Answer Sheet
Lithosphere
Q1.Possible answers might include:
 Increased traffic congestion especially on narrow rural roads and in car parks especially at peak holiday periods leading to increased air and noise pollution. (1 mark)
 Increased holiday home ownership which leaves rural areas empty during the week or off peak leading to overgrown gardens. (1 mark)
 Visitors/walkers wandering off identified paths leading to increased footpath erosion especially on popular and easily accessible areas by roads. (1 mark)
 Increased litter and the danger of animal wildlife choking on discarded plastic bags. (1 mark)
 Modern building not fitting into the landscape leading to visual pollution, eg including hotels, leisure complexes, caravan sites. (1 mark)
 Increased pollution impact on lakes, due to diesel pollution from water sports and pleasure craft. (1 mark)
 Use of jet skis and speedboats lead to bank erosion of beaches. (1 mark)
Q2.Assess out of 5.
Precise points will obviously depend on the area chosen. Over generalised ‘non authentic’ answers ie without place names, should score a maximum of 3 marks. To gain full marks candidates must comment on the effectiveness of their solutions/measures taken to resolve environmental conflicts.
Award a maximum of 3 if there is no comment on effectiveness.
Measures taken to resolve environmental conflicts might include:
 traffic restrictions in more favoured areas/at specific peak times eg one-way systems, bypasses or complete closures
 encouraging the use of public transport eg park and ride, minibuses, the use of alternative transport eg cycle paths and bridle ways
 separating local and tourist traffic, the use of permits (for access or parking) in some areas
 attempting to develop wider spread of ‘honeypot’ areas
 screening new buildings, car parks etc behind trees and only using local stone for buildings
 better visitor education
 burying power lines/development of off-shore energy production
Q3. Candidates should refer to the processes of coastal erosion ie hydraulic action, abrasion, solution and attrition. A typical answer may include:
Caves are most likely to occur where the coastline consists of hard rock and is attacked by prolonged wave attack along a line of weakness such as a joint or fault. 1mark
The waves attack the weakness by abrasion, hydraulic action or solution. 1 mark for each explain processes
Over time, horizontal erosion of the cave may cut through the headland to form an arch. 1 mark
Continued erosion of the foot of the area may eventually cause the roof to collapse leaving a stack, isolated from the cliff. 1 mark

Q4.Possible answers might include:
Snow accumulates in mountain hollows when more snow falls in winter than melts in the summer. (1 mark)
North/north-east facing slopes are more shaded so snow lies longer (1 mark), with accumulated snow compressed into neve and eventually ice. (1 mark)
Plucking, when ice freezes on to bedrock, pulling loose rocks away from the backwall, making it steeper. (1 mark)
Abrasion, when the angular rock embedded in the ice grinds the hollow, making it deeper.
(1 mark)
Frost shattering continues to steepen the sides of the hollow when water in cracks in the rock turns to ice when temperatures drop below freezing; expansion and contraction weakens the rock until fragments break off. (1 mark)
Rotational sliding further deepens the central part of the hollow floor as gravity causes the ice to move. (1 mark)
Friction causes the ice to slow down at the front edge of the corrie, allowing a rock lip to form, which traps water as ice melts, leaving a lochan or tarn. (1 mark)
During spring/summer, thawing takes place, allowing water to penetrate cracks in the rocks at the base of the hollow. (1 mark) The broken fragments build up over time and are removed by meltwater, further enlarging the hollow. (1 mark) Frost shattering on the backwall supplies further abrasion material as loose scree falls down the bergschrund. (1 mark) This is a large crevasse separating moving ice from the ice still attached to the backwall. (1 mark)
Q5.
When the glacier reaches lower altitudes (or temperatures rise) the ice melts and deposits the moraine at its snout. m a natural dam, creating a ribbon lake.
Q6. Steep and bare rock faces with lines of weakness/well-jointed carboniferous limestone.
• Cold climate where temperatures often fall below freezing point at night.
• The two factors above allow physical weathering to take place in the form of freeze-thaw action/frost shattering, where water collects in the rock fractures, freezes and expands by about 9% exerting great pressure on even the hardest rock.
• Repeated freeze-thaw action splits the rock into large sharp fragments which break off and are moved downhill by gravity to accumulate at the base of steep slopes as a scree or talus slope as large heaps of rock debris.
Atmosphere
Q1
Explanation should focus on the role of the ITCZ and the movement of the Maritime Tropical and Continental Tropical air masses over the course of the year. For example, Abidjan, on the Gulf of Guinea coast, is influenced by hot, humid mT air for most of the year, accounting for its higher total annual precipitation and greater number of rain days. The twin precipitation peaks can be attributed to the ITCZ moving northwards in the early part of the year and then southwards later in the year in line with the thermal equator/overhead sun.

