Albuquerque, New Mexico 87112
11901 Lexington Ave. NE
Phone: (505) 292-2738
E-mail: Aloobear@msn.com
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Dine Holistic Health Associates
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Findings of The Navajo
Beliefs In Tobacco Study:
Chinle Project
An Ethnographic Study To Determine
How Navajos Resisted Cigarette
Smoking
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An Ethnographic Study To
Determine Why Dine
Resisted Cigarette Smokin
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Albert H Harvey, MPH, CHES
HHS Grant Application #ISRSA0026-02
September 16, 1994
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INTRODUCTION
The HIGHEST prevalence rates (39.4 percent: Surgeon General 2001
Report) for smoking tobacco products is being closely examined and
documented, which is pejoratively affecting our Native American
(NA) and Alaskan Native (AN) youth. Why? The NA/AN youth lead
the nation as far as the HIGHEST prevalence rates for smoking
tobacco products in their respective age/ethnic groups.
However,
this study narrows its focus specific to the Dine population.
The
prevalence rate for Dine youth is lower than 17 percent, as per best
health estimates, according to national health indicators, which
represents only “generic” Indian youth populations.
Prevalence of smoking among high school seniors (1990-1994)
indicated that NA/AN youth reached the highest rate of 39.4 percent
(Surgeon General 2001).
In examining the prevalence rates of
current smoking among women over the age of 18, American Indian
women also reached the highest rate in their category of 34.5
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percent...
The data source for women smoking comes from the
“National Health Interview Survey (1997-1998). According to the
Surgeon General Report (`998):
“Smoking rates and consumption among American
Indians and Alaska Natives vary by region and state.
Smoking rates are highest in Alaska (45.1%) and the
North Plains (44.2%) and lowest in the Southwest
(17.0%). The prevalence of heavy smoking (25 or more
cigarettes per day) is also highest in the North Plains
(13.5%0.” (A Report of the Surgeon General. US Dept.
of HHS, CDC 1998).
Winter (2000) reports an increasing rate of smoking amongst
Peublo and Dine of the Southwest. He says:
“ …(The) available evidence indicates that rates of tobacco use are
rising rapidly among Native American youths, even in the
Southwest, where they are lower than elsewhere. A study by Sally
M. Davis and colleagues (1995) of (Dine) and Pueblo children, for
example, indicated that 11 percent of fifth-grade boys and 1.2
percent of fifth-grade girls smoked cigarettes at least once a week.
Of the seventh-grade boys, 27.2 percent smoked regularly or
occasionally, as did 19.3 percent of seventh-grade girls. These rates
compare with data from D. B. Coultas and colleagues (1994) which
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indicated
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that 18.1 percent of adult Native American men in the
Southwest and 14.7 percent of women smoke tobacco on a regular
basis” (Winter 2000).
“Tobacco is an extremely dangerous, powerful, addictive drug.
Many of the beliefs and practices associated with traditional use
may actually serve to limit its use; without them, young indigenous
people are especially vulnerable to tobacco’s coercive power, owing
to peer pressure and manipulation by the tobacco industry and its
massive campaign of sophisticated media advertising.” (Winter, JC
2000)
Unfortunately, our NA/An youth and adult American Indians are
inundated with a serious public health problem, which is jeopardizing
their quality of life and even causing premature mortalities amongst
them. According to a recent “2000 Navajo …Youth Risk Behavior
Survey”, tobacco use is considered the chief preventable cause of
death in the United States, with over 20% of all deaths attributable
to tobacco use. “If current patterns of smoking behavior persist, an
estimated 5 million U. S. persons who were 0-17 years old in 1995
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is, ..born between 1978
and 1995) could die prematurely from
smoking related illnesses.” (2000 Navajo … Youth Risk Behavior
Survey).
Logically, the next question is: What are the American
Indian Nations, Indian Health Service, and other health organizations
doing about this grave emerging Native American public health
problem?
What kinds of obstacles, efficacious anti-smoking
campaigns/strategies, and research findings are now under review
and discussions?
Use and abuse of tobacco products for anyone is a real serious public
health problem as reported in national and international health
research journals. Why? The magnitude of the problem centers on
the increased risk factors associated with morbidity/mortality rates
attributable to cancer and other related diseases, creating a health
crisis that will eventually jeopardize NA/AN youth of their quality of
life and a slim chance to fully live out their healthy lifestyle.
According to Burhanstipanov (2001),
“Cancer Risks Factors” include agents (e.g.,high
consumption of dietary fat)which, based upon scientific
evidence increase the likelihood of developing one or more
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types
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of cancer. In comparison, “carcinogens” include
certain man-made and natural chemicals that cause cancer
(Doll and Peto 1998).
For example, smoking and
smokeless tobacco are carcinogens that turn a normal cell
into a cancer cell (NIH Pub No. 87-2059). When exposed
to a carcinogen, given enough frequency, duration and/or
exposure to that factor, a specific type of cancer will
eventually develop in most people. For example, chronic
tobacco use nearly causes 90 percent of lung cancer.
