Tamika Brown
EPEL 7540
Ornstein & Hunkins, Chapt. 2
July 2, 2009
Philosophical Foundations of Curriculum
Philosophy is central to curriculum with schools usually reflecting several
philosophies. This provides diversity that enhances the curriculum’s dynamics. Studying
a school’s philosophy allows you to better understand its curricula. A school’s source of
direction is found in its guiding philosophy and to a large extent, the philosophy of
education determines most educational decisions.
Philosophy provides educators with a framework for organizing schools and
classrooms. It helps them determine how students learn and what methods and materials
to use. It explains education’s goals, teaching and learning processes, and the experiences
and activities that schools should emphasize.
The philosophy’s purpose can be regarded as either the starting point in
curriculum development or a function interdependent with other functions in curriculum
development.
Four major philosophies have influenced U.S. education—idealism, realism,
pragmatism, and existentialism. Idealist philosophy is one of the oldest that exists and its
highest aim is the search for truth and enduring values. Learning is a primarily
intellectual process that involves recalling and working with ideas. The curriculum is
hierarchical as it constitutes humankind’s cultural heritage and is based on learned
disciplines as exemplified by the liberal arts curriculum. Realists view the world in terms
of objects and matter. People can come to know the world through their senses and
reason. Much like idealists, realists stress a curriculum comprising separate content areas
with the most general and abstract subjects at the top of the curricular hierarchy.
Pragmatism is based on change, process, and relativity and it construes knowledge as a
process in which reality is constantly changing. Learning occurs as the person engages in
problem solving which transfers to a wide variety of subjects and situations.
Existentialists stress individualism and self-fulfillment with people continually making
choices and defining themselves. People are who they choose to be, creating their own
self-identity. Existentialists believe that students should be free to choose how and what
they study and they reject the imposition of group norms, authority, and established
order.
Four major philosophies have emerged—perennialism, essentialism,
progressivism, and reconstructionism. Perennialism is the oldest most conservative
philosophy and it’s rooted in realism as it relies on the past and stresses traditional values.
The curriculum is subject centered and relies heavily on defined disciplines emphasizing
language, literature, mathematics, and science. Essentialists believe elementary
curriculum should focus on the three R’s and secondary curriculum should be geared
toward English, math, science, history, and foreign language and they devalue subjects
like art, music, PE, and home economics. Progressivists believe that schools should
nurture cooperation and self-discipline and transmit the society’s culture. Progressivists
emphasize how to think rather than what to think. Reconstructionists advocate for a
society-centered education that addresses the need of all social classes. Curriculum must
be transformed in keeping with a new social economic political education.
Questions:
In what way is philosophy the main curriculum source?
Which educational philosophy do you most identify with and why?
Ornstein & Hunkins Chapt. 4
Psychological Foundations of Curriculum
Psychology provides a basis for understanding the teaching and learning process
which is essential to curricularists because the curriculum has worth only when students
learn and gain knowledge. Psychology cements the relationship between teaching the
curriculum and learning it.
Behaviorism emphasizes conditioning behavior and altering the environment to
elicit selected responses from the learner. Thorndike, the founder of behavioral
psychology, maintained that behavior is influenced by conditions of learning, learners’
attitudes and abilities could improve over time through proper stimuli, and instructional
experiences could be designed and controlled. He believed that no one subject was more
likely than another to improve the mind; rather, learning was a matter of relating new
learning to previous learning. Other behaviorists maintained that students can organize
and classify information into existing mental schemata or patterns and use it in different
situations. The ability to learn and recall is directly related to the learner’s having a
structural pattern by which information can be transferred to new situations.
According to classical-conditioning theory, learning consists of eliciting a
response by means of previously neutral or inadequate stimuli; neutral stimulus
associated with an unconditioned stimulus at the time of response gradually acquires the
ability to elicit the response (ex: Pavlov’s dog/bell experiment).
In operant conditioning, the role of stimuli is less definite and often the emitted
behavior cannot be connected to a specific stimulus. Operant behavior will discontinue
when it is not followed by reinforcement. Behavior modification, where new behavior is
shaped, is widely used in conjunction with individualized instructional techniques,
programmed learning, and classroom management techniques.
Curriculum specialists can adopt procedures to increase the likelihood that each
student will find learning relevant and enjoyable. When new topics or activities are
introduced, connections should be built on students’ positive experiences.
Most psychologists agree that learning in schools is mainly cognitive where
cognitive psychologists are interested in the mind’s architecture with both long-term and
short-term memory.
The Montessori Method rejects the dominant behaviorist theories based on
stimulus-response but rather emphasized looking and listening to enhance mental
development. Piaget’s theory includes cognitive development stages from birth to
maturity and focus on environmental experiences. Vygotsky’s theory addresses the social
origins and cultural bases of individual development. He believed that children develop
their potential through enculturation into society’s norms.