Gao, on the other hand, is under the influence of hot, dry cT air for most of the year and therefore has far fewer rain days and a very low total annual precipitation figure as it lies well to the north of the ITCZ for most of the year. BoboDioulasso again is in an „in-between‟ position, getting more rain days and heavy summer precipitation from June-August when the
ITCZ is furthest north.
Q2
Possible answers might include:
Sun‘s angle in the sky decreases towards the poles due to the curvature of the Earth, which spreads heat energy over a larger surface area. (1 mark)
Sun‘s rays are concentrated on tropical latitudes as the intensity of insolation is greatest where rays strike vertically. (1 mark)
Sun‘s rays have less atmosphere to pass through at the tropics, so less energy is lost through absorption and reflection by clouds, gas and dust. (1 mark)
Albedo rates differ from the darker forest surfaces at the tropics absorbing radiation, in contrast to the ice-/snow-covered polar areas reflecting radiation. (1 mark)
Tilt of the axis results in the Sun being higher in the sky between the tropics throughout the year, focusing energy. (1 mark)
No solar insolation at the winter solstices at the poles producing 24-hour darkness, whereas the tropics receive insolation throughout the year. (1 mark)
Q3. Candidates should be able to name and explain the mechanism of each of the three cells – Hadley, Ferrel and Polar – and should describe their role in the redistribution of energy.
Eg warm air rises at the Equator, travels in the upper atmosphere to c.30°N and S, cools and sinks. Some of this air returns as surface NE or SE trade winds to the
Equator to form the Hadley Cell.
The remainder of the air travels north over the surface as Westerlies to converge at about 60°N and S with cold air sinking at the Poles and flowing outwards. This convergence causes the air to rise – some of this air flows in the upper atmosphere to the Poles where it sinks forming the Polar Cell. Candidates may note the
Easterlies from the High Pressure area at the Pole.
The remainder of this air in the upper atmosphere travels south and sinks at 30°N and S to form the Ferrel Cell. Credit should be awarded to candidates who recognise that the eastward passage of depressions and associated jet streams deforms any Ferrel Cell out of recognition.
It is in this way that warm air from the Equator is distributed to higher (and cooler) latitudes and cold air from the Poles distributed to lower (and warmer) latitudes.
Assess out of 4, with a maximum of 1for correctly located or drawn cells and a maximum of 2 marks for the explanation of any one cell.
Q4Explanation might include:
• currents follow loops or gyres – clockwise in the North Atlantic. In the
Northern Hemisphere the clockwise loop or gyre is formed with warm water from the Gulf of Mexico (Gulf Stream/North Atlantic Drift) travelling northwards and colder water moving southwards eg the Canaries Current.
• currents from the Poles to the Equator are cold currents whilst those from the
Equator to the Poles are warm currents. Cold water moves southwards from
Polar latitudes – the Labrador Current. This movement of warm and cold water thus helps to maintain the energy balance.
• ocean currents are greatly influenced by the prevailing winds, with energy being transferred by friction to the ocean currents and then affected by the