There are substantial data to support that chronic tobacco
use has a causal relationship to cancer rather than only a
“risk” for developing cancer.”(Burhanstipanov (2001 229)
Geographically, there are high variability reported in the literature
on risk factors relevant to different tribal nations depending on
where they reside. Welty (1992), has reported that the “high rate
for smoking (56% for men and 48% for women) among the Sioux
Nation living in North and South Dakota is closely related to their
high lung cancer mortality rates.” (Promise to Keep …2001).
According to Burhanstipanov (2001), “Most cancers have external
causes and to a great extent are preventable by living a healthy
lifestyle (e.g., not smoking tobacco, daily exercise).”She continues,
“Likewise, other factors and behaviors are associated strongly with
increased risk for developing cancer, such as high-fat/calorie and low
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fiber diet,
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2001)
Research on NA/AN youth tobacco prevalence rates varies between
and among tribal groups.
The National Cancer Institute (NCI)
reported disparate rates among Native youth adolescents.
NCI
reported incredibly high rates of tobacco smoking among Native
adolescents in the Pacific Northwest and Alaska. Over 70 percent of
smoking commercial tobacco products among the Inuit youth in
Alaska and Canada were reported by NCI.
According to another
report in 1992, 21 percent of Alaskan Native students, grades 7-12
reported usage, compared to 11 percent in the general population. A
very high usage, 54 percent, was found among (Dine) students in
grade 7, compared to 33 percent overall, according to (Wolf & Carlos,
`1987).
The reports from the field also indicated that reservation youth tend
to have higher smoking rates than their off-reservation and urban
counterparts, the NCI reported.
In a 1992 NCI study, the off-
reservation smoking rate was 10 percent lower.
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Other research
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findings ..reflect
similar statistics about smoking rates in the adult
Native population. AI/AN women, for example, were reported to have
the highest rate of tobacco usage in a 2001 US study.
The United States Indian Health Services (IHS) conducted a national
“1999 Oral Health Survey” consisting of over 12,000 Native
Americans and Alaskan Natives raging from age 2 to 96. The data
reflected findings on NA/AN dental patients not necessarily reflective
of the general NA/An population.
The report of the oral survey
indicated that dental caries and periodontal disease remain both
“widespread and serious” in the AI/AN population. There were two
conclusions, which emerged from the report. They are:
 Dental caries is a significant health problem for AI/ANs of
all ages, but the magnitude of the problem is greatest
among very young children.
 In addition to dental decay, periodontal (gum) disease is
a significant health problem among AI/AN adolescents,
adults, and children. This is especially true for those who
have diabetes or use tobacco ((p. 4).
According to Dr. Vanderwagon (1999), …. “health survey (1994 HIS
Oral Survey) revealed, among other things, that 40% of individuals
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seeking dental
care between the ages of 20 and 34 years reported
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that they were regular tobacco users.” (Vanderwagon 1999)
A review by Golaz et al (1997), concerning Native American health
issues, revealed that lifestyle choices of individuals regarding diet,
exercise, tobacco use, alcohol use, use of firearms, and automobile
safety contributed 40% of all deaths (Golaz et al 1997).
Dr.
Vanderwagon (1999) further explained:
“This is reflected in the increasing percentage of Indian
deaths associated with heart disease, cancers of various
types, and various forms of violence (both intentional
and nonintentional).”
The “1999 IHS Oral Health Survey” recommended the following:
“To reduce the burden of dental disease, age-specific
prevention programs must be developed and targeted
toward those at highest risk.
The importance of
community water fluoridation, school-based or schoollinked dental sealant programs, and Tobacco
prevention/cessation programs should be stressed (p.
4).”
A significant finding of the “1999 IHS Oral health Survey”
surrounding the issue of tobacco use and abuse by NA/AN youth
follows:
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“Individuals
who use tobacco are at higher risk of both oral
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cancer and periodontal (gum) disease. The use of tobacco
products among NA/AN youth starts about 13 years and
steadily increases with age.
Two percent of 13 year olds and 34 percent of the 19 year
olds use tobacco on a regular basis (p. 2.).”
How the US Government and big corporations are dealing with
ethnic groups i.e., Native Americans and Alaskan Natives, for
smoking too much, remains a dubious and perplexed question as
we enter the 21st century.
One example is how the American
Indians are treated with respect to illnesses and pre-mature deaths
due to a variety of “leading causes of death for American Indians”
such as alcoholism, diabetes, cancer, accidents and suicides.
American Journal of Public Health (July 2001, Vol.91 No. 7) recently
published an article dealing with race and the elimination of health
disparities.
The focus of the article centers on the Institute of
Medicine (IOM) report, Unequal Burden of Cancer: An Assessment of
NIH Research and Programs For Ethnic Minorities and Medically
Underserved.
In this journal, Openheimer addresses 2-4 recommendations:
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“The
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groups rather than race in NIH’s cancer surveillance and
other population research. This implies a conceptual shift
away from emphasis on fundamental biological differences
among “racial” groups to an appreciation of the range of
cultural and behavioral attitudes, beliefs, lifestyle
patterns, diet, environmental living conditions, and other
factors that may affect cancer risk.” (Openheimer 2001
2(p.19 and1046)
As national tobacco studies are revealing skyrocketing and the
highest smoking prevalence rates among Native American (NA) and
Alaskan Native (AN) youth, Dine prevalence rate stands at about
17 or less percent. Dine tribal policymakers, schools serving Dine
students, and Indian Health Service are increasingly under
pressure to document their outcomes of programs and services
they offer. What research evidence can demonstrate any promise
of an answer to this grave Native American public health problem?