Many cognitive scientists focus on thought processes also known as thinking and
learning. Ways to classify these thought processes include IQ and birth order, multiple
intelligences, and learning styles.
Constructivism addresses the nature of knowledge and the nature of learning and
treats the individual as actively involved in the process of thinking and learning.
Phenomenology or humanistic psychology can be considered the most recent
learning theory. It focuses on attitudes and feelings, self-actualization, motivation and
freedom to learn, emphasizing the total person.
Questions
How would you define humanistic learning in schools?
Compare and contrast the three major learning theories.
Katrina Jones
Standards and Norms: What Is the Difference?
There has been some confusion along the lines of student achievement. “At the
very core of the concept of academic standards is the principle that student achievement
is measured against a fixed objective, not in comparison to other students” (Reeves, 2003,
p.25). This is not to be confused with using norms as a reference point of determining
student achievement. To assume that using standards and norms as a reference point for
evaluating student achievement is the same is to err.
Standards are fixed while norms are mobile. An example was given in the text in
which a student achieved mastery of the standard for finding the area of a triangle. This
student is labeled as being in the fiftieth percentile. The same student would be labeled
in the ninetieth percentile if the other students were unable to find the area of a triangle.
From a norms perspective the student appears far more advanced than her counterparts
whereas from a standards based perspective her ability to perform that standard is the
same and has not changed.
Focusing on standards based achievement should be the optimal focus of
educators. It is important that our students have mastered the concept of writing not that
they write better than other failing writers. When a surgeon is about to operate, the
patient is not concerned whether the doctor is in the top ten percent of his class but that
the doctor has mastered the standards required for a successful surgery. Norm bring
about competition amongst students but the ultimate importance of learning is to success
on standards.
The Role of the Principal
Principals wear many hats but this chapter focuses on how principals can be
leaders for the standards implementation process. This chapter gives seven steps for an
effective implementation process: understand the standards, identify faculty leaders,
create professional development opportunities, assess student progress analyze classroom
activity, recognize outstanding performance and reflect, revise and improve.
It is recommended that principals become familiar with standards so that they can
effectively communicate with teachers, parents and the public. The next step to
successful implementation of the standards is identifying faculty leaders that are
committed to standards based instruction. “Once you have identified these faculty
leaders, they must be nurtured and appreciated”(Reeves, 2003, p. 59). Then principals
are encouraged to create standards based professional development opportunities that do
not occur in isolation and meets the needs of the individual teacher. Another
recommended step in standards based implementation is assessment. A standards based
assignment is recommended as an assessment starting early in the school year.
The authors then recommend taking aggressive measures to analyze classroom
activity. An example of a school superintendent becoming a substitute in his school
system in order to gain more insight was given. Basically, staying connected to the
classroom is highly emphasized as a strategy for planning and decision making. Next
through the use of classroom analyzing activities, it is important to recognize and
appreciate outstanding performance. The last step in the standards implementation
process is to reflect, revise and improve.
Jennifer Spurlin
Chapter 10: Validity and Reliability in Performance Assessments
The purpose of this chapter was to identify what validity and reliability mean in
the context of standards-based performance assessment. Reliable is defined as consistent.
Only measurements that consistently provide information are worthy. As an example if
you get on a scale three times back to back and each time the scale provides you with the
same reading then the scale is reliable. In order for a performance assessment to be
reliable a degree of consistency is 80%. In other words let’s say ten teachers examine a
piece of students work and each teachers uses the same scoring guide or rubric and eight
of them come to the same conclusion about the student work then the assessment if
reliable. If the teachers fail to get the 80% then the rubric or scoring guide needs to be
revisited in order to make it more specific. But reliability isn’t enough.
However reliable a scale is if it isn’t being used to measure the right thing it will
provide a faulty conclusion. Therefore, validity of an assessment must also be a
consideration. Validity simply is that we are testing what we think we are testing. An
example of that is it would be invalid to give a Spanish speaking student a multiple
choice math test written in English. The will not provide the teacher with information
about what math standards the student knows.
There are three ways to determine if a test is valid. One, the evaluation should
specifically address the content area to be assessed. Second, in order to receive a
complete picture of what a student knows the teacher must use multiple measures to
establish the validity. One assessment simply isn’t enough. Performance assessments,
classroom observations, group work, peer observations, independent exercise, and
multiple choice tests should be used together to get a full understanding of what the child
knows. Lastly, validity can be established by tests administered to random samples of
students. The hallmark of an effective assessment system is that it itself is assessed by
the end users, which can be a lot of work and requires collaboration among colleagues.
Chapter 11: The Role of National and State Standards
This chapter discusses some of the issues that can arise do to the lack of national
and State standards. According to the reading the United States is almost alone among
industrialized countries in failing to adopt national academic content standards.
However, many complain that the standards movement is an effort to remove local
control from schools despite the fact that the Tenth Amendment of the Constitution
assigns all unspecified powers to the states.
Without standards text books can be problematic. Often time textbooks tend to
guide curriculum in many districts. The issue here is many textbooks don’t cover the
information needed for testing, they are boring, inaccurate and even bias. Teacher’s
preference can often cause classrooms to go astray without the guiding hand of standards.
Teachers have an extraordinary amount of autonomy with regard to the content and rigor
of their classrooms often causing discrepancies. For example one teacher may really
enjoy teaching math and makes that a focus in her room causing less time to be spent on
Language Arts and across the hall the opposite could be happening keeping students from
being well prepared for the next grade.
Many people fear that standards will suppress the teaching techniques of creative
teachers. However, standards bring relevance and meaning to every hour and every
classroom.
Chapter Questions 10:
1. Do you feel your team collaborates effectively enough
to create valid/reliable assessments? What do you feel
would make it more successful?
2. Do you think the CRCT is a valid/reliable assessment
across all grade levels?
Chapter 11:
1. Do you think the United States should develop national
standards for all grade levels to ensure that students are
learning the same standards from state to state?
2. In other countries assessments and learning
expectations are published at the beginning of the school
year in the nation's leading newspapers so everyone knows
what is expected in terms of academic performance. Should
the United States or even just Georgia implement a similar
program?
Stacy Mathess
Reeves Chapter 8: The Role of the District
There are six key responsibilities of superintendents and board members in a standardsbased classroom:
1. Ownership. Standards, made by the state and local districts, need to be
owned by all members of the community. It is a means of politically including
groups represented within each community who will vote on the next bond
issue.
2. Congruence. All decisions within the district need to be “congruent with
other policy initiatives undertaken by the school system” (Reeves, 2003, p
64). This includes textbooks, other curriculum material, hiring teachers and
administrators, evaluations, etc. They need to be aligned with the standards.
3. Experimentation. Pilot programs need to be implemented using the school’s
standards as the start. Why? They create enthusiasm; initial bugs are worked
out in the system; leverage (teachers teaching teachers); provide long-term
source of mentors; and public recognition and rewards.
4. Support: Time, Money, and Protection. Time needs to be allocated for teacher
collaboration and review of student performance of the standards. Money is
allocated for substitutes to let teachers review student work, create scoring
rubrics, and create new standards-based assignments. Protection for all
teachers is extremely important. With standards normally comes a
separation between academic and nonacademic teachers. “Effective district
leaders make clear that there is no such thing as nonacademic faculty
members” (Reeves, p 68).
5. Leading Reluctant Followers. Effective leaders eliminating or change
activities that are not part of the standards, even from those nonacademic
classes.
6. Focus. When implementing standards, focus just on this and not any other
initiatives. Make sure progress is checked and action reports are given to all
schools.
Question:
Does your district support the standards like Reeves describes? Explain.
Reeve’s Chapter 9: Measuring Standards Achievement
What is Standards Achievement Report?
Most schools use traditional letters to grade students. Standards Achievement
Reports “assign grades on the basis of a comparison of student performance to other
students” (Reeves, 2003, p 71).
The Accountability Imperative
Most parents want to know how their child is doing in school but do not
understand what a “C+” means.
A Better Way: The Standard Achievement Report
A folder is given to each student. On the four sides of the folder are the four core
academic areas. The columns are represented by the standards, and the rows are the
assignments given. Students are evaluated on the standards and given a grade. They are
graded from “E” exemplary, “P” proficient, “IP” in progress, or “N” not meeting
standard. Inside the folder are assignments, teacher observations, student reflections, etc.
When looking at the folder, it is obvious where a student is strong and where he/she
needs additional assistance. By the end of the year, there should be an evaluation for each
standard. “From a building and district point of view, the aggregate of Standards
Achievement Report data will allow administrators to identify with far greater precision
the strengths and weaknesses of their curriculum and instruction programs” (Reeves, p
74).
What About Behavior?
There should be behavior standards on the report.
This Is Too Hard!
Yes, Standards Achievement Reports are detailed, time-consuming, and
sometimes difficult but worth it. The report is more telling about what a student is
deficient on then regular grades.
What About Parents?
Participation from parents is reinforced with these reports because the reports
clearly state what standards are not achieved, and tt sends a clear message that the parents
are apart of their child’s education.
The Most Important Rule: Tell the Truth
Clear and direct statements about standards, expectations, and performance are
needed for this approach to work.
Questions:
Do you think that a Standards Achievement Report is realistic in high school when
colleges and universities are looking at GPAs, etc.?
What do you think are some positives and negatives about Standards Achievemnet
Reports?
Terica Ellison
July 2nd On-line Assignment
Chapters 7 & 10 Ornstein & Hunkins
Chapter 7- Curriculum Development
An effective curriculum will provide students and teachers with quality learning
experiences that will foster advanced thinking, a deeper understanding and appreciation
for learning, and elaborate skills. An effective curriculum engages students in learning
and fosters independent thinking and meaning construction. There are multiple ways to
define curriculum development. Most people view curriculum as a system of parts that
are arranged to foster and support learning. Curriculum development consists of various
outlets, which provide opportunities for educators to realize certain educational goals.
Most curriculum models can be categorized as technical or nontechnical.
Technical-Scientific Approach
Technical-scientific curriculum development began around 1900. The process of this
approach is highly objective, universal, and logical. This approach emphasizes students
learning content specific material with a specific output. The technical-scientific
approach applies scientific principles and involves monitoring the overall makeup of the
curriculum design. Those who favor the technical-scientific models place knowledge
acquisition at the forefront of their thinking. The Models of Bobbitt and Charters is one
example of a technical-scientific approach. This model is based on the comparison
between creating a curriculum and constructing a railroad. Another example includes,
The Tyler Model, which is centered on four basic principals. These principals include:
determining the schools purpose, identifying educational experiences, a focus o how the
experiences are organized, and the evaluation process. The third approach is The Taba
Model: Grassroots Rationale. This approach focuses on seven major steps. The steps
include, diagnosis needs, formulate objectives, select and organize content, select and
organize learning experiences, and evaluation. The Backward-Design Model was also
discussed in the technical-scientific approach. This model begins with desired results and
accomplishments.
Nontechnical-Nonscientific Approach
This approach focuses on the subjective, personal, aesthetic, heuristic, and transactional.
There is a focus on the learner rather than the outcome that the learner should present.
Nontechnical curriculum developers prioritize the learner over the subject. They focus on
holistic learning, instead of breaking learning into smaller parts. The curriculum in this
model evolves from teacher-pupil interactions. The Deliberation Model was highlighted
for the nontechnical curriculum development. This model is a blend of the modern world
and the postmodern world of thinking. The Deliberation Model has six stages. These
stages include; public sharing, highlighting agreement and disagreement, explaining
positions, highlighting changes in positions, negotiating positions of agreement, and
adopting a decision. Curriculum development through the deliberation model takes place
within a cultural context.
Chapter 10- Curriculum Issues and Trends
Education as Business
Some people think that school should be run like a business. Many believe that schools
will improve if they are operated based on the principals of the free-market competition.
Businesses can provide different perspectives on reinventing schools. The down side of
viewing schools as businesses is that, the students are viewed as products. Viewing
student as products creates an underemphasis on creativity, sensitivity, and wisdom.
Education as Entertainment
Another perspective to use to view education is in the form of entertainment. According
to the authors, the best education incorporates many qualities of good entertainment.
When we think about education as entertainment we should focus on the fact that when
students play games they have options about which game they will play. The games are
attention grabbing and challenging. Even when students fail at one particular game, the
experience is turned into a learning opportunity. The key goal from this perspective is
that students enjoy the process of learning, choices and opportunities are given, and
mistakes are turned into learning experiences.
Reform versus Reinvention
School reform is usually created by procedural and technological changes. With
procedural changes we think about the traditional ways of tackling a job. This could be as
simple as changing educational materials or raising standards in content areas. Adding
computers to the classroom is another form of school reform. This particular change
alters how tasks are accomplished.
A school is a culture that should promote student learning. When we discuss the
reinvention of schools we must take into consideration our views of cultural and
structural changes. From the perspective of the reinvented school culture learning,
knowing, and doing are key components. Relationships and established, while
observations and interpretations are shared collaboratively.
There are key attributes of schools that are reinvented as learning communities which
include, keeping students safe, great student-teacher ratios, collaboration among students,
various teaching methods and learning models are used, learning is engaging and fun, and
relationships are established between the school and the community.
Questions for chapter 7:
1. How would you describe the nontechnical-nonscientific approach to curriculum
development?
2. Which curriculum model-technical scientific or nontechnical-nonscientific do you
believe has greater relevance in the twenty-first century? Explain your answer.
Questions for chapter 10:
1. How would you go about changing a school’s culture?
2. What do you think about thinking of schools as businesses?
3. What affect do you think that thinking of school’s as businesses will have on
students, teachers, and parents?