Coriolis effect, and the configuration of land masses which deflect the ocean currents. Due to differential heating, density differences occur in water masses, resulting in chilled polar water sinking, spreading towards the Equator and displacing upwards the less dense warmer water.
Assess out of 3, awarding maximum of 1 appropriately named ocean currents.
Hydroshpere
Q1.Differences could include:
Interception
• Rural – there is a longer ‘lag time’ between the rainfall and peak discharge in the rural hydrograph because vegetation (eg woodland) will intercept precipitation and store/absorb it thus preventing the water reaching the soil/ground water/river quickly.
• Urban – concrete/tarmac/buildings will channel precipitation to gutter/drains and straight into the sewer/river system with a correspondingly shorter ‘lag time’.
Surface run-off
• The rising limb is much steeper in the urban hydrograph because natural water courses will overflow and drain into marshy areas/fields on the flood plains in times of flood whereas urban water courses will be lined and embanked to contain and speed up the flow of water.
Storage
• The falling limb on the urban hydrograph is much steeper due to the lack of infiltration/percolation/underground storage of water. In rural areas water will continue to flow into the river many hours after the rainstorm through underground and through flow via the soil and rocks. The return of the river to the base flow will therefore be much slower with a more gentle falling limb.
Mark explanation of differences out of 4.
Q2. Differences could include:
Interception
• Rural – there is a longer ‘lag time’ between the rainfall and peak discharge in the rural hydrograph because vegetation (eg woodland) will intercept precipitation and store/absorb it thus preventing the water reaching the soil/ground water/river quickly.
• Urban – concrete/tarmac/buildings will channel precipitation to gutter/drains and straight into the sewer/river system with a correspondingly shorter ‘lag time’.
Surface run-off
• The rising limb is much steeper in the urban hydrograph because natural water courses will overflow and drain into marshy areas/fields on the flood plains in times of flood whereas urban water courses will be lined and embanked to contain and speed up the flow of water.

Storage
• The falling limb on the urban hydrograph is much steeper due to the lack of infiltration/percolation/underground storage of water. In rural areas water will continue to flow into the river many hours after the rainstorm through underground and through flow via the soil and rocks. The return of the river to the base flow will therefore be much slower with a more gentle falling limb.
Mark explanation of differences out of 8. (Award a maximum of 2 marks for
Q3
The river level continues to rise at a steady rate from 07:00 hours to 10:00 hours, due to the increase in rainfall totals and duration. The heavier rain is filling up storages in the soil because of throughflow and groundwater. The soil is now saturated, so water runs off the land and enters the river quickly leading to a potential flood situation.
The peak rainfall occurs at 08:00 hours (6.2mm) and the peak river level occurs at 18:00 hours (0.7m). This is a basin lag time of approximately 10 hours. This could be accounted for by vegetation cover, or by reference to geology or soil infiltration rates.
From 14:00 hours to the end of the graph the rainfall declines and stops at 18:00 hours. The recession limb falls back towards base level as the supply of water is reduced.
Biosphere
Q1
Possible answers might include:
Natural vegetation — deciduous forest vegetation provides deep leaf litter, which is broken down rapidly in mild/warm climate. (1 mark)
Trees have roots which penetrate deep into the soil, ensuring the recycling of minerals back to the vegetation. (1 mark)
Soil organisms — soil biota break down leaf litter producing mildly acidic mull humus.
They also ensure the mixing of the soil, aerating it and preventing the formation of distinct layers within the soil. (1 mark)
Climate — precipitation slightly exceeds evaporation, giving downward leaching of the most soluble minerals and the possibility of an iron pan forming, impeding drainage. (1 mark)
Rock type — determines the rate of weathering, with hard rocks such as schist taking longer to weather, producing thinner soils. Softer rocks, eg shale, weather more quickly.
(1 mark)
Relief — greater altitude results in temperatures and the growing season being reduced and an increase in precipitation. (1 mark) Steeper slopes tend to produce thinner soils due to gravity. (1 mark)
Drainage — well drained with throughflow and little accumulation of excess water collecting, producing limited leaching. (1 mark)
Candidates may give a developed explanations with interactions between factors, for example:
The A horizon is rich in nutrients, caused by the relatively quick decomposition of the litter of deciduous leaves and grasses in a mild climate. (1 mark)
This produces a mull humus, well mixed with the soil minerals thanks to the activity of organisms such as worms. (1 mark)
Soil colour varies from black humus to dark brown in A horizon to lighter