The opinions of researchers, studying Native American youth
smoking problem, are saying that the problem will only get worse.
When the sounding board of researchers echo the message that
lowering the prevalence rate of Native American youth only spells
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“limited
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success”, my mind only images signs of hope and
continued challenges to overcome tobacco devastations.
According to Winter (2000), … “Until relatively recently, this
important relationship between the original inhabitants of the
Americas and a very powerful and dangerous plant was generally
positive, and tobacco formed a core element in their religious
systems. With only an occasional exception, there were probably
few adverse health effects, because traditional tobacco was used
with great care, in very small amounts, and only in strictly
controlled religious contexts.
For the most part, traditional
tobacco was considered a positive source of the highest form of
religious power, so long as it was ingested appropriately and not
misused.” (Winter, 2000).
Winter continued, “Today, many Native Americans continue to use
traditional tobacco for rituals and other religious purposes. About
half of the First Nations inhabitants of Canada and the United State
abstain from commercial tobacco….The positive relationship
between Native Americans and the ancient plant they domesticated
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breaking
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down, and a number of serious health problems are
occurring as a result, including major increases in the use of
cigarettes and smokeless tobacco (SLT) and a corresponding
increase in premature deaths from lung cancer, heart disease,
chronic
obstructive
pulmonary
disease,
and
other
tobacco-
associated illnesses.” (Winter, 2000)
Hopefully, Dine informants in this study would suggest that
traditional use of MST will make a big difference in their resistance
against habitual smoking of commercial tobacco and smokeless
tobacco (SLT).
Taken as a whole, these research reviews on NA youth tobacco
usage suggest several generalizations about the state of our
knowledge concerning the terror and threats of devastating and
destructive effects caused by use and abuse of commercial tobacco
products. For example,
“…Estimates of the number of adult Native Americans
in the United States who regularly smoke or ingest
smokeless tobacco range from about 27 percent to 47
percent, depending on age and sex of the sample
population. Less than 26 percent of the general U. S.
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population
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as a whole ingests commercial tobacco.”
(Winter, 2000 355).
Recent reports of prevalence rates for the use of smokeless
tobacco reflect a similar epidemiological pattern; for example,
“the highest rates are among American Indians in the Northwest.”
(Bruerd 1990; Glover, Gillum, and Smith 1989: 81; Holland and
Dexter 1988: 1586; Royd 1987: 402). Quotation from (Winter
2000).
Would it be more interesting and profitable to read about the
importance and unique ways of identifying contributing factors to
enhance healthy lifestyles for Dine youth especially by way of
their cultural mores, which could make a difference in their lives?
This study is probably going to generate more data for future
research on MST etc.
First, the reviews lack any data to support evidence of Native
American-specific cultural phenomenon that might be applicable to
decrease risk factors and/or behavioral change in the classroom or
other settings.
For example, is there a dependent variable
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(culturally
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relevant), which can be identified and utilized in a
quantitative study to pave the way for a pilot project?
Second, the reviews pay too much attention to reporting prevalence
rates about certain tribes and only in a certain location.
The
findings do not address the criteria of random sampling that
satisfies the requirements of scientific reliability and validity,
which hampers efforts to generalize to all Indian Nations.
Third, the reviews lack both quantitative and qualitative studies -positioned in a particular tribal group with relatively high/low
prevalence rates – that support evidence of good efficacious
results indicating that “x” number of Native youth in the
Experimental Group now have not smoked tobacco for the past five
or more years due to “Y” program (dependent variable) designed
to help students stop smoking.
Lastly, it might take Dine-specific spiritual health promotion
efforts to curb the rising prevalence rates (17 percent) of smoking
among Dine youth to make a difference in whether one lives a long
life or a short life.
But each tribe is responsible to search for
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cultural
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resources for help.
Research is still needed to
consult with tribes -- on what, how and who -- to implement
intervention programs. NCI is willing to go the whole nine yards to
use cultural means to help youth achieve optimum health.
For the Dine Nation policy-makers, schools serving the Dine people,
and the Indian Health Service, the question is less one whether the
Dine youth prevalence rates for smoking/ chewing Tobacco products
ARE WORSENING or whether there are any actual primary and
secondary prevention intervention studies to suggest that the NA
youth are actually resisting tobacco use? When could we expect to
see some action in motion toward doing something about the high
rate of smoking amongst our Dine youth in order that they may
enjoy better health?
According to Mico (1962), talking about Dine Health …“The
responsibility for introducing these new initiatives (health) and
changes
in
ways
to
facilitate
their
effective
adoption,
interpretation, understanding, and acceptance on part of the
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recipient
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the United Sates Public Health Service.” (Mico 1962)
“Dine’s movement toward the concept that health is a right,
holistic and broader than the anglo medicine of “temporary relief
of pain and discomfort” (Mico 1962) certainly does add more
credence to what the Dine can really do to improve their health if
given that chance, and backed by adequate men, money, material
and technical assistance (H.” (Harvey, 1982).
The issue is not really about percentages, rates and etc., although
the data is necessary and helpful, but whether there are any
efficacious Dine-specific holistic health rituals/promotions, which
could have a desirable and positive effect on Dine youth in the
future?
The older Dine certainly resisted smoking cigarettes,
which enabled them to live a long healthy life. Partial Data from
the “Findings” (“Appendix A”) suggest:
“Mountain tobacco (led)my grandmother to a long
(104 yrs) and a healthy life. Mountain tobacco
and herbal medicine cured me from problems from
WWII (a Code talker)…. (It) cleanses, (ensures
longevity) and wards off bad dreams. If mountain
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smoke is used, one will have no need for
cigarettes, skoal, marijuana or alcohol.” (See
“Findings” Appendix A for more comments.)
Statement of Purpose
The purpose of this study is to explore and describe whether some
older Dine resisted habitually smoking of commercial tobacco
products for a Dine Health Board at Chinle, Arizona. By using an
ethnographic design, resulting in descriptions of cultural/tobacco
themes
and
phenomenon.
patterns
related
to
Mountain
Smoke
Tobacco
At this stage in the research of, “why older Navajos
resisted smoking commercial tobacco products?” will be defined
generally as a holistic phenomenon practiced by older Dine whose
belief systems are centered on the “Blessing Way”. It is Dine’s
cultural “Way of Life” or folkway that helps Dine to become
balanced and healthy without abusing cigarettes, alcohol and other
harmful substances.
In this study, six key factors (categories) will be addressed and
described relevant to the use of Native tobacco and/or commercial
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tobacco.. in order to explore why some older Dine resisted habitual
smoking of commercial tobacco.
They are: (1) Dine culture and
tradition, (2) Tobacco and health, (3) Dine’s opinions about
cigarette smoking, (4) Dine teenage smoking, (5) breaking the
habit, and (6) Military influence. These factors, after they were
tramsfpr,ed into (research questions), will generate Dine-specific
cultural and traditional tobacco themes, which will became an
integral part of the summary of this sudy. See Appendixes “A”
and “B” for findings
(responses) to (interview questions.)
respectively.
For purposes of this study, Mountain Smoke Tobacco or (MST) will be used
interchangeably with other terms such as mountain
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS
some older Dine resisted habitual smoking of commercial tobacco
products for a Dine Health Board at Chinle, Arizona. Using an
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ethnographic
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design with focus group approach, this study resulted
in the description of the Dine cultural/tobacco themes and patterns
related to traditional tobacco and Dine religious system i. e. Blessing
Way.
This study explained why older Dine resisted smoking
commercial tobacco products in the first place. The purpose of this
study was accomplished by identifying the central concepts directly
related to the Dine belief and value systems surrounding “mountain
smoke tobacco” (MST) ritualism as it relates to the Blessing Way.
The central hypothesis of this study was: That the use of mountain
smoke tobacco (Dine traditional tobacco) by some older Dine could
only demonstrate strong evidence(s) that they did not resist
habitually smoking of commercial tobacco products let alone their
own tobacco.
The null hypothesis stated above was absolutely
rejected. As a matter of fact, our study suggested that older Dine
sacralized their smoking of MST in accordance with the Blessing Way
rituals, which helped them to resist habitual smoking of commercial
tobacco.
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fires
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are fought with fires just like some tobacco are fought
with tobacco.
However, in the case of MST, some older Dine used
traditional tobacco for religious and health reasons only in the
setting and amount proscribed by the medicine man. If they used
MST or other traditional tobacco the way the Holy People expected
them to, then “yes”, they were fighting against the (harmful)
commercial tobacco by using their own (healthy) sacred tobacco.
In summary, this qualitative study has reached the conclusion that
some older Dine did, in fact, resist the habitual use of commercial
tobacco, alcohol and more. But only through exhaustive search for
key cultural traits could anyone identify, describe and explain the
traditional tobacco use phenomena.
The findings suggest that the following themes and sub themes
helped to explain the conclusion. They are: 1) Blessingway as the
main basis, 2)
Dine Philosophy and personal philosophy, 3)
Ritualized attributes that were supernaturally endowed by the Holy
People, and 4) Holy People (Diyin Dene ii) and how they play out
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their roles.
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Information sources included: Dine informants, literature
review, observations and other sources.
The ultimate aim of every Dine curing ceremonial is restoration of
harmony and balance with nature.
Gladys Riechard (1976)
explained:
“The (Dine) wants to be natural, to be good, to be safe,
well, and young … but he attains this ideal quite
practically. Any deviation from it represents disease,
which in turn makes the body abnormal.” (Gladys
Riechard 1976)
This explanation corroborates with a comment made by one of our
informants in this study.
“Older Dine maintained a strong internal “psyche” or
internal “control” over their environment by using the
mountain smoke tobacco. In those earlier days, the
Dine culture demanded and expected this kind of
behavior and attitude. It was a cultural rule and
practice. To violate this cultural rule meant sickness,
unhappiness and lost of control and; hence, becoming
more vulnerable to outside forces such as illness,
sickness and diseases (social).”
A New Mexico man explained, talking about MST, “They are diyin –
holy people – holy spirits like ye’ ii, with great medicine.
they’re very dangerous.
And
You have to use them with respect, as
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prayers and
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But if
you use them without respect, if you smoke them like cigarettes,
their power will kill you.” (Winters, Joseph C., 2000)
BLESSING WAY
The supernatural power of the deities and nature is a reality in
the mind’s eye of the Dine people as they experience it in their chant
ways or ceremonial rites. The Blessing Way ceremony may include a
sacred ritual called “mountain smoke ritual” (Dee Nal Ye’e) wherein
traditional use of tobacco is involved.
“Blessingway is said to control all (Dine) ceremonies”
(Levy 1998 p117). “Blessingway is representative for
them, it is the spinal column of songs” (Long
Mustache). Quoted by (Wyman 1970). “Blessingway is
the backbone of (Dine) philosophy …. (Dine) commonly
conceptualize and refer to their philosophical and
ceremonial system as a corn plant” (Farella 1984 p
20). For more details see “Review of Literature.”)
“The (Dine) themselves say the Blessing Way, which is the ceremonial
held by the Holy People when they created mankind and taught them
skills and ritual, is the cornerstone of their whole ceremonial system.
Changing Woman gave some of the songs, and the rite in general is
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intimately
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connected with her.
Father Berard Haile says the
‘legends, songs, and prayers are chiefly concerned with the creation
and placement of the earth and the sky, sun and moon, sacred
mountains and vegetation, the inner forms of these natural
phenomena, the control of he- and she-rains, dark clouds and mist,
the inner forms of the cardinal points and like phenomena that may
be considered harbingers of blessing and happiness’” (Kluckholn and
Leighton 197,4 212-213).
“Blessing Way is given frequently indeed. Seldom does a family go
for six months without having Blessing Way sung at least once in
their Hogan. It is held to be peculiarly important that every member
of the immediate biological family should be present.
Despite the
sacredness of the ceremonial and the rich, complicated, and beautiful
ideas behind it, the rite has the dignity of great simplicity. There are
a few songs one night, a ritual bath in yucca suds with prayers and
songs the next day, an all-night singing that night.
Cornmeal and
(corn) pollen are predominately used throughout, and drypainting of
these materials and pulverized flower blossoms are sometimes
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prepared.. on buckskin spread upon the ground.
Only in Blessing Way
is Changing Woman ever represented in visible form in a
drypainting” (Kluckholn and Leighton, 1974 p 213).
This study brought together the salient elements of the Blessing
Way’s “Mountain Smoke Tobacco” (MST) mores or lifestyle by linking
together Dine philosophy, personal philosophy, a sample of ritual
attributes, findings or responses from our informants and personal
observations.
By
linking
up
all these
cultural traits,
the
ethnographer visualized a unified holistic picture of MST philosophy
and ritualism. This image deserves an accurate description and
explanation, which is the whole purpose of the study.
Dine Philosophy
Rituals and cultural rules also require devout commitment to
one’s own continued growth (progress) in spirituality as expected
under the “Blessingway” mores and
Dine philosophy – Sa ‘a
naghai bike’ hozho1 – key Dine philosophy.
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By saying that one is Sa ‘a naghai bik ‘e hozho makes
emphatic one’s direct relationship to the beginning of life
in the universe ….As part of this I will die, my life force
(Sa ‘a naghai bik ‘e hozho) will return to Dawn and
become part of the “undifferentiated” nil ch ‘I” that will
animate future living things….The gradual relinquishing
of boundary and ego as one grows older in the ideal case
is again part of this process, as is the absence of ch ‘iidii
(or a part of one’s spirit that holds on to life (Feralla
(1984, 179).
It is on the fate of this life force or “soul” that there is
fairly serious disagreement among Navajo philosophers
today…. The disagreement centers on the degree to which
the ego or identity is maintained within the nilch ‘I bii ‘
siziinii after death …. The view that I prefer has a
being’s nuch ‘I … becoming, as it were, a part of a kind
of undifferentiated pool of nilch’i. (Farella 1984, 127)
“To understand fully the (Dine) “philosophy of life” one must dig
deeper. The very fact that the (Dine) find it necessary to talk about
their “ethical principles” and their values suggest that not everybody
lives up to them (any more than is the case in the white society).
But many characteristically (Dine) doings and sayings make sense
only if they are related to certain basic convictions about the nature
of human life and experience, convictions so deep … that no (Dine)
bothers to talk about them in so many words.
These unstated
assumptions are so completely taken for granted that the (Dine) take
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their views
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hard to understand that normal persons could possibly conceive life
in other terms” (Kluckholn and Leighton 1974).
Kluckholn (1974) documented nine principles of ethics (premises),
derived from Dine World View vis-à-vis Dine Philosophy Blessing Way
legends. They are as follows:
1. Life is very, very dangerous. Five main formulas for safety are
to be followed. They include:
a) Maintain orderliness in those sectors of life which are
little subject to human control. For example,
restoration of the individual to the harmonies of the
nature, human and Supernatural world, or restoration
of equilibrium of nonhuman forces.
b) Be wary of non-relatives.
c) Avoid excesses. For example, everything should
done in moderation.
be
d) When in a new and dangerous environment, do
nothing. “Sit tight, you may escape evil.”
e) Escape. “My only security is to escape from the
Difficulties.” Flight or escape is stressed, but
some
times flight to alcoholism might ensue.
2. Nature is more powerful than man. “…Nature will take care of
them if they behave as they should and do as she directs.”
3. The personality is a whole. (Dine) believe you cannot treat
only the body but must treat the mind or vice versa.
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..
..
..
.. the integrity of the individual.
4. Respect
.
A person is autonomous
and spontaneous and is respected for it. Integrity of the
individual is well protected from violation at the hands of more
powerful people.
5. Everything exists in two parts, male and the female, which
belong together and complete each other.
6 Human nature is neither good nor evil – both qualities are
blended in all persons from birth on. (Dine) assumption is that
no amount of knowledge and no amount of “religious” zeal can
do more than alter somewhat the relative proportions of “bad”
and “good” in any given individual.
7 Like produces like and the part stands for the whole. An Eagle
can see very long distances. A (Dine) stargazer could use water
from the eagle’s eyes, rub it under his eyelids, and proceed to
perform his duties. A pinch of soil could represent whole
mountains
8
9
What is said is to be taken literally.
This life is what counts. (Dine) traditionalists do not believe in
preparing for life after death. Morality is practical rather than
categorical.
Read more examples and explanations in Kluckholn’s (1974) work.
The following inductive phrase developed as a result of intensive
research on MST in the Dine culture.
Dzil Nat oh’ Be I na’ Doo Be A dzil Hozho gii e’ lkgo
Linguistically speaking:
Dsil Nat oh’ Be I na” – Mountain smoke philosophy, with
aid of (ritually or supernaturally)endowed power.
Doo – and
Be a dzil –
ritualistically.
MST
made
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stronger
(supernaturally)
..
..
..
.. gii e’ lkgo – Blessingway, according to
Hozho
.
Translates into:
Sacred Power Of “Blessing Way” Holistic MST Lifestyle:
A Healthy
Dine Philosophy
The Dine phrase above connotes the concept that “MST Way of Life” –
used according to the religious practices and beliefs of the Dine
culture – enhanced a Dine’s well-being, quality of life, self esteem,
self confidence/control, self integrity and longevity and more. Some
data from the “Findings” or responses corroborate with this concept:
“MST was used initially to give (Dine) life
(because) it was a source of energy and
motivation (well-being). Self esteem is important;
(likewise), self respect is also important. The way
(MST) is used is sacred and. (It can) help one
regain mental strength (quality of life).”
“Medicine men, ceremonial songs and (prayers),
and Mountain tobacco help a person in life to get
rid of stress and depression. (MST) has been
around a long time to prevent the bad effects of
the world (and) to clear our minds of these
influences (stress). (It) is used for different
purposes, like reestablishing a marriage. (It)
helps the medicine men deal with emotional
issues (of clients). (It) can prevent stress and
peer pressure.
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..
..
..
..
.
(MST) prevents one from going crazy. It clears
the mind when one goes crazy. (It) is used to
clear the mind for something really good in life.
(MST) led my grand mother to a long (104 yrs)
and a healthy life. Grandma says smoking (MST)
will give me energy (motivation).
Mountain tobacco contributes to getting off
drugs. (During youth) – (MST) kept subject off
“beer, wine, cigarettes and women” in the
military. Praying with mountain smoke can get
our children back from(across)the ocean.
Hozhogii (Blessingway) requires (use) of (MST.
(More data from this study. See “Findings”
Appendix A.)
The older Dine experienced all these “positive healthy qualities or
attributes” of Dine holistic health.
These holistic “Beauty Way”
attributes corroborated with my personal observations, the literature
reviews, and interpretations of ethnographers in related literature..
To put it more succinctly, the older Dine resisted habitually smoking
cigarettes and etc. partly because concurrently they:
1) Willfully adopted and maintained the sacralized
smoking of MST,
2) Religiously attended MST rituals to appease the Holy
People and to practice their philosophies.
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..
..
..
..
.
3) Respected and obeyed the cultural rules and MST
mores as prescribed by a medicine man.
Moreover, this meant that the older Dine made a choice to become
supernaturally endowed; but first, they had to willfully and
unconditionally commit themselves to understanding and accepting
the ritualistic powers of the Holy People and the universe, reflective
of the “the system of values by which life events take on meanings
for those around him” (Leighton & Kluckholm, 1948).
Dine Belief/value System
Dine exercised their power of spirituality by exercising their right
to maintain their scralized use of MST. [Note: MST Way of Life is
the same as MST Lifestyle for purposes of this study.]
They
maintained their MST Lifestyle because; they, (1) introspectively
examined/accepted their Dine World View (perceptual filed) and
internalized their MST ritualism to reflect their belief system (i. e. ,
Dzil nat oh’ bee I na’ (MST personal philosophy), and (2) and reaped
the supernatural gifts from the Holy People (i. e., Dzil Nat oh’ bee A
dzil Sa a’ naghai bike’ hozho doo Hozho gii e’lkgo or benefiting from
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the
..
..
..
.
MST .. ritualism
supernaturally with aid of the Dine philosophy,
according to the the Blessing Way mores.
Personal Attributes
Gladys Riechard’s (1976) explains the attributes (ritual) more
completely as follows:
“More closely related to dogma is ‘a jii,’, ‘manifestation
by breath and sound of the life and power of a being,
that which keeps one powerful, that which one is plus
what he has secured through ritual’. This word indicates
identification with many powers in the ritualistic act
called ‘breathing in’” (Riechard 1976).
According to Riechard (1967), “Normal adjustment of the
body parts gives a person ‘a tse’, strength, firmness,
physical dependability. Add to these attributes power
derived from supernatural experience, he is strong,
enduring, powerful, and capable of controlling good and
warding off evil (a dzi l).”
When a devout MST smoker reached the stages and/or attributes of
‘a jii’, ‘I na’”, and ‘a dzil’and understood and lived out the Dine
philosophy -- then he/she was ready and powerful enough to control
external forces of good and evil.
34
After
..
..
..
..
achieving
.
this idyllic status (balance), the older Dine then
obtained sufficient supernatural SUPPORT to resist evil, cigarettes,
alcohol and other destructive behaviors that compromised his/her
quality of life and health.
In summary, the supernatural support of “a dzil”, “a jii”, “I nai’”
and “Saa a’ na ghai bike hozho” of (Dine Blessingway attributes) plus
his own personal philosophy (“Dine Holistic MST Lifestyle” Dzil Na
toh’ bee I na’) all have unequivocally impacted the older Dine,
reinforced by MST rituals and ceremonies, which obviously motivated
them to RESIST HABITUALLY SMOKING/CHEWING commercial tobacco
products and other harmful substances such as alcohol, marijuana,
and cocaine. An informant in our study makes this very clear:
“If mountain smoke is used, one will have no need
for cigarettes, skoal, marijuana or alcohol.” (Note:
part of “Findings”, see same for additional
statements @“Appendix A”.)
The Holy People
Older Dine’s belief and trust in the ritual of MST, as prescribed
by medicine man, determined whether he/she was going to be
35
..
..
..
.
blessed.. with the spiritual gift (power) from the Holy People.
Holy
People is explained by Klucjkholn and Leighton (1945) below:
“…Then there are the Holy People. They are not “Holy” in
the sense of possessing moral sanctity, for often their deeds
have a very different odor. They are “holy” in the meaning
of “powerful and mysterious,” of belonging to the sacred as
opposed to the profane world. …They have great powers to
aid or to harm Earth Surgace People. … Changing Woman is
the favored figure among the Holy People. She had much to
do with the creation of the Earth Surface People (humans)
and with the meeting at which they were taught how to
control the wind, lightning, storms, and animals, and how to
keep all these forces in harmony with each other. This
meeting was ceremonial of the Holy People and has become
Blessing Way, a ritual which occupies a key position in the
Navaho “religious system.” (Kluckholn & Leighton, 1946).
One point has to be brought up at this juncture. There are other
avenues of choices wherein older Dine could have decided not to
smoke commercial cigarettes and drink alcohol for reasons of
their own or what motivated them. What this study explored is
not an in-depth analysis of the Blessingway ceremony but to elicite
specific Dine cultural traits directly linked to MST ritualism, which
may only be a tip of the iceberg.
At no time has this study
attempted to solicit information that might violate Dine’s secrets
and very sacred practices.
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..
..
..
.. of observation, from a theoretical perspective, the
By way
.
notion
that the universal Dine philosophy (Saa a’ na ghai bike hozho)
holistically became congruous with the Dine’s personal philosophy
(Dzi l Nat oh’ bee adzi l Ho zhogii e’ lkgo) or Holistic MST Lifestyle,
featured the Dine in a very powerful spiritual center stage or
social status.
Why?
The congruence of both philosophies lends
itself to molding a Dine into becoming a very powerful spiritual
being because both philosophies synergistically and supernaturally
endowed the Dine diyinii.
Hence, the blessed Dine, who is
rewarded by the Holy People, is in an unique position to resist evil
(commercial tobacco, alcohol, and etc.) and control his external
environment through a spiritual power from within himself (locus
of control that is internal) or nilch ‘I bii’ siziinii (soul) or life
force.
How well the Dine demonstrated his appropriate demeanor,
expressed his potent personal and Dine philosophies, and how he
honored and respected the rituals and ceremonies of the Blessingway
in the context in which “MST Lifestyle” was first accepted and used
37
..
..
..
.. made a significant difference in whether one changed his
as needed,
.
attitude and philosophy towards evil and unhealthy practices -- the
Dine Way. The essence of positive and healthy lifestyle change came
from within the Dine including his perception of “self” relative to
future events, activities and outcomes.
Control Theory
Scientists have told us that all creatures are driven by the basic
need to attempt to stay alive and reproduce so that the species will
continue. “As creatures have developed from simple to complex, the
basic needs to survive and reproduce has been augmented by
additional basic needs”
(Glasser, 1986).
According to Glasser
(1986), humans not only need (1) to survive and reproduce, but also
(2) to belong and to love, (3) to gain power, (4) to be free, (5) to
have fun, and (6) to spiritually develop to harmonize and balance
with Nature.
This sixth need, which is augmented to the five needs,
is really for persons from the Dine culture if they choose to use it.
The basic needs are all built into our genetic structures as
instructions for how we might attempt to ive our lives (Glasser
38
1986).
..
..
..
..How
.
Dine develops to become a powerful spiritual being
(Dine diiyin) comes from rituals, ceremonies, songs, prayers, and
wanting to live a healthy life. Dine must live by his MST philosophy
and Sa s’ naghai bike hozho philosophy.
Again, the most significant key findings of the study suggests how
the Dine’s own sacred rituals and philosophy of Dine Mountain Smoke
Way plus Sa ‘s naghai bik ‘e hozho philosophy has impacted the
traditional Dine to abstain from use and abuse of commercial tobacco
products INCLUDING marijuana, alcohol and other harmful substances
-- mainly prior to 1940 on the Dine Reservation.
Older Dine’s own philosophy “I na’” plus “Saa a; na ghai bik ‘e
hozho” and supernatural power “a dzil” plus other atrivutes had to
match his belief in the ritual.
In short, it could be called “Dine
Holistic MST Control Theory”.
This theory is an expansion of the
Glasser Control Theory wherein Dine spirituality is added.
A Dine-specific holistic phenomenon related to appropriate use of
ritual tobacco herein referred to as “mountain smoke tobacco” has
39
evolved
..
..
..
..
into
.
a more specific description for final interpretation and
definition.
The new definition of MST Folkway (Lifestyle) is established as
follows: MST lifestyle – deeply embedded in “I na’”, Sa’ a naghai bik
‘e hozho” philosophies, (personal and Dine Blessingway Philosophies
respectively)) - is defined as a recurring Dine-specific spiritual ritual
or rite, performed under the “Blessingway” ceremony, conducted by
a medicine man/woman. The use of MST progressively becomes more
of a task to be performed by the individual, but Blessing Way
requires frequent ceremonials. The purpose of using MST was/is to
assist clients to restore their balance and well-being (harmony) with
nature; hence, to restore their optimum health. The probability of
maintaining a
highly successful life-time devotion to MST lifestyle
depends on Dine’s ability to name “a jii” (ritualistically acquired),
possess supernatural support “a dzil” and practice healthy lifestyle
of “I na’” (philosophy). These abilities had to be matched with the
Dine’s trust, commitment, and willingness to serve in the service of
the Dine’s “Holy People”.
40
..
..
..
..
Conclusion
.
remain
The conclusion that emerged is:
balanced/harmonious
with
To become and
Nature; Dine, first, became
supernaturally endowed through the sacred/ritual use and practice of
MST Lifestyle using the traditional tobacco as was intended by the
Holy People.
In modern society, Dine could opt for synthesizing traditional
philosophy with modern scientific New Age philosophy in order to
blend this thinking for their good health (Ho ‘zhogii) and future
survival. Actually, New Age philosophy is borrowing ideas from the
Native Americans to make their case.
However, it sounds like a
lesson to do research in Native religion.
“All creation on this Earth contains a spirit, a life force.
This
includes rocks, plants, hills, trees, sky and animals. Mother Earth is a
living, sensitive, breathing organism. The forces of all creation are
dynamically interwoven into a harmonious whole.
Physical and
mental illness occurs when this balance is upset. The purpose of all
ceremonials is to preserve healing or restore personal and universal
41
..
..
..
.
harmony”..
(Newhouse and Amodeo 1985, 48)as quoated by Levy
(1998).
The implication to receive the maximum benefits from MST lifestyle
was/is basically centered on Dine’s spirituality and belief in sacred
ceremonies and rituals. First of all, Dine language was/is a must. The
potential patient had to understand key concepts and phrases -including songs and prayers -- in order to comprehend the sacredness
and meaningfulness of the ceremony. Key concepts like a dzil, I nai,
ina’ a jii, and etc. are a must. Rituals require a belief in the power of
the universe and Gods mentioned in prayers, songs and etc.
The Dine “Blessing Way Bridge”, a metaphor, unobtrusively
connected the findings, the theory and literature on ethnographic
studies related to Dine culture and its value systems as it relates to
MST ritualism.
The metaphorical concept laid out the framework
(conceptual) to further study the subject of MST and how the Dine
used it and for what. Spiritual concepts used in this study, described
by Riechard (1976), were adapted in describing the MST ritualism.
42
..
..
..
.. that no studies were ever conducted on “MST Way of Life” per se.
It is probable
.
What the literature contributed to the findings are supportive, verifying and
clarifying data such as philosophy of MST Livelihood. The MST study centers on
Blessingway because the behavior and belief/value systems remain constant
regardless if the rituals were for other causes or reasons. It is through the
Blessing Way that MST is centered and ritualized for better health and quality of
life.
43