “wedge”.
The Epic of Gigamesh is the first known epic poem and is
preserved on cuneiform tablets from the second millennium B.C. The
Epic of Gigamesh is not only the world’s first epic; it is the earliest
known literary effort to come to terms with death, or nonbeing.
When the Semitic civilization of Akkad merged with
Sumerian culture, Akkadian became the dominant spoken language,
and the Akkadian god Marduk replaced the Sumerian god Enlil as
the national god of Mesopotamia.
Under the rule of King Hammurabi (1792 – 1750 B.C.), the
city of Babylon became the capital. Hammurabi is best known for his
low code, inscribed on a black basalt stele.
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The Hebrews. The tribal people called by their neighbours
”Hebrews” originated in Sumer. Around 2000 B.C., they migrated
westward under the leadership of Abraham of Ur and settled in
Canaan along the Mediterranean Sea.
Shortly after 1300 B.C. following a traumatic period of
enslavement in Egypt, The Hebrew tribes, under a dynamic leader
named Moses, abandoned Egypt and headed back toward Canaan –
an event that became the basis for Exodus (literally “going out”), the
second book of the Hebrew Bible, called the Torach. During this
period (between about 1300 and 1150 B.C.) the Hebrews forged the
fundamentals of their faith: monotheism (the belief in one and only
one god); a set of divine commandments for moral and spiritual
conduct and a covenant fixed in laws that bound the Hebrew
community to God in return for God’s protection. Hebrew
monotheism called for devotion to a single Supreme Being, the God
whom Moses addressed as Yahweh (or Jehovah). Unique to Hebrew
monotheism was the veneration of Yahweh as the Source of ethical
and spiritual life.
3. Ancient India. China. From the Indus valley civilization
of the second millennium B.C. came the most ancient of today’s
world religions: Hinduism. Derived from Sanskrit (the language of
India) word for the Indus River (Sindu), “Hindi” describes, in its
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broadest sense, not only a belief system, but a people and their
culture.
India’s oldest devotional texts, the Rig Veda, “Truth is one,
but the wise call it by many names”. India’s oldest devotional texts,
the Vedas (literally “sacred knowledge”), are a collection of prayers,
sacrificial formulas, and hymns.
The Vedas reflected the union of the native folk culture of the
Indus valley and that of the invading Aryans, Sanskrit-speaking
warriors who entered India after 1500 B.C. Among the chief Vedic
deities were sky gods Indra and Rudra (later known as Shiva), the
fire god Agni and Sun god Vishnu.
Hindu pantheism is perhaps best understood by way of the
250 prose commentaries on the Vedas known as the Upanishads.
Upanishads were orally transmitted and recorded in Sanskrit between
the eighth and the sixth century B.C. The Upanishads emphasize
enlightenment through meditation. They formulated the concept of
the single, all-pervading cosmic force called Brahman. Brahman is
the Uncaused Cause and the Ultimate Reality. In every human being
there resides the individual manifestation of Brahman: the self, or
Atman. The fundamental teachings of Hinduism are the basis for
India’s most popular religious writing: the Bhagavad-Gita (Song of
God). The Bhagavad-Gita is one episode from the voluminous Indian
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epic poem, the Mahabharata (Great Deeds of the Bharata Clan),
which recounts a ten-year-long struggle, occurring around the year
1000 B.C., for control of the Ganges valley. The world’s longest folk
epic, the Mahabharata is the source of most of the poetry, drama, and
art producted throughout India’s long history.
China. The great period of unity in China came about under
the Qin (pronounced “Chin”), the dynasty from which the English
word “China” is derived. Like the kings of ancient China, Qin rules
held absolute responsibility for maintaining order and harmony.
Having defeated all rival states, in 221 B.C. the Qin prince
Shi Huangdi declared himself “First Emperor”.
In the two centuries that preceded the Qin Empire, there
emerged various schools of thought concerning the nature of human
being, and, by extension, the ideal form of government. Mencius
(371 – 289 B.C.), China’s most significant voice after Confucius,
expanded Confucian concepts of government as a civilizing force
and the ruler as the moral model. Mencius held that human beings
are born good: they do evil only by neglect or abuse.
After Qin dynasty came next dynasty – Han. Han China
established intellectual and cultural foundations that would remain in
place for two thousand years and powerfully influence neighbouring
Korea, Vietnam, and Japan. The Chinese regard the time of the Han
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Empire as their Classical Age. Han rulers restored Confucianism to
China, thereby enhancing the Confucian reputation of Confucian
texts and the Confucian Scholar/official.
Literature. Ancient China’s greatest historian Sima Qian
(145 – 90 B.C.), who rivals both Thucydides and Livy, produced the
monumental Shiji, a narrative account of Chinese history from
earliest times through the lifetime of the author.
Upon Sima’s death, China’s first woman historian Ban Zhao
(45 – 114), continued his court chronicle. Ban also won fame for her
handbook “Lessons for Women”, which outlined the obligations and
duties of the wife to her husband.
Poetry. Chinese poetry appeared in the form of hymns and
ritual songs, sung to the accompaniment of a lute or stringed
instrument. Poems served as entertainments for various occasions,
such as banquets, and as expressions of affection that were often
exchanged as gifts.
My family has married me
in this far corner of the world,
Sent me to a strange land,
To the king of the Wu-Sun.
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The technical and aesthetic achievement of the Han in the
visual arts seems have been matched in music. Musical instruments
were regularly buried in the royal tombs, a practice that had begun in
the Shang Era. Most old instruments – bells – the heart of what may
be the world’s oldest orchestra. First notes – from China, too. The
name of each of the notes is inscribed in gold on each bell. Lowrelief scenes of music-making and dance found in tomb chambers
and at Han offering Shrines confirm the importance of elaborate
musical entertainments in the imperial Chinese court.
Questions and tasks for self-control
1. What is monotheism and pantheism?
2. What do you know about “The Book of the Dead”?
3. What can you say about Ziggurat?
4. Speak about “Epic of Gilgamesh”.
5. What do you know about Vedas?
6. What does the term “Chin” mean?
THEME 3. CULTURE OF ANCIENT GREECE
AND ROME
1. The Ancient Greece.
2. The Legacy of Rome.
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Basic categories and notions: democracy, pantheon,
sophist, amphora, acropolis, metamorphoses.
1. The Ancient Greece. Between 500 B.C. and 500 C.E., the
civilizations of ancient Greece and Rome have come to flowering in
the Mediterranean world. The word “classical” is used in several
ways. Most obviously, classic or classical means “top-ranking”,
“enduring” or “the best of its kind”.
Between 1200 and 750 B.C., the first Greek city-states
appeared on the islands and peninsulas in the Aegean Sea, the coast
of Asia Minor, at the Southern tip of Italy and Sicily. This ancient
civilization called itself “Hellas” and its people “Hellenes”. During
the fifth century B.C., the period was known as the Golden Age of
Greece, the Hellenic city-states produced some of the finest minds in
the history of culture. Following the fall of Greece in 338 B.C. and
under the leadership of Alexander the Great, Hellenic culture spread
throughout Asia into Far East. Well, the legacy of Greece would
continue to influence the formation of Western culture. While Greek
culture was so sorting its Golden Age, Rome was establishing itself
as the leading city-state of the Italian peninsula. Rome’s history is
often divided into two phases: the Republic (509 – 31 B.C.) and the
Empire (31 B.C. – 476 C.E.). The Romans created the largest and
the most powerful empire in the ancient world.
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Greek Community. The Mycenaeans civilization was
established on the Greek mainland nearly 1600 B.C.. Named
Minoen after the legendary King Minos, this maritime civilization
had flourished between 2000 and 1400 B.C.
Centered in the Palace of Minos at Knossos on the island of
Crete, Minoan culture was prosperous and peace-loving. The most
famous of the palace frescoes, the so-called “Bull-leaping” fresco,
that shows two women and men, latter vigorously somersaulting
over the back of a bull.
The Mycenaens were a militant aggressive people in contrast
of the Minoans. They have built heavily fortified citadels on
mainland Greece at Tiryns and Mycenae. Their warships challenged
other traders for control of the eastern Mediterranean. The
Mycenaens attacked Troy (“Ilion” in Greek), a commercial
stronghold on the northwest coast of Asia Minor around 1200 B.C.
The ten-year long war between Mycenae and Troy would provide
the historical context for the two great epic poems of ancient Greeks:
“The Iliad” and “The Odyssey”. These poems became the
“national”, uniting Greek-speaking people by giving literary
authority to their common heritage.
The Greek gods:
Zeus – King of the gods and sky.
Hera – Queen of the gods.
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Athena – war, wisdom.
Aphrodite – love, beauty.
Apollo – solar light, medicine, music.
Dionysus – wine vegetation.
Demeter – agriculture, grain.
Poseidon – sea.
In 776 B.C. there were founded “regular games” in honor of
the Greek gods located in Olympia, one was of the great religious
centers of Greece, the festival took place at midsummer every four
years, even during wartime: a sacred truce guaranteed safe conduct
for all visitors. The central event of the games was a 200-yard sprint,
called the Stadion. But there were also many other contests: such as
a footrace of one and a half miles, discus-throw, long-jump,
wrestling, boxing, and other games that probably looked back to
Minoan tradition. Winners received garlands consisting of wild olive
or laurel leaves and the acclaim of Greek painters and poets.
Although women were not permitted to compete in the
Olympics, they could hold games of their own.
A great deal of western theatre originated in the tragedies of
Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, and in the comedies of
Aristophanes.
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Aristotle, Plato’s most distinguished student, and tutor to
Alexander the Great, stands out among the ancient Greeks for the
diversity of his interests. In addition to the natural sciences such as
botany, physics, and physiology, Aristotle wrote on philosophy,
metaphysics, ethics, politics, logic, rhetoric, and poetry.
Painting and Pottery. The earliest recognizable style in
Greek art after the migrations of 1200 – 800 B.C. is called
Geometric. The lively patterns arranged on the amphora (twohandled storage jar) are typical of Geometric pottery design.
Greek vases were made of the terra cotta. The artist painted
the figures in silhouette with a sharp tool by incising lines through
the painted surface and exposing the orange clay below on blackfigure pieces.
Sculpture. Monumental sculpture in Greece began in the
Archaic period (meaning “old”). The kouros (or youth) maintains
the standard Egyptian frontal pose. His left leg extends forward to
no bend at knee, hips, or waist and his arms are at his sides, fists
clenched and elbows turned back.
Later, the Early Classical Style (about 490 – 450 B.C.)
produced radical changes in the approach of the human figure. This
style developed the introduction of bronze as a medium for largescale sculptures, which were cast by the “lost-wax” poses. The
marble statue, for example, “Discobolus” is known only as a Roman
28
copy in marble. The bronze original was cast by the sculptor Myron
(about 460 – 450 B.C.).
Architecture. The Acropolis. The Classical period in
Athens is also called the Age of Pericles, after the Greek general and
statesman (about 500 – 429 B.C.) who initiated the architectural
projects for the Acropolis. He planned a vast rebuilding campaign to
celebrate Athenian art and civilization after the devastation of
Persian Wars. The Propylaea and the Parthenon were completed
during his lifetime, but work on the Temple of Athena Nike and the
Erechtheum was not begun until his death.
2. The Legacy of Rome.
Roman culture. After Alexander’s death in 323 B.C., Rome
began its rise to power in the Mediterranean.
The Roman view of history was less mythical than the Greek.
The difference between the Greek and the Roman approaches to
history and politics in some sense parallels the differences were in
their views of art. In Rome there were two artistic currents – the
patrician, or upper class, and the plebeian. Official styles were
dictated by the rulers while, popular art also flourished. In contrast
of Greece, virtually no Roman artist – male or female – is
identifiable by name.
29
While Greek art had tended toward to idealization, Roman
art was generally commemorative, narrative, ad based on history
rather than myth.
Architecture. Roman domestic architecture (from the Latin
domus, in meaning “house”) was derived from both Etruscan and
Greek antecedents, yet maintained its distinctiveness yet.
Roman architecture has two characteristic types, the forum
and the basilica.
Forums are typically a square or rectangular open space,
bounded on three sides by colonnades and on the fourth by a
basilica. The first forum was known in Rome, the Forum Romanum,
dates from the sixth century B.C.
Basilicas (from the Greek basilikos meaning “royal”) was a
large roofed building, usually at one end of a forum.
Public Baths. Besides providing bathing and swimming
pools, the public bath had low-cost facilities for playing ball,
running, wrestling, and exercising.
The Colosseum. This building was used primarily for public
spectacles.
The Pantheon is the most monumental Roman temple. It
consists of two main parts – a traditional rectangular portico which
is supported by massive granite Corinthian columns and a huge
30
concrete rotunda which faced on the exterior with brick. The entire
Pantheon stands on a podium with steps leading up to the portico
entrance.
Sculpture. The Roman taste for realism is perhaps best
illustrated in the three-dimensional portraits of Roman men and
women, who was often members of the ruling class or wealthy
patricians.
Literature. The Romans were masters, as well, in oratory
that is the art of public speaking, and in the writing of epistles
(letters). In both of these genres, the statesman Marcus Tullius
Cicero excelled. He wrote more than nine hundred letters –
sometimes wrote three a day to the same person – and more than one
hundred speeches and essays.
Virgil is best known for “The Aeneid”. He also wrote
pastoral poems, or eclogues, that glorify the natural landscape and
rustic inhabitants.
Publius Ovidius Naso, or Ovid is one of Rome’s most
notable poet. His narrative poem is “The Metamorphoses”. It is the
vast collection of stories about Greek and Roman gods about
supernatural transformation.
Quintus Haeredes Flaccus, was better known as Horace,
took a critical view of life. He composed verse that pointed up the
contradictions between practical realities and philosophic ideals.
31
Rome borrowed Hellenic models in all of the arts, but the
Roman taste for realism dominated narrative relief sculpture and
portrait. These genres disclose a love for literal truth that contrasts
sharply with the Hellenic effort to generalize and idealize form.
Questions and tasks for self-control:
1. What did Hellenic civilization gain from the Minoans and
Mycenaeans?
2. How did classical Greek writers, artists and architects
express the Greek value of moderation?
3. Critical thinking: What did Cicero mean when he said:
“We are servants of the law in order that we may be
free”?
THEME 4. MIDDLE AGE CULTURE
1. Basic tendencies of the Middle Age culture development.
2. Byzantine art.
3. Culture of East Slavs of pre-Christian period.
Basic categories and notions: pectoral, icons, Hagia Sophia,
a cappella, monophonic, polyphonic, iconography.
1.Basic
tendencies
of
the
Middle
Age
culture
development. General description of the Middle Ages. The Middle
Ages are divided on three big periods: 1) the Dark Ages – the V
middle of the XV century; 2) the early Middle Ages – the middle of
the XI – XV century; 3) the later Middle Ages – XVI – the first half
of the XVII century. It is necessary to remember, that the origin of
32
national cultures, the formation of national languages were shaped
in that period. This is an epoch with its system of cultural values,
where the idea of God dominated. Christian theology was an integral
system of conceptions about the Universe, the nature, the human.
God was imagined as a grandiose cosmic force carrying
responsibility for permanence of celestial and social spheres.
Philosophy was based on Christianity. The teaching of Augustine
Beatific and Foma Akvinsky were central in medieval philosophy.
The Middle Ages descended from antiquity base, on which an
educational system was created. Educational and scientific centres
were the universities. At the and of the XI century a role of
university centres played high schools: in Paris, Palermo, Oxford.
Other oldest universities in Europe were in Paris, Krakow, Cologne.
In the XV century a number of universities quickly increased.
Besides secular schools and colleges were founded. The
development of education brought on the demand on books, which
were a great luxury. Since the XIV century paper has been used in
the production of books. The N. Guttenberg’s invention of a printing
machine was a great achievement.
Naturalistic sciences and geographic discoveries were
developed in the XII century.
The world into which Jesus was born was ripe for religious
revitalization. Roman religion focused on nature deities and civic
gods who provided little in the way of personal spiritual comfort.
33
The province of Judea, beset by religious and political factionalism,
sought apocalyptic deliverance from the Roman yoke. The message
preached by Jesus demanded an abiding faith in God, compassion
for one’s fellow human beings, and the renunciation of material
wealth. In an age when people were required to serve the state, Jesus
asked that they serve God. The apostle Paul universalized Jesus’
message by preaching among non-Jews. He explained Jesus’ death
as atonement for sin and anticipated eternal life for the followers of
the Christos.
The religion that had begun with the teaching of Siddhartha
Gautama in India swept through East Asia in the very centuries that
Christianity emerged in the West. Although rooted in different
traditions, the two world faiths had much in common, especially in
the message of compassion, humility, and right conduct preached by
their founders. Christianity and Buddhism had only limited impact in
the lands in which their founders were born, but both religions
gained popularity in empires that flourished at the same time:
Christianity in the Roman world-state, and Buddhism under the late
Han dynasty in China. With Pauline Christianity, as with Mahayana
Buddhism, the belief in a Savior god, the promise of salvation for all
human beings, and uncompromising moral goodness provided
spiritual alternatives to the prevailing materialism of imperial Rome
and Han China.
34
In early Christian art, the symbolic significance of the
representation is often more important than its literal meaning.
Iconography, the study of subject matter and its visual
imagery, is essential to an understanding of the transition from
classical to Christian art. Music, literature, almost every number and
combination of numbers was thought to carry allegorical meaning.
2. Byzantine art. In the churches of Byzantium, the mosaic
technique reached its artistic peak. The most notable example of
Byzantine architecture, Hagia Sophia (“Holy Wisdom”), the
longitudinal axis of the Latin cross plan was combined with the
Greek cross plan. Hagia Sophia is an evidence of the golden age of
Byzantine art and architecture that took place under the emperor
Justinian.
Although religious imagery was essential to the growing
influence of Christianity, a fundamental disagreement concerning the
role of icons (images) in divine worship led to conflict between the
Roman Catholic and Greek Orthodox Churches. Executed in glowing
colours and gold paint on small, portable panels, Byzantine icons
usually featured the Virgin and Child Staring hypnotically at the
worshiper in a formal, stylized manner. Early Church was careful to
exclude all forms of individual expression from liturgical music.
Most important music of Christian antiquity was the music of the
Mass.
35
On the oldest bodies of liturgical song still in everyday use,
Gregorian chant stands among the great treasures of Western music.
It is – like early Christian hymnody – monophonic, that is, it consists
of a single line of melody sung a cappella (without instrumental
accompaniment), the plainsong of early Christian era was performed
by the clergy and choirs of monks rather than by members of the
congregation.
3. Culture of East Slavs of pre-Christian period. The early
Middle Ages for Central and Eastern Europe is the period of the
formation of big Slavic unions, the foundation and the development
of Slavonic states. During the V – VI centuries two Slavonic unions
– Sclavyns and Ants were formed on the territory of contemporary
Ukraine. Archaeological findings indicate, that base of economy of
eastern Slavs was agriculture. But cattle-breeding, hunting, and
fishery also existed. Ceramics, spinning, weaving, manufacture of
skin, stone, and wood products remained as household trade.
In Eastern Slavonic religion the worshipping of nature forces
in various forms and clan cult are reflected brightly. It was typical
for agricultural tribes.
Early Christian religion in ancient Ukrainians was heathen
polytheism. Eastern Slavs believed in natural fantastic deities:
mermaids, wood-goblins, nixes.
36
The pantheon of heathen gods was formed. Calendar poetry
is folklore, associated with seasons, ritual poetry, associated with
ceremonies.
Questions, and tasks for self-control
1. What peculiar features of Middle Ages culture do you know?
2. What do you know about Byzantine art?
3. What are the peculiarities of the icon-painting of Middle Ages
period?
THEME 5. RENAISSANCE
1. Renaissance period and new traditions in culture.
2. Italian Renaissance.
3. Reformation and its influence on culture of Western
Europe.
4. Ukrainian Renaissance.
Basic categories and notions: humanism, Reformation,
anthropocentrism, ideal, nativity, basilica, mystery, choir.
1. Renaissance period and new traditions in culture.
Renaissance is one of the most celebrated epochs in the history of
civilization. It was a period in Europe between 1300 and 1600. The
Renaissance, or “rebirth” of classicism, was the cultural hinge
between medieval and modern times. Renaissance art appeared on
37
the base of humanism. Originating in fourteenth-century Italy, and
spreading northward during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, this
dynamic movement shaped some of West’s most fundamental
political, economic, and cultural values – values associated with the
rise of nation-states, the formation of the middle class, and the
advancement of classically based education and classically inspired
art.
The peculiar features of Renaissance culture were its secular
character, spiritual renewal, appealing to cultural antiquity legacy.
Creators of Renaissance culture were people from various social
strata, but its achievement in humanitarian and naturalistic sciences,
literature, and art became the achievements of the whole society.
On counterpoise to feudal ideology, Renaissance philosophy
focused its attention on a person, on his assertion. Philosophy of that
period is represented by E. Rotterdamsky, M. Ficino, G. Bruno.
2. Italian Renaissance. During the eleventh and the twelfth
centuries, Italy continued to be accessible to Byzantine influences
originating in Greece and Turkey through its eastern ports,
particularly Venice and Ravenna.
The most famous of the early Italian humanists was the poet
and scholar Francesco Petrarch (1304 – 1374). Often called the
Father of Humanism, Petrarch devoted his life to the recovery,
copying, and editing of Latin manuscripts. His favourite poetic form
was the sonnet, a fourteen-lined lyric poem.
38
Architecture. The revival of classical architecture was
inaugurated by the architect, sculptor, and theorist Filippo
Brunelleschi. He won a civic competition for the design of the
dome of Florence Cathedral. Brunelleschi was among the first
architects of the Renaissance to defend the principles of symmetry
and clarity in architectural design.
The leading painter, who exemplified the Renaissance
interest in pagan subject matter, was Sandro Botticelli. “The Birth
of Venus” is one of a series of mythological pictures.
A division into periods of Italian Renaissance takes very
important place. Three names are sufficient for comprehension of
world sense of Italian Renaissance: Leonardo da Vinci, Rafael,
Michelangelo. Such artists as Giorgione, Tintoretto, Titian,
Veronese made considerable input in the development of painting in
that period.
Leonardo da Vinci (1452 – 1519) is the best artist and
scientist of the Renaissance. A diligent investigator of natural
phenomena, Leonardo, examined the anatomical and organic
functions of plants, animals, and human beings. He also studied the
properties of wind and water and invented several hundreds of
ingenious mechanical devices, including an armored tank and a
flying machine most of which never left the notebook stage. His
great painting is “The Last Supper”.
39
“Mona Lisa”. The painting that epitomizes Leonardo’s
synthesis of nature, architecture, human form, geometry, and
character is Mona Lisa.
Michelangelo (Michelangelo di Buonarroti Simoni) (1475 –
1564) was an architect, painter, writer, although he thought of
himself primarily as a sculptor. He established his reputation in
Florence at the age of twenty-seven, when he undertook to carve a
freestanding larger-than-life statue of the biblical David from a
gigantic block of marble that no other sculptor had dared to tackle.
Raphael (Raffaello Sanzio) was born eight years after
Michelangelo but died forty-four years before him. During his short
life (1483 – 1520) Raphael came to embody the classical character
of High Renaissance Style.
At the beginning of his career, Raphael worked in Florence,
where he painted many versions of “The Virgin with Christ-child”.
The “Madonna of the Meadows” of 1505 is a good example of his
clear, straightforward, classicizing style. At the age of twenty-six,
Raphael went to Rome, where, in addition to religious works, he
painted portraits and mythological pictures.
3. Reformation and its influence on culture of Western
Europe. In the transition from medieval to early modern times,
technology played a crucial role. Gunpowder, the light cannon, and
other military devices made warfare more impersonal and ultimately
more deadly. At the same time, Western advances in navigation,
40
shipbuilding, and maritime instrumentation brought Europe into a
dominant position in world exploration and colonization.
The new print technology broadcast an old message of
religious protest and reform. For two centuries, critics had attacked
the wealth, worthiness, and unchecked corruption of the Church of
Rome.
During the sixteenth century, papal extravagance and
immorality reached new heights, and Church reform became an
urgent public issue. In the territories of Germany, loosely united
under the leadership of the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V (15001558), the voices of protest were more strident than any elsewhere
in Europe. In 1505, Martin Luther (1483 – 1546), the son of the
rural coal miner, abandoned his legal studies to become an
Augustinian monk. Thereafter, as a doctor of theology at the
University of Wittenberg, Luther spoke out against the Church. In
1517, in pointed criticism of Church abuses, Luther posted on the
door of the cathedral of Wittenberg a list of ninety-five issues he
intended for dispute with the leaders of the Church of Rome. Luther
did not want to destroy Catholicism, but rather to reform it. He
attacked monasticism clerical celibacy, ultimately marrying, a
former nun and fathering six children. With the aid of the printing
press, his “protestant” sermons circulated throughout Europe. In the
independent city of Geneva, Switzerland, the French theologian
41
John Calvin (1509 – 1564), set up a government in which elected
officials, using the Bible as the supreme law, ruled the community.
On nearby Zürich, the humanist scholar Ulrich Zwingli
(1484 – 1531) fathered the Anabaptist Sect.
The austerity of the Protestant reform cast its long shadow
upon Church art. Secular subject matter provided abundant
inspiration for Northern artists. Portraiture, a favourite genre of the
pre-Reformation master Jan van Eyck, remained popular among
such sixteenth-century artists as Albrecht Dürer, Lucas Cranach the
Elder, and Hans Holbein the Younger, three of the greatest
draftsmen of the Renaissance.
Literature. The Scholarly treatises and letters of Desiderius
Erasmus won him the respect of scholars throughout Europe: but
his single most popular work was “The Praise of Folly”, a satiric
oration attacking a wide variety of human foibles, including greed,
intellectual pomposity, and pride. Other humanist, Erasmus’ lifelong
friend and colleague Thomas More, wrote “Utopia”. In Spain,
Miguel de Cervantes wrote “Don Quixote”, a novel that satirizes the
outworn values of the Middle Ages as personified in a legendary
Spanish hero. The French humanist Francois Rabelais wrote
“Gargantua and Pantagruel”, an irreverent satire filled with biting
allusions to contemporary institutions and customs.
The literary giant of the age is William Shakespeare (1564 –
1616). He lived during the Golden Age of England under the rule of
42
Elizabeth I. He wrote 37 plays – comedies, tragedies, romances, and
histories – as well as 154 sonnets and other poems. His comedies,
such as “The Taming of the Shrew”, “Much Ado About Nothing”,
and tragedies as “Hamlet”, “Macbeth”, “Othello”, “King Lear” were
the products of his mature career – that Shakespeare achieved the
concentration of thought and language that have made him the
greatest English playwright of all time.
4. Ukrainian Renaissance. Ukrainian cultural eminence
started at the end of the XV – the first half of the XVI centuries due
to the diffusion of humanistic ideas.
The Development of Ukrainian Renaissance humanism is
divided into 3 stages:
1) the middle Renaissance ( XVI century);
2) the second half of the XVI – XVII centuries;
3) the second half of the XVII – XVIII centuries.
Founders of humanistic culture in Ukraine were Yu.
Gorhobych, P. Rusyn, S. Orihovsky.
In the XIV- the first half of the XVII century a school theatre,
a custom to go around with puppet shows appeared.
In the conditions of cultural eminence civil and cult construction
reached a very high level. Church architecture is represented by three-partial
and five-partial stone churches. In many towns the defensive fortifications
were built: wooden and stone castles, billows, ditches, and walls.
43
Sculptural reliefs, fretwork appeared on portals, in interiors of
Renaissance houses, palaces, churches, iconostasis, and sepulchral sculpture
appeared. Religious images on artists' pictures gradually lost former stability
and frequently had features of simple people.
In the last decade of the XVI century the information about Ukraine
was spread in the West.
Questions and tasks for self-control
1. Which of the artists are called “titans” of Renaissance period?
2. Analyze the peculiarities of Ukrainian Renaissance culture.
3. What significance has the Renaissance period in the world
culture?
THEME 6. BAROQUE CULTURE
1. Baroque and rococo.
2. The Age of Enlightenment. Neoclassicism.
3. Ukrainian culture of the XVIII – the first half of the
XIX century.
Basic
categories
and
notions:
gallery,
classicism,
sentimentalism, empire style, elegy, materialism, education, play, satire.
1. Baroque and rococo. The term “baroque” is applied to
diverse styles, which highlight the approximate character of art
historical categories. Baroque art began in Italy, particularly in
Rome. In the course of the baroque period, however, Paris took over
44
as the artistic centre of Europe, a position it retained until the World
War II.
Architecture. The official architect of St. Peter’s was Gian
Lorenzo Bernini (1598 – 1680). He designed erected the bronze
baldacchino, or canopy, over the high altar above St. Peter’s tomb.
In France the architecture was elegant, ordered and rational,
recalling the classical esthetic. The example of it is Versailles, a
small town about 15 miles (24 km) southwest of Paris, the vast royal
household.
In England the exponent by Baroque style was Sir
Christopher Wren (1632 – 1723), which took part in redesigning of
fifty-one churches that had burned down, and rebuilt of the
Protestant Church of England.
Sculpture. The most important sculptor of the Baroque style
in Rome was Bernini. His over-life-size sculpture “Pluto and
Proserpina” was an example of his talent as a sculptor.
Painting. The leading painter in Rome was Michelangelo.
Merisi da Caravaggio (1571 – 1610). His credo was in depicting
subjects and themes of a homoerotic nature.
The Flemish artist Peter Paul Rubens (1577 – 1640) was one
of the most famous painters of the XVII century. His mythological
paintings (“Venus and Adonis”) also celebrate the sensual side of life.
45
Rembrandt van Rijn (1606 – 1669) falls into the general category of
Baroque.
Diego Velazquez (1599 – 1660) was the leading Baroque
artist in the XVII century in Post-Reformation Spain.
Rococo. The most distinctive style of the XVIII century is
called Rococo, a French word rocaille and coquille (meaning “rock”
and “shell” – the formations were used to decorate Baroque
gardens).
The XVIII century was called the “Age of Enlightenment”.
This complex concept derives from the philosophical ideas, which
were translated into political movements. The rationalism of
Descartes – Cogito, ergo sum (“I think, therefore I am”) – in the
previous century continued to appeal to the same European and
American thinkers. In England, John Locke advanced the notion of
“empiricism”, the belief that something exists only when it can be
seen and experienced.
In political philosophy, the concept of a secular “Social
contract” developed. It was based on the principle that governments
ruled only by the consent of the people. This “contract” could be
broken if a government abused its power. The practical effect of this
reasoning can be seen in Thomas Jefferson’s “Bill of Rights” and
“the American Constitution”.
46
Rococo Painting. The leading Rococo painter, Antonio
Watteau (1684 – 1721), was born in Flanders, but spent most of his
professional life in France. (The Dance is his best known painting).
Neoclassicism. During the late XVIII century and early XIX
century in Western Europe, several styles competed for primacy.
Paris had become the undisputed centre of the Western art world,
although Rome was still influential. Artistically, the “true style”,
later called the neoclassical style, was a reaction against the levity of
rococo. Although neoclassicism originated during the rule of Louis
XIV, it reign was later adopted by the leaders of the French
Revolution, and
became the style
closely associated with the
revolutionary movements of the period.
The leading neoclassical painter, Jacques-Louis David
(1748 – 1825), appealed to the republican sentiments that derived
from Ancient Rome. His “Oath of the “Horatii” was first exhibited in
1785. David was elected to the National Convention and he voted to
send Louis XVI to the guillotine. When Robespierre fell, David was
imprisoned twice but regained favor under Napoleon. After
Napoleon’s exile, David left France and died in Brussels in 1825.
3. Ukrainian culture of the XVIII – the first half of the
XIX century. To understand this epoch better it is necessary to start
with the description of the historic period. These historic peculiarities
influenced on the development of education. On the Right-bank
47
Ukraine the union schools originated. They were state schools owned
by Vasylian order. On the Left-bank and rural Ukraine only orthodox
schools existed. Kyiv-Mogyla college had a great significance and
became Kyiv Academy in 1701.
The remarkable scientists, writers, and artists such as
L. Baranovych, I. Halyatovsky, F. Prokopovych, S. Polotsky worked
there. Academy graduates did their endeavours for eminence of
education and culture in other Slavonic states, first of all in Russia.
The creative activity of H. Skovoroda had a great
significance for the development of Ukrainian culture. He wrote his
works as dialogues, in which anthropologism is preached as the base
of philosophical conception.
Literature was greatly developed. The polemic genres:
treatises, dialogues, public debates, pamphlets – played a very
important role in literature. The puppet theatre – vertep developed
greatly in that period too. The Ukrainian language and songs entered
scene due to this genre. Folk theatre-show, serf theatre appeared.
Kharkiv theatre, which was founded in 1798, was the first
professional theatre in Ukraine.
Music was developed under the influence of theatrical art.
Family-genre and lyric songs, ritual, folk dancings-snowstorms,
hopaks, and pittances were developed.
48
A professional music was represented by the creative activity
of famous composers: D. Bortnyansky, M. Berezovsky, and
A. Vendel.
Baroque in Ukraine became a spiritual trend which involved
all spheres of cultural activity and came into the history of world art
under the name of Ukrainian Baroque.
The creators of Baroque architecture were I. HryhorovychBarsky (Samson fountain, etc.) in Lviv, S. Kovnir (Kovnir corps).
The remarkable Ukrainian architects F. Starchenko and A. Zernikov
worked together.
B. Rastrelli (Andriivska's church, Mariinsky palace), B
Meretyn (St. Yur's cathedral in Lviv) made a great contribution to
Baroque architecture.
Imitative art of this epoch was represented by iconostasis,
which was distinguished by grandiosity, splendour, and riches.
In this period Ukrainian portraiture started to develop.
Portrait, as genre of secular art, had a national peculiarity: attached
to all its vitality in the XVII century it stored a close tie with
iconpainting. D. Levytsky, V. Borovykovsky, F. Senkovych worked
in this genre.
Questions and tasks for self-control
1. How was baroque style reflected in Western European culture?
2. What famous architects of baroque style do you know?
49
3. What artistic styles of New Time do you know?
4.Name peculiar features of Ukrainian baroque.
THEME 7. THE ENLIGHTENMENT IN EUROPE
1. Romanticism and realism.
2. Impressionism and post-impressionism of the XIX
century.
3. Development of Ukrainian culture in the XIX century.
Basic categories and notions: empire style, eclecticism,
elegy, materialism, play, satire, naturalism, cubism.
1. Romanticism and realism. The romantic movement like
neoclassicism, encompassed both western Europe and the United
States. The term “romantic” is derived from the Romance languages
(French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese), and more particularly from
the medieval tales of chivalry and adventure written in those
languages, such as the Chanson de Roland (Song of Roland). The
romantic esthetic of “long ago” and “far away” is conveyed in works
with locales and settings that indicate the passage of time (for
example, ruined buildings or dilapidated sculptures). To the extent
that neoclassicism expresses a nostalgia for the classical past, it may
be said to have “romantic” quality too.
50
Painter. Francisco de Goya (1746 – 1828), the leading
Spanish painter, was attracted by several Romantic themes. His
compelling images reflect his remarkable psychological insights. In
1799 Goya published Los Caprichos (“The Caprices”), a series of
etchings combined with the new medium of aquatint.
Romanticism focused on people’s longing to return to nature.
Such themes led to an expansion of landscape painting in the XIX
century.
In England, the two greatest romantic landscape painters were
John Constable and Joseph Mallord William Turner.
French great artists of those times were K. D. Friederich,
T. Gericault, E. Delacroix, etc.
Marxism appeared in the XIX century. This century is a time
of general personal interest in historic science. Almost in every
country historic societies were founded, the museums were opened,
the magazines were published. A complex of humanitarian scientific
disciplines was formed, economic and social sciences were
developed.
T. Hofman, G. Byron, V. Hugo, G. Sand, W. Scott were main
representatives of romanticism in European literature. Romanticism
in music was formed under the influence of literary romanticism in
51
1820. Composers who created in romantic style were K. Weber,
R. Wagner, F. List, F. Chopin. They created real musical cult.
Realism was established in culture since 1830s. There were
many causes for establishing of realism. A desire to return to truth of
life, to usual feelings of usual people appeared. Stendhal,
P. Beranger, O. Balzac, P. Merimee, G. Flaubert, J. Galsworthy were
representatives of realism in literature. Realism in music: the most
prominent were the Italian composers: D. Verdi, D. Puccini,
P. Mascagni. In Austria at the beginning, of the XIX century
Salzburg along with Vienna became the musical centre. There,
besides classical opera, Viennese operetta was founded.
2. Impressionism and post-impressionism of the XIX
century. The Impressionist Style evolved in Paris in the 1860s and
continued into the early XX century. Unlike realism, impressionism
responded rarely, if ever, to political events. The impressionist
painters preferred genre subjects, especially scenes of contemporary
leisure
activities
and
entertainment,
and
landscape.
The
impressionists were also concerned with direct observation,
especially of the natural properties of light. They held eight
exhibitions of their work between 1874 and 1886.
Edouard Manet (1832 – 1883) worked in Paris. This painter
formed a transition from realism to impressionism. His “Bar at the
Folies Bergere”, the customer is cut by the frame, as is the trapeze
52
artist, whose legs and feet are visible in the upper left corner of the
picture plan.
Edgar Degas (1834 – 1917) also represents a “Slice of life”,
the boundaries of which are determined by the apparently arbitrary
placing of the frame.
The work of Claud Monet (1840 – 1926) more than that of
any other XIX century artist embodied the formal principles of
impressionism.
Auguste Renoir is an impressionist painter too. He has
combined traditional thematic content with a new formal idiom.
Camille Pissarro was influenced by photography, and by the
photographer’s
characteristic
experimentation
with
different
viewpoints.
Winslow Homer, an American painter, is regarded as
transitional between realism and impressionism. Another important
American painter Maurice Prendergast clearly evolved from
Impressionism.
Sculpture. The acknowledged giant of the XIX century
sculptor was Auguste Rodin.
Auguste Rodin was the most innovative sculptor of his time,
and was a force for change compared with the ongoing tradition of
the Academy. A comparison with the plaster and bronze versions of
Rodin’s Balzac.
53
Post-Impressionism (meaning “after impressionism”), is the
term used to designate the work of a group of important late XIX
century painters. Like impressionists, post-impressionists were
drawn to bright colour and visible, distinctive brushstrokes. Most
powerful impact on the development of western painting was Paul
Cezanne.
The greatest Dutch artist since the Baroque period was
Vincent van Gogh.
Symbolism. The symbolists concentrated their attention on
artistic expression of things in themselves through symbols and
ideas. Most popular painters were E. Munch, the Norwegian artist,
and H. Rousseau.
Naturalistic trend in art was not pure. It is represented in
literature by E. Zola, A. Holz, brothers Goncourt. Poets Charles
Baudelaire, Stephane Mallarme, Paul Verlaine, American writer
Edgar Allen Poe and Swedish philosopher Emanuel Swedenborg.
Their literature of decadence, disintegration, and the macabre shares
many qualities with symbolist painting.
3. Development of Ukrainian culture in the XIX century.
The prominent persons of modernistic period of Ukrainian culture
were M. Hrushevsky and I. Franko. Ukrainian painters are
K. Krutovsky, K. Konstandi, O. Lytovchenko, M. Yaroshenko.
Ukrainian national landscape school was founded: V. Orlovsky,
I. Pohytonov. O. Murashko was a well-known portrait-painter.
54
Ukrainian
domestic
theatre
of
M.
Kropyvnytsky,
M. Sadovsky, M. Starytsky was over the hill.
L. Kurbas was the founder of a theatre of a new type.
The creative activity of M. Lysenko, Ya. Stepovy,
S. Lyudkevych, O. Koshytsya, M. Leontovych, O. Nyzhankivsky,
P. Stetsenko. Artistic school of Ukrainian architecture was formed in
this period by P. Alyoshyn, O. Beketov, V. Horodetsky, O.
Verbytsky. The formation of style “modern” took place in the first
decade of the XX century in Ukrainian architecture. It was
connected with desire to create synthetic style of all kinds of art.
Questions and tasks for self-control
1. Define peculiar features of romanticism.
2. How was realism reflected in the European culture?
3. What is impressionism?
4. Speak about general features of Ukrainian modernism.
THEME 8. CULTURAL PROCESS OF THE SECOND HALF
OF THE XIX CENTURY– BEGINNING OF THE XX
CENTURY.
1. Fauvism and expressionism.
2. Cubism. Surrealism.
3. Dadaism.
4. Ukrainian culture in interwar period.
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Basic categories and notions: modernism, international,
nihilism, fauvism, expressionism, cubism, surrealism, dadaism.
1. Fauvism and expressionism. In the twentieth century
styles came and went, often merging into one another. In half past of
century, Paris had been the centre of the western art world. Just as
the impressionists had expanded the range of subject matter in the
XIX century, so the XX century artists turned to entirely new
subjects, including everyday objects. They also began to use new
materials, such as plastics, which resulted from advances in
technology. The very idea of “newness” became the basis of
modernism. The so-called “avant-garde” (or leaders) became a
prominent force in western art.
In painting, two figures dominate the first half of the XX
century, Pablo Picasso (1881 – 1973) and Henry Matisse (1869 –
1954). As artists, however, they were quite distinct.
Fauvism. In 1905 a new generation of artists exhibited their
paintings in Paris. One critic, who noticed a single traditional
sculpture in the room, exclaimed: “Donatello chez les fauves!”
(“Donatello among the wild beasts!”), because the colour and the
movement of the paintings reminded him of the jungle. His term
suck, and the style of those pictures is still referred to as “Fauve”.
The leading Fauve was H. Matisse.
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In Germany, the artists who, like the Fauves, were most
interested in the expressive possibilities of colour – as derived from
Post-Impressionism – were called expressionists. They formed
groups that outlasted the Fauves in France. This style, like Fauvism,
used colour to create mood and emotion. The leading artists of
expressionism were E. Kirchner, V. Kandinsky, E. Marc.
2. Cubism. Surrealism. Cubism was essentially a revolution
in the artist’s approach to space, both on the flat surface of a picture
and in sculpture. In 1909 P. Picasso created the first Cubist
sculpture, a bronze Head of Woman. In 1911 two Cubist exhibitions
held in Paris brought the work of avant-garde artists to the attention
of the general public. Although this phase of Cubism was brief, its
impact on western art was enormous.
Surrealism. Another stylistic shift in Picasso’s work,
influenced by Cubism, has been called surrealism. This term literary
means “above the real”, and denotes a truer reality than that of the
visible world (“Girl in front of a Mirror”). In Picasso’s work of 1937,
Guernica, he combined both Analytic and Synthetic Cubist forms.
3. Dadaism. The term “Dada” refers to an international
intellectual movement that began during the war in the relative safety
neutral Switzerland. Dada was thus not an artistic style in the sense
of shared formal qualities that are easily recognized. Rather, it was
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an idea, a kind of “anti-art”, based on a nihilisv (from the Latin nihil,
meaning “nothing”) philosophy of negation.
One of the major prophet of Dada was Marcel Duchamp,
whose “Nude Descending a Staircase” had already caused a
sensation in 1913.
Many members of the Dada movement also became
interested in the Surrealist style that supplanted it. It was the writer
Andre Breton who bridged the gap between Dada and Surrealism
with his first Surrealist Manifesto of 1924. He advocated art and
literature based on Freud’s psychoanalytic technique of free
association, an exploration into the imagination, and a reentry into
the world of myth, fear, fantasy, and dream. The very term “surreal”
connotes a higher reality – a state of being that is more real than
mere appearance.
The most prominent surrealist artist was Salvador Dali. The
development of European literature of the first half of the XX
century is associated with Universal human values in general – the
distinctive feature of Surrealism. One of the central modernistic
problems in literature is the question about the place of “small man”
in a society, his/her deeds, that was stipulated by realization of
exposure, a crash of humanitarian ideals. Literature of “lost
generation” appeared: E. Hemingway, E. M. Remark, F. S. Fitzerald.
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It is incorrect to consider a foreign art of the period between the two
wars to be modernism only.
The original changes took place in music. Opera was not so
popular. Music, which differed by expressiveness, sound sharpness
appeared: I. Stravynsky, B. Bartok, A. Schonberg.
Some changes took place in architecture of the period
between two wars. The architects tried to put end eclectism of a style
“Modern”, they wanted bring architecture into accordance with
technical possibilities of that development. Architecture of that
period is realized in numerous innovatory trends of constructivism:
V. Gropius, F. Jourden, and Le Corbusier made the foundation of
constructivism bases in Europe.
4. Ukrainian culture in interwar period.
Literature was represented by M. Hvylyovy, R. Tychyna, V.
Sosyura, O. Dosvitny, H. Epic, Yu. Yanovsky. They defended a
national culture, but not proletarian one. They were supported by a
group of newclassics. The representatives of this group considered
“europeism” to be a way of Ukrainian people to national revival on
the base of high European culture (M. Zerov, M. Dray-Hmara, P.
Fylypovych, M. Rylsky).
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Music. National opera and ballet theatres were founded. The
remarkable composers were M. Verykovsky, K. Dankevych,
K. Lyatoshynsky, K. Stytsenko.
Ukrainian famous “avant-guard” painter was K. Malevych.
Realistic trend was developed by F. Krychevsky.
Questions and tasks for self-control
1. Give general description of culture in the beginning of the
XX century.
2. What is Fauvism?
3. Speak about expressionism.
4. Characterize Dadaism.
5. What do you know about Surrealism?
6. Speak about Ukrainian culture in interwar period.
THEME 9. CULTURE OF THE XX CENTURY.
1. Avant-gardism.
2. Pop art. Op art.
3. Post-modernism.
Basic
categories
and
notions:
avant-gardism,
abstractionism, nonconformists, existentialism, collage, modern,
paradigm, psychoanalysis, rock culture, pop art, Freudism.
1. Avant-gardism. We’ll start from the general factors of
western European cultural development. The continuation of
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modernism existence was in some state of renewal. Post-modernistic
trends are abstractionism, new avant-gardism. Two of the most
important artists are Hans Hofmann (1880 – 1966) and Josef
Albers (1888 – 1976), which emigrated to America from Germany.
“Action painting” was a term coined by the critic Harold
Rosenberg to describe the work of certain members of the New York
School. The best known of the “action” or “gesture” painters is
Jackson Pollock (1912 – 1956), who began as a regionalist, and
turned to surrealism in the late 1930s and early 1940s.
Many sculptors whose work conveys a dynamic abstraction
akin to abstract expressionism. David Smith (1906 – 1965) welded
iron and steel to produce a dynamic form of sculptural abstraction.
Louise Nevelson (1899 – 1988) made assemblies consisting
of “found objects” – especially furniture parts and carpentry tools –
set inside open boxes.
In the 1960s the most significant style to emerge in the world
was “pop”. In contrast to abstract expressionist subjectivity, the pop
artists strove for an “objectivity” embodied by the imagery of
objects.
Pop art made its debut in London in 1956 and continued in
England. In contrast to abstract expressionist subjectivity – which
viewed the work of art as a revelation of the artist’s inner,
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unconscious mind – the pop artists strove for an “objectivity”
embodied by the imagery of objects.
Another artistic product of the 1960s, the so-called
Happenings, probably derived from the Dada performances at the
Cabaret Voltaire in Zürich during World War I.
2. Pop art. Op art. Op art is akin to pop art in rhyme only,
for the recognizable object is totally eliminated from op art in favor
of geometric abstraction. The op art artist produced kinetic effects,
using arrangements of colour, lines, and shapes, or some
combination of these elements.
Sculpture. From 1960s sculptures movements were called
Minimal, or primary sculptures, because they were direct statements
of solid geometric form. The impersonal character of vinimal
sculptures is intended to convey the idea that an artwork is a pure
object having only shape and texture in relation to space.
In the late 1960s, the popularity of photography, its
relationship to pop art, and the notion that it permits an objective
record of reality, led to the development of the Photorealist Style
(Chuck Close, Gilbert Proesch, Laurie Anderson, Richard Estes).
The most interesting artist of the XX century design was
R. Buckminster Fuller, philosopher, poet, architect, and engineer.
He is best known for the principle of structural design that led to the
invention of the geodesic dome.
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3. Post-Modernism. Post-modern architecture is eclectic. It
combines different styles from the past to produce a new vision,
which is enhanced, but not determined by modern technology.
Post-modernism rejects the international style ethic that “form
follows function”.
“High Tech”. By 1977 Lloyd’s of London, the international
insurance market, needed new quality. In addition to housing, the
more than five thousand people who use the building every day.
Lloyd’s had to adapt to the technological changes, principally in
communications, that were revolutionizing the insurance and other
financial markets. Unlike the neolithic structures, the Egyptian
pyramids, and the Gothic cathedrals, the technology on which
modern structures are based may be obsolete within five or ten years
of their construction.
All works of art affect the environment in some way. In its
broadest sense, the environment encompasses any indoor or outdoor
space. Today, the term tends to refer more to the outdoors – the rural
and urban landscape, for example, – than to indoor spaces. Two
recent artists, whose work has had a startling, though usually
temporary, impact on the natural environment, are Robert Smithson
(1938 – 1973) and Christo (b. 1935).
At times, history seems to repeat itself. The French
expression “The more things change, the more they remain the
63
same” well describes this historical paradox. On the visual arts, it is
possible to witness this phenomenon unfolding before our very eyes.
Themes persist, styles change and are revived. New themes appear,
old themes reappear. The media of art also persist. Artists still use
bronze and marble, oil paint, and encaustic. Nevertheless, modern
technology is constantly expanding the media available to artists, as
well
as
introducing
new
subjects
and
inspiring
stylistic
developments.
Conclusion. Recalling that one of the primary impulses to
make art is the wish to keep memory alive, we conclude this text
with two memorial works. Both have political, social, and artistic
significance.
As we approach the XX century, we are presented with a
proliferation of artistic styles and expanding definitions of what
actually constitutes art. The pace of technological change,
particularly in communications and the media, spawns new concepts
and styles at an increasing rate. Taste as well as style changes, and it
will be for future generations to look back on our era and to separate
the permanent from the impermanent.
Questions and tasks for self-control
1. How can the public culture be characterized?
2. Characterize the modernism peculiarities.
3. Speak about the notion pop-art culture.
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THEME 10. CULTURE OF THE SECOND HALF OF THE XX
– BEGINNING OF THE XXI CENTURY.
1. Culture of Soviet Ukraine in interwar period.
2. Cultural life in the second half of the XX century.
3. Culture of independent Ukraine.
Basic categories and notions: anti-fascist, cinematographic
art, socialist realism, prose, nonconformism, collage.
1. Culture of Soviet Ukraine in interwar period. It should
be mentioned that in the interwar period Ukrainian territory was
divided between four states.
The
literature
of
this
period
was
represented
by
M. Hvylyovy, P. Tychyna, V. Sosyura, Yu. Yanovsky, etc. They
defended a national culture, but not proletarian one. They were
supported by a group of neoclassics. The representatives of this
group (M. Zerov, M. Dray-Hmara, M. Rylsky) considered
“europeism” to be a way of Ukrainian people to national revival on
the base of high European culture.
Cinematographic art had a big significance for the culture,
which was formed in 1920s. Documentary, scientific, and historic
films appeared. The famous producers were P. Chordynin,
V. Hordin, O. Dovzhenko.
Ukrainian music was developed in the interwar period.
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National opera and ballet theatres were founded. The
remarkable composers M. Verykovsky, K. Dankevych, P. Kozytsky,
B. Lyatoshynsky, L. Revutsky, K. Stetsenko worked in wide
diapason – from rearranging of folk songs to creation of the modern
Ukrainian music.
Figurative art: the successful development of Ukrainian
“avant-garde” in 1920s (K. Malevych, V. Tatlin).
Realistic
trend
is
developed:
F.
Krychevsky,
O. Shovkunenko. Cultural explosion of creative activity of
I. Boychuk took place in the interwar period. He tried to combine the
traditional painting receptions with contemporaneity.
2. Cultural life in the second half of the XX century. This
question deals with post war development of Ukrainian culture. The
changes took place in the period of Hrushchov’s “thaw”. “Thaw”
touched all areas of culture. “Men of the 60s” was the very
significant phenomenon. The changes took place in the second half
of 1960 – 80s.
In 1980s, the period of “perestroyka” gave the possibility to
make a process of national and cultural revival more active. New
independent Ukraine was founded. Revival of Ukrainian culture
became a result of inspired, great work of its many representatives.
However we can’t help speaking about problems, which exist in
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culture: language problems, russification, there is no unity and
consent in the religious life.
So, entering the XXI century, Ukraine is to overcome a crisis
of national identity, to revive a process of a spiritual, cultural, moral,
and ethic development.
Questions and tasks for self-control
1. What way does the national culture in Ukraine develop?
2. Characterize the problems of Ukrainian culture.
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TEST 1
1. The culture is:
a) historical periods of the development of mankind;
b) behavior rules in a society;
c) a complex of special material, spiritual, intellectual, and
emotional lineaments of society.
2. The culture is divided into:
a) mythological and scientific;
b) material and spiritual;
c) slaveholding and feudal.
3. Primeval society came into existence over:
a) 2 million years ago;
b) 1.5 million years ago;
c) 1 million years ago.
4. By the III century B.C. the main tools of people trade had been made of:
a) stone, wood, iron;
b) stone, bone, wood;
c) stone, wood, bronze.
5. The Paleolithic Venus is:
a) the goddess of love;
b) beauty symbol;
c) Paleolithic sculpture is the small limestone statue of a
woman.
TEST 2
1. What is the biggest Egyptian pyramid:
a) of Hephren;
b) of Heopse;
c) of Josser.
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2. Who invented writing:
a) Egyptians;
b) Indians;
c) Sumerians.
3. Who invented paper:
a) Egyptians;
b) Indians;
c) Chineses.
4. Who was Confucius:
a) an artist;
b) a thinker;
c) a scientist.
5. "The Father of a tragedy" was:
a) Sophokl;
b) Aeschylus;
c) Aristophan.
6. A remarkable architect in ancient Greece was:
a) Finidid;
b) Herodot;
c) Fidiy.
7. The epoch of hellenism is:
a) the epoch of Greek policies foundations;
b) the epoch of Roman culture formation;
c) the epoch of Greek culture diffusion on Mediterranean Sea
countries and Asia.
8. The name of the famous Roman orator is:
a) T. Plautus;
b) M. T. Cicero;
c) Q. Ennius.
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9. The author of “Aeneid” is:
a) Virgil;
b) Ovid;
c) Homere
10. A rectangular building for trade and judicial businesses in ancient Rome
was called:
a) forum;
b) tabulary;
c) basilica.
TEST 3
1. Higher schools, where people studied and pursued science in Arabic
countries and Byzantine, existed since:
a) VIII — IX centuries;
b) VI – VII centuries;
c) X – XI centuries.
2. The highest development of Byzantine culture took place during the
dynasty of:
a) Issavrian;
b) Comninian;
c) Palleoleian.
3. The first period of icon-painting in Byzantine began in:
a) the XI century;
b) the VIII century;
c) the IX century.
4. The second period of icon-painting in Byzantine was completed in the
IX century by the victory of iconophilists. Their leader was:
a) I. Damaskin;
70
b) F. Studit;
c) H. Bogoslav.
5. Fresco is:
a) drawing, done on damp plaster;
b) work of art, done from pieces of coloured glass;
c) portraiture.
6. Byzantine empire became extinct in:
a) 1453;
b) 1054;
c) 1204.
TEST 4
1. In Western Europe the first university was founded in:
a) Oxford;
b) Bologna;
c) Cambridge.
2. The Medieval universities as a rule had:
a) two faculties;
b) three faculties: theological, juridical, preparatory;
c) four faculties: preparatory, theological, medical, juridical.
3. Romanesque style in art developed within the:
a) XII — XIV centuries;
b) VI – VII centuries;
c) X – XII centuries.
4. Gothic styles in art developed within the:
a) XII – XIV centuries;
b) VI – VII centuries;
c) X – XI centuries.
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5. Who invented the printing machine:
a) N. Guttenberg;
b) N. Kopernik;
c) G. Galileo.
6. Schools attached to orthodox churches and monasteries in the
XIV-XVI century gave:
a) only elementary education (reading, writing, counting, singing);
b) elementary and secondary education (reading, writing, counting,
singing, and bases of “Seven free arts”);
c) not only elementary and secondary, but also higher education
(knowledge on philosophy and God’s postulates).
TEST 5
1. Renaissance has arisen in:
a) France;
b) Italy;
c) Germany.
2. Who was named the Father of humanism:
a) Francesco Petrarch;
b) Filippo Brunelleschi;
c) Leonardo da Vinci.
3. The genius Holland painter Rembrandt is the author of the famous picture:
a) Paris law-court;
b) Danaja;
c) Athenian school.
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4. The author of the colonnade on the St. Peter's cathedral square in Rome
was:
a) F. Borromini;
b) L. Bernini;
c) J. Briappo.
5. The founder of classicism of French music was a composer:
a) J. S. Bach;
b) V. A. Mozart;
c) G. B. Lully.
6. The style of French architecture, associated with the time of Napoleon I
empire, is:
a) classicism;
b) baroque;
c) empire.
7. The new direction in Western European culture of the XVII century.
established by Swiss historian J. Burckhardt in the XIX century was called:
а) empire style;
b) baroque;
c) rococo.
8. The Remarkable representative of the Age of Enlightenment was:
a) G. Lank;
b) T. More;
c) R. Descartes.
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TEST 6
1. The founder of cubism in painting was:
a) P. Gauguin;
b) P. Picasso;
c) F. Goya.
2. A new vision of the world, founded on the immediate impression is called:
a) expressionism;
b) impressionism;
c) symbolism.
3. Dadaism as modernism variety came into existence in:
a) Switzerland;
b) Germany;
c) France.
4. The founder of surrealism in painting was:
a) Velasquez;
b) F. Goya;
c) S. Dali.
5. The first artist and theoretician of new direction in culture that does not
contain neither a reminder about reality nor response from this reality was:
a) S. Dali;
b) O. Kokoschka;
c) V. Kandinsky.
6. At the beginning of the XX century (1905) a group "Bridge" appeared in
Dresden. It established:
a) dadaism;
b) impressionism;
c) expressionism;
d) avant-gardism;
e) symbolism.
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TEST 7
1. Ukrainian puppet-shows were popular in Ukraine in the XVII century.
The authors and the actors were the pupils of the fraternity schools and
colleges. Such theatre was called:
a) vertep;
b) miracle;
c) interact.
2. As a chronicle testifies, the first schools in Kyiv Rus were founded by the
Duke:
a) Svyatoslav (Zavoyovnyk) the Conqueror;
b) Volodymyr (Velyky) the Great;
c) Volodymyr Monomah.
3. Who was the author of the Story of the Passing Years:
a) the Metropolitan Illarion;
b) the Monk Nestor;
c) the Duke Volodymyr Velyky.
4. As a chronicle testifies, the first library in Rus was founded in:
a) Sophiya cathedral in Kyiv;
b) Sophiya cathedral in Novhorod;
c) Uspensky cathedral in Halych.
5. In Kyiv Rus children were taught only:
a) to read and to write, to compose the poems and speeches, to
understand language of spheres, and God's postulates and moral
bases;
b) read, write, and count, God's postulates, moral bases, and church
singing;
c) to read, write, count, compose poems and speeches, to sing in
church choir, God's postulates and moral bases.
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6.
In
Kyiv Rus the most
a) Romanesque;
b) Byzantine style;
c) Gothic style.
popular
architecture
was
of:
7. The founder of Kyiv college – one of the high school at the end
of the XVI - the first half of the XVII centuries was:
a) I. Borytsky;
b) P. Mohyla;
c) K. Ostrozky.
8. Yu. Kotermak is known in Ukraine and Europe as:
a) a clever war-lord;
b) a famous scientist and teacher, professor and rector of Bologna
university;
c) a brilliant politician.
9. The widespread architecture style in the XIV-XV centuries in Ukrainian
lands was:
a) Byzantine style;
b) Romanesque;
c) combination of lines of Byzantine and Gothic styles.
10. O. Dovzhenko was known as:
a) an artist;
b) a scientist;
c) a producer.
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GLOSSARY
Abstractionism (Lat. abstractus – dissevered) – movement in
painting, pointless art founded at the beginning of the XX century. It
is also called “sign-painting or abstract painting, action painting”.
Artists of this current want by means of arbitrary forms, lines and
colour blots to express unreal images and impressions, abandon from
realistic images of things.
Allegory (Gr. allegoria – other speaking) – story with
symbolically represented moral.
Arabesques – a complicated interlaced ornamental pattern,
widespread mostly in art of Moslem countries, made by geometrical
vegetable patterns and calligraphic Arabic superscriptions.
Arc (Lat. arcus – bow) – part of the circumference of a circle
or other curve.
Architecture – design and construction of buildings; style
of a building.
Art –
significance;
creation of works of beauty or other special
exercise of human skill (as distinguished from
nature).
Avant-gardism – modernistic movements in the art of the
XX
century
(futurism,
abstractionism,
constructivism),
its
representatives proclaimed a full break with traditions of realistic
art.
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Baroque (It. barocco – fanciful, wonderful) – style in
European and American art in the end of the XVI – middle of
XVII century, which appeared in architecture, painting, literature,
and music. Grandiosity and decorative splendour, solemnity and
inclination to impressive effects are typical for baroque.
Bible (Gr. biblia – books) – Christian scriptures of Old and
New
Testaments;
(bible)
copy of
these;
(bible)
colloq.
authoritative book.
Brahmanism or Brahminism (sometimes not cap.) – the
religious and social system of orthodox Hinduism, characterized by
diversified pantheism, the caste system, and the sacrifices and
family ceremonies of Hindu tradition; the form of Hinduism
prescribed in the Vedas, Brahmanas, and Upanishads.
Bronze age – historic period of human development (4 – 2
millenium B.C.), specifically its culture, when the bronze wares
were widespread. On the territory of contemporary Ukraine bronze
age lasted since the XIX century B.C. till the VIII century A.C.
Buddhism – Asian religion or philosophy founded by
Gautama Buddha and his followers, which declares that by
destroying greed, hatred, and delusion, which are the causes of all
suffering, man can attain perfect enlightenment.
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Calvinism – the theological system of John Calvin and his
followers, characterized by emphasis on the doctrines of
predestination, irresistibility of grace, and justification by faith.
Caricature – a pictorial, written, or acted representation of
a person, which exaggerates his characteristic traits for comic
effect; a ludicrously inadequate or inaccurate imitation.
Caryatid (Lat. Caryatides, Gr. Karuatides priestesses of
Artemis at Karuai (Caryae), village in Laconia) – a column, used
to support an entablature, in the form of a draped female figure.
Cathedral (Lat. (ecclesia) cathedra – cathedral (church),
from cathedra – bishop's throne, Gr. kathedra – seat) – the
principal church of a diocese, containing the bishop's official
throne.
Ceramics – (functioning as sing.) the art and techniques of
producing articles of clay, porcelain, etc.
Collage – an art form in which compositions are made out of
pieces of paper, cloth, photographs, and other miscellaneous objects,
juxtaposed and pasted on a dry ground; a composition made in this
way; any collection of unrelated things.
Constructivism – a movement in abstract art evolved in
Russia after World War I, primarily by Naum Gabo, who explored
the use of movement and machine age materials in sculpture and had
considerable influence on modern art and architecture.
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Cubism – a French school of painting, collage, relief, and
sculpture initiated in 1907 by Picasso and Braque, which
amalgamated viewpoints of natural forms into a multifaceted surface
of geometrical planes.
Custom – established social habit or practice of a group,
transmitted from one generation to another; convention.
Cyrillic – denoting or relating to the alphabet derived from
that of the Greeks, supposedly by Saint Cyril, for the writing of
Slavonic languages; now used primarily for Russian, Bulgarian, and
Serbian dialect of Serbo-Croatian.
Dada or Dadaism – a nihilistic artistic movement of the
early XX century in Western Europe and the USA, founded on the
principles of irrationality, incongruity, and irreverence towards
accepted aesthetic criteria.
Eclectic – selection of what seems the best from various
styles, doctrines, ideas, methods, etc.
Encrust or incrust – to cover or overlay or as with a crust or
hard coating; to form or cause to form a crust or hard coating; to
decorate lavishly, as with jewels.
Expressionism – widespread movement in literature and art
at the beginning of the XX century, which proclaimed subjective
spiritual world of a person as the only reality, and its expression is
the main aim of art.
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Fresco – very durable method of wall painting using
watercolours on wet plaster or, less properly, dry plaster (fresco
secco), with a less durable results; a painting done in this way.
Futurism (Lat. Future) – avant-garde direction in literature
and art; an artistic movement that arose in Italy in 1909 to replace
traditional aesthetic values with characteristics of the machine age.
Followers aimed to create synthetic art of future.
Graffito – archeol. Any inscription or drawing scratched or
carved onto a surface, esp. rock or pottery; drawings, messages, etc.,
often obscene, scribbled on the walls of public lavatories,
advertising posters, etc.
Gravure – a kind of graphics, medium of drawing
procreation with the help of printing form tree, metal, plastic or
stone.
Heathendom – adopted in Christian church and partially in
historical literature a term for designation of pre-Christian and
non-Christian polytheistic religions. Gods personified forces of
nature. The demons, ghosts of forests, and waters were hallowed. On
the base of heathendom there was created an original spiritual
culture, folk-tales, legends, ceremonies, and songs. Heathendom was
forced out by official monotheistic religions which adopted heathen
rituals and beliefs to their needs.
Hinduism – the complex of beliefs, values, and customs
comprising the dominant religion of India. Characterized by the
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worship of many gods, including Brahma as supreme being, a caste
system, belief in reincarnation, etc.
Humanism – the denial of any power or moral value
superior to that of humanity; the rejection of religion in favour of a
belief in the advancement of humanity by its own efforts; a
philosophical position that stresses the autonomy of human reason in
contradiction to the authority of the Church; a cultural movement of
the Renaissance, based on classical studies; interest in the welfare of
people.
Iconography – the symbols used in a work of art movement;
the conventional significance attached to such symbols; a collection
of pictures of a particular subject, such as Christ; the representation
of the subjects of icons or portraits, esp. on coins.
Iconostasis or iconostas – in Eastern Church a screen with
doors and icons set in tiers, which separates the bema (sanctuary)
from the nave.
Icon painting – a kind of cult painting (icons). Icon painting
appeared on the base of ancient Greek portraiture.
Impressionism – a movement in French painting, developed
in the 1870s chiefly by Monet, Renoir, Pissarro, and Sisley, having
the aim of objectively recording experience by a system of fleeting
impressions, esp. of natural light effects; the technique in art,
literature, or music of conveying experience by capturing fleeting
impressions of reality or mood of a person.
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Iron Age – a period of human development and its cultures,
which is associated with the use of wares made of iron, that followed
Bronze Age at the beginning of the 1 millenium B.C.
Landscape (from Middle Dutch lantscap – region; related to
Old English landscipe – tract of land; Old High German lantscaf –
region) – an extensive area of land regarded as being visually
distinct; a painting, drawing, photograph, etc., depicting natural
scenery.
Madrigal – a vernacular song, usually composed for three to
six unaccompanied voices.
Messiah – Anointed One, or Savior; in Greek, Christos.
Mosaic – a design or decoration made up of small pieces of
coloured glass, stone, etc.; the process of making a mosaic.
Myth – a story about superhuman beings of an earlier age
taken by preliterate society to be a true account, usually of how
natural phenomena, social customs, etc.
Naturalism – a movement, esp. in art and literature,
advocating detailed realistic and factual description, esp. in
XIX century France in the writings of Zola, Flaubert, etc.
Nocturne – a short, lyrical piece of music, esp. one for the
piano; a painting or tone poem of a night scene.
Organ – a keyboard instrument in which keyboards and
pedals are used to force air into a series of pipes, causing them to
sound.
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Pagoda – an Indian or Far Eastern temple, esp. a tower,
usually pyramidal and multistoreyed.
Painting – the art or process of applying paints on a surface
such as canvas, to make a picture or artistic composition; a
composition or picture made in this way.
Portrait – a painting, drawing, sculpture, photographs or
other likeness of an individual, esp. of the face; a verbal description
or picture, esp. of a person’s character.
Realism – a style of painting and sculpture that seeks to
represent the familiar or typical in real life, rather than an idealized,
formalized, or romantic interpretation of it.
Rococo – a style of architecture and decoration that
originated in France in the early XVIII century, characterized by
elaborate but graceful light, ornamentation, often containing
asymmetrical motifs; an eighteenth-century style of music
characterized by petite prettiness, a decline in the use of
counterpoint, and extreme use of ornamentation; any florid or
excessively ornamental style.
Romanticism – the theory, practice, and style of the
romantic art, music, and literature of the late XVIII and early XIX
centuries, usually opposed to classicism. Beginning of romanticism
is associated with the end of the Age of Enlightenment.
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Sculpture – the art of making figures or designs by carving
wood, moulding plaster, etc., or casting metals, etc.; work or a work
made in this way.
Self-portrait – portrait or description of somebody by
him – or herself.
Sketch – a rapid drawing or painting, often a study for
subsequent elaboration; a brief, usually descriptive and informal
essay or other literary composition.
Stained-glass windows or stained glass – decorative artistic
composition of figurative or ornament pattern character from
coloured glass or another clear material for windows or doors.
Specially widely used in gothic cult buildings of the late Dark Ages.
Statue – a wooden, stone, metal, plaster, or other kind of
sculpture of a human or animal figure, usually of life-size or larger.
Stone Age – a period in human culture identified by use of
stone implements and usually divided into the paleolithic,
mesolithic, and neolithic stages.
Surrealism – a movement in art and literature in the 1920s,
which developed esp. from Dada, characterized by the evocative
juxtaposition
of
incongruous
images
in
order
to
include
subconscious and dream elements.
Symbolism – representation of something in symbolic form
or attribution of symbolic meaning or character to something as a
system of symbols or symbolic representation.
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Triptych – a set of three pictures or panels, usually hinged so
that the two wing panels fold over the larger central one: often used
as an altarpiece.
Tryzna – in ancient Slavs till the X century. Final part of
funeral ceremony, with establishing of Christianity included a
system of burial rituals.
Veda – the oldest monuments of ancient Indian literature,
written in Sanskrit at the end of the II – the first half of the I
millennium, consists of 4 volumes.
Watercolour – paint, that is dissolved by water, and also
paintings made with this paint. The peculiarity of watercolour is a
colour transparence, colour cleanness.
Ziggurat (from Assyrian summit – height) – a type of
rectangular temple tower or tiered mound erected by the
Summerians, Akkadians, and Babylonians in Mesopotamia. The
tower of Babel is thought to be one of these.
Zoroastrianism (Zoroastrism) – the dualistic religion
founded by the Persian Prophet Zoroaster in the late VII century
B.C. and set forth in the sacred writings of the Zend-Avesta. It is
based on the concept of a continuous struggle between Ormazd (or
Ahura Mazola), the god of creation, light, and goodness, and his
arch enemy, Ahriman, the spirit of evil and darkness, and it includes
a highly developed ethical code. Also called Mazdaism.
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CONTROL QUESTIONS ON WORLD CULTURE
1. How did primeval art come into existence?
2. What was typical for world vision of ancient Egypt?
3. What achievements of old Egyptians came in to the treasure-house
of world culture?
4. What can you say about the developmental level of society in
Mesopotamia?
5. What peculiar features of ancient Indian culture do you know?
6. What were the most prominent achievements of ancient China?
7. Give the description of antiquity.
8. What peculiar features of ancient Greek culture do you know?
9. What can you say about the relations between mythology and arts
in ancient Greece?
10. What peculiar features of ancient Roman culture do you know?
11. How is the originality of Roman culture exhibited?
12. What were the stages of Byzantine art?
13. What peculiar features of Middle Ages culture do you know?
14. What can you say about medieval educational system?
15. How can romanticism and gothicism be characterized?
16. What is humanism?
17. What do you know about the specific features of Renaissance
culture.
18. Who are named the titans of revival?
19. Speak about painters of Renaissance.
20. What factors did influence the rebound of Revival in Western
European?
21. What sources and essence of Reformation do you know?
22. What artistic styles of New Time do you know?
23. Discuss the specific features of the Age of Enlightenment in
Europe.
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24. How were the ideas of Enlightenment reflected in the culture of
the XIX century?
25. What do you know about classicism?
26. Why did romanticism appear in the culture of the XIX century?
27. How can impressionism and symbolism be characterized in
painting, literature, music?
28. What reasons of modernistic movements formation in culture of
the XX century. do you know?
29. What is expressionism?
30. What is Dadaism?
31. What is cubism?
32. What is abstractionism?
33. What peculiar features of surrealism do you know?
34. How can the mass culture be characterized?
35. What are the basic problems of contemporary culture
development?
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REFERENCES
1. Adams L. S. A history of Western Art / Adams Laurie Schneider.
McGraw-Hill Companies : London, 1997. – 560 р.
2. Fiero G. K. The Humanistic Tradition / Gloria K. Fiero. – V.1 – 4.
– McGraw-Hill Companies : London, 1995 – 1997. – 178 р.
3. Shevchenko
O.
The
Stories
of
Bygone
years
/
O. Shevchenko. – Kiev, 2003. – 463 р.
4. Ancient Greece (Hellenic) [Електронний ресурс]. – Режим
доступу: http:/www.Showgate.com/medea/grklink2.html
5. Ancient Near East [Електронний ресурс]. – Режим доступу:
http:/religion.rutgers.edu/vri/aneast.html
6. Egyptian History [Електронний ресурс]. – Режим доступу:
http:/www.wsu.edu
7. The First Unification of China (221 – 207 B.C.) [Електронний
ресурс].
–
Режим
доступу:
http:/www.mc.maricopa.
edu/anthro/china/qinemp.html
8. The History of India [Електронний ресурс]. – Режим доступу:
http:/www.itihaas.com/
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Навчальне видання
Методичні вказівки
на тему “Культурологія: українська й зарубіжна культура”
з курсу “Культурологія”
для іноземних студентів
(Англійською мовою)
Відповідальний за випуск В. А. Нестеренко
Редактор М. В. Буката
Комп’ютерне верстання: В. А. Клименко, Н. В. Лобко
Підписано до друку 14.11.2011, поз.
Формат 60х84/16. Ум. друк. арк. 5,35. Обл.-вид. арк. 3,25. Тираж 50 пр. Зам. №
Собівартість видання
грн.
коп.
Видавець і виготовлювач
Сумський державний університет,
вул. Римского-Корсакова, 2, м. Суми, 40007
Свідоцтво суб’єкта видавничої справи ДК № 3062 від 17.12.2007.
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