brown in B horizon where humus content is less obvious. Texture is loamy and wellaerated in the A horizon but lighter in the B horizon. (1 mark)
The C horizon is derived from a range of parent material, with limestone producing lighter-coloured alkaline soils. (1 mark)
South-facing slopes with a greater amount of sunshine and higher temperatures increase the rate of humus production. (1 mark)
Q2
Possible answers might include:
 Thin, black and acidic humus (pH 3·5–4) produced from the slow decomposition of coniferous needles and cones and cold climate. (1 mark)
 There is limited bacterial activity caused by the cold climate which results in the slow formation and hence thin/shallow soil. (1 mark)
 Precipitation is greater than evaporation and/or snowmelt results in the downward leaching of clays, humus, iron and aluminum resulting in an ash grey A horizon. (1 mark)
 An iron pan develops in the illuviation zone in the upper B horizon as a result of the redeposition of iron and this can impede drainage, resulting in waterlogging and gleying in the B horizon. (1 mark)
 Due to the cold climate present for most of the year, there are few soil biota to vertically mix the soil, so the horizons are well defined. (1 mark)
 The C horizon parent material is generally of weathered (fluvio) glacial material with a mixture of particle sizes and shapes. (1 mark)
Urban
Q1.The Clyde Gateway Project has transformed the housing stock and economic opportunities for residents within inner city Glasgow (Bridgeton, Dalmarnock and Parkhead) (1 mark), eg by building new social and private housing
(1 mark); clearing old industrial wasteland to provide new factory and commercial space (1 mark); attracting new commercial investment, improved transport facilities; and long term recreational space linked to the
Commonwealth games. (1 mark)
 The “Athletes’ village” which was built to accommodate the Commonwealth
Games competitors will be transformed into 1,440 houses (apartments, terraced, semi-detached and detached). (1 mark)
Over 1,100 will be available to buy, 300 provided as social rented housing, plus 120-bed elderly care home. (1 mark)
However, not all of the original residents will be able to afford to live there.
Some residents reported that the money offered in compensation was insufficient to cover the costs of a move. (1 mark)
 Local residents can now enjoy the new services of the local area, which includes primary schools, shops and a community centre, the Dalmarnock
Legacy Hub. Improved sports facilities, including the velodrome, will also bring benefits. (1 mark)
Improvements made to the local infrastructure, including the upgrading of
Dalmarnock train station and M74 access routes, will attract new investment.
(1 mark)
Local shops will benefit from the increase in income, and it is hoped that the

Q2. Traffic congestion in a Developed World city. For Glasgow, candidates might suggest:

An urban core developed in the pre-car era with medieval/Victorian sections unsuited for modern traffic (narrow, cobbled, grid-iron pattern with many junctions).

Increased commuting from dormitory towns and villages converging on a few main arteries (Paisley Road West, Great Western Road, M8, Kilmarnock/Ayr Road).

Major roads converging to cross the River Clyde (Clyde Tunnel, Kingston Bridge).

Glasgow is a growing tourist/shopping centre attracting coach tours and shoppers from a larger hinterland.

More stringent traffic regulations in and around the CBD with a shortage of cheaper gap site car parking facilities.

Growing car ownership and school run traffic extending and expanding the „rush hours‟.

Increased road haulage/deliveries in larger vehicles with a resulting need for more road maintenance.
Q3.Answers should be assessed out of 5 with a maximum of 3 for either description or explanation. Credit specific named examples for a chosen city up to a maximum of 1 marks
– a maximum of one mark per traffic management solution.
Answers may include:
• Use of roundabouts to improve flow.
• Pedestrianised areas in the centre to create traffic free areas.
• Park and ride schemes to encourage use of public transport.
• One way systems improve flow of traffic.
• Parking restrictions and fines to reduce on street parking, so widen streets.
• Multi-storey car parks to take parked cars off streets, widening them.
• Bus lanes to speed up public transport, making it more effective.
• Improved public transport eg extending subway network/trams to attract more people to use them.
• New links to motorway extensions to bypass congested area removing unnecessary traffic from narrow roads.


Q4
Inefficient urban infrastructure eg incomplete water and sewerage supplies and connections, leading to disease spreading
Unemployment / underemployment with the growth of the ‘grey’ economy and black market
Drugs, crime etc common and pose an increasing threat to public safety. Poor wages for unskilled jobs due to the huge supply of potential labour
schools and hospitals
Severe traffic congestion and associated high levels of air pollution – growth of ‘informal’ city transport (bringing benefits and drawbacks)
Continued growth of ‘shanty towns’ often on unstable land such as steep hillsides where landslides are common or on marshland
Q5
For candidates who write about Beijing, possible answers might include:
 Odd and even last numbers on registration plates are allowed into the cities on particular days. However wealthy residents have more than one car, ie a car for either day. (1 mark)

 Parking restrictions and fines have been increased to discourage people from using on street parking therefore creating more space on narrow city roads. (1 mark)
 Multi-storey car parks/car stacking using high-tech equipment have been built to reduce on street parking. However this may have the effect of encouraging traffic into the city. (1 mark)
 New roads — seven new highways from Beijing are planned by 2015, including the Beijing to Tibet Highway. This means that through traffic does not need to travel into the city centre. (1 mark)
 Road widening projects, for example on Wanshou Road, have also increased the capacity of major routes into the city. (1 mark)
Population
Q1.Candidates ought to be able to mention such ways as census 3 marks taking and compulsory registration of births and deaths. Some may include a mini or sample census (eg Britain carried out a
10% sample census in 1966) or government sponsored sample surveys (eg General Household Survey or Population Trends and
Social Trends).
A reasonably detailed description of a census or census taking without reference to Civil Registration could score 3 marks, eg:
• a regular count (every 10 years in U.K.) of the population which allows comparisons to be made over time
• responsibility of each household to complete census form given out by enumerator who collects them and checks that all individuals are recorded
• a range of questions are asked designed to elicit information on individuals (age, occupation, qualifications, ethnic origins etc) and on living conditions and lifestyle (housing type, tenure, car ownership etc)
• government agencies process the data collected and make it available for interested parties
• electoral roll can update between one census and another.
Assess out of 3.
Q1b.Possible answers might include:
Large numbers of migrants, eg the Tuareg or Fulani in West Africa, and the shifting cultivators of the Amazon, may lead to people being missed or counted twice. (1 mark)
Countries with large numbers of homeless people or large numbers of rural-tourban migrants living in shanty towns, eg Makoko in Lagos, Nigeria, have no official address for an enumerator to visit. (1 mark)
Poor communication links and difficult terrain, eg in the Amazon Rainforest, may make it difficult for enumerators to reach isolated villages. (1 mark)
The variety of languages spoken in many countries (eg over 500 in Nigeria) make it difficult to provide forms that everyone can complete. (1 mark)
The considerable costs involved in printing, training enumerators, distributing forms and analysing the results can make conducting a census impossible, especially when the country may have more pressing problems like housing and education. (1 mark)
In countries with high levels of illiteracy, mistakes may be made and more

enumerators will be needed to help. (1 mark)
People may be suspicious of why the census is being conducted, and may lie.
(1 mark)
Ethnic tensions and internal political rivalries may lead to inaccuracies, eg northern Nigeria was reported to have inflated its population figures to secure increased political representation. (1 mark)
Under-registration may occur for social, religious and political reasons, eg
China‘s one-child policy may have reduced the registration of baby girls.
(1 mark)
In countries suffering from war, eg Afghanistan, it may be dangerous for
A)
Q2A. Between censuses there is compulsory registration of births, deaths and marriages by the General Register Office for each part of the UK. The other main changes are brought about by emigration and immigration and the Home Office‟s UK Border Agency records migration into the UK.
Also mini or sample censuses are carried out such as the 2009 Census Rehearsal for
England and Wales as well as government sponsored sample surveys of population and social trends.
The UK official 2011 Census website identifies 6 areas of accurate population data for the targeting o f taxpayers‟ money.

Population numbers – to calculate grants for local authorities to plan eg schools and teacher numbers.

Health
– to know the age and socio-economic make-up of the population to allocate health and social services resources.

Housing
– to ascertain the need for new housing.

Employment
– to help government and businesses plan jobs and training policies.

Transport – to identify where there is pressure on transport systems and for planning of roads and public transport.

Ethnic Group – to identify the extent and nature of disadvantage in Britain.
 To allow levels of taxation to remain constant the government may need to raise the retirement age. (1 mark)
 To ensure there are no future shortages in workforce they may need to
 In times of recession/high unemployment this can lead to civil unrest/ethnic tension. (1 mark)
 To make public services such as schools and maternity hospitals efficient, some may need to close. (1 mark)
 Ageing population leads to increased cost of pension provision and unpopular

Q3
Changes
Stage 1 wars, famine and epidemics is balanced by high Birth Rate (BR). due to high infant mortality rate and lack of contraception.
Stage 2 water supply and sanitation and marked decrease in Infant Mortality Rate (IMR).
lack of contraception and family planning, children seen as an
‘economic asset’ and parents wanting many children as an ‘insurance policy’ for being looked after in old age until IMR is seen to fall.
Stage 3 d population growth as DR continues to fall, with continued improvements in medicine and standards of living. decrease in IMR; children now seen as an ‘economic liability’.
Q4. Possible answers might include:
Donor country , eg Greece, Spain or Bulgaria:
Advantages
Pressure on local services such as education, healthcare and housing is reduced. (1 mark)
Pressure on jobs is reduced therefore levels of unemployment will fall. (1 mark)
The birth rate is lowered so population growth rates will slow. (1 mark)
Money sent home by the migrants will boost the local economy. (1 mark)
Migrants will learn new skills and may then return to their home country. (1 mark)
Disadvantages
Active and most educated population left, known as the ‗brain drain‘, which resulted in a skills shortage in donor countries. (1 mark)
Families were divided and the death rates may increase due to the ageing population. (1 mark)
Family members remaining in the country of origin may become dependent on remittances being sent home by migrant workers. (1 mark)
Recipient country , eg Germany:
Advantages
The short-term gap in labour is filled. Many migrants are highly skilled, eg engineers and academics. (1 mark)
Migrants will take jobs that locals did not want and will work for lower, more competitive wages, thus reducing labour costs. (1 mark)
Migrants will enrich the culture of the area that they move to with language, food and music. (1 mark)
The increased population will result in an increase in the tax paid to the government, which can be invested in improving local services. (1 mark)
Disadvantages

Migrant workers may feel discriminated against. Unemployment rises for local people. (1 mark)
Ghettos may develop in parts of cities and there may be a shortage of affordable housing.
(1 mark)
Cost of providing services for migrant population and their families will increase, eg for schooling, healthcare, etc. (1 mark)
Q5aExplanations could include: high birth rate due to lack of family planning, contraceptives and sex education
HBR also due to a need for large families to help in farming and also due to the high infant mortality rate, lack of education for girls
High death rate will be due to high infant mortality, occurrence of ‘killer’ diseases like malaria
Q6. Voluntary MigrationPush Factors
 Massive unemployment in India/Pakistan.
 Poverty caused by poor housing/no sanitation/poor health care.
 Few Prospects (educational or jobs).

Lack of land due to the inheritance system and overpopulation. Massive population growth had lead to too many people living on the same farmland.
 British Government encouraged Asians into the country to fill the posts that
“whites” would not consider (e.g.. Bin men, road sweeper, bus driver). This was in the 50’s and 60’s when Britain was in an economic surge.
 Asians were also encouraged by free health care and education prospects.
 Family ties from previous migrants made it easier to settle. find better jobs with better pay and prospects.
• Forced Migration Push factors
• In April 2011, the Syrian Army was deployed to quell the uprising, and ordered to
•
of different groups from many areas of Syria, eg Christians.
•
• To
, as many as 3 million Syrian refugees have fled to neighbouring countries.
• Tens of thousands of protesters have been imprisoned.
• Government and opposition forces guilty of
Pull factors
• More than 3 million refugees have been flooding into neighbouring countries where many have relatives.
• These countries also have similar languages and religions to many Syrians.
Jordan, Lebanon, Iraq, Turkey
•
– for example safety from violence, shelter from the weather, extremely hot and dry in summer and cold in winter.
• Children can receive an education and many can find work.
• Aidin the form of food, water, shelter, clothing and medician is also available from the UN and charities

•
Africa north of the Equator – the Sahel
Q1.
• Deforestation. Growing demand for wood for fuel. Trees are already scarce in the area and further deforestation removes root systems which hold the soil together, reduces interception and water storage leaving the soil dry and vulnerable to wind and water erosion.
• Population increase. Desertification has caused people to migrate southwards within the
Sahel leading to increasing population and increased pressure on already fragile land. Also many nomads have been forced to settle in villages, leading to greater food requirements and overuse of marginal land.
• Overgrazing. Too many animals in an area leads to loss of vegetation cover making it susceptible to water and wind erosion and exposes soil to compacting of the soil, especially near water holes.
• Over-cultivation. This causes soil structure to break up, with monoculture depleting the same nutrients each year. Reduced fallow times means soil cannot recover its nutrients.
• Overuse of irrigation. This can lead to salinisation of soil causing need for salt-tolerant plants or further degradation.
5 Q2. Referring to named locations in either Africa north of the Equator or the Amazon Basin, describe the impact of land degradation on the people, economy and the environment.
Assess out of 5 marks with a maximum of 1 marks for specific named areas/tribes. For full marks, effects on the people, economy and the environment must be included.
For Africa, north of the Equator, answers for the impact on people and the economy may include:
Crop failures and death of livestock, reducing food supply, leading to malnutrition and famine.
Large scale rural migration into overcrowded urban areas, causing more pressure and the growth of shanty towns
Conflict within and sometimes, between countries as people move and resettle
–growth of large refugee camps
Environmental effects may include:
Soil structure deteriorates due to over-cropping and over-grazing
Advance of the Sahara desert – desertification to gully erosion
Intensified drought due to the albedo effect

For the Amazon Basin, answers for the impact on people and the economy may include:
Destruction of the way of life of the indigenous people eg clashes between the
Yanomami and incomers
Destruction of the formerly sustainable development eg rubber tappers and
Brazil Nut collectors
Clashes between competing groups eg the violent death of Chico Mendez allegedly at the behest of ranchers e
Environmental effects may include:
-off, flooding and silting up of rivers
-saving drugs
Possible answers might include:
Q3. Eden Foundation in Nigeria:
Educated farmers to grow perennial plants to protect the soil against heavy rain. (1 mark)
They prevent rainsplash from dislodging fine particles and bind the loose soil.
(1 mark)
Farmers produced twice as much millet (drought-tolerant crop) as those who did not use this technique. (1 mark)
Undisturbed by ploughing, the soil structure will remain intact. (1 mark)
Organic matter holds the soil particles together.
Stone lines are commonly used in Burkina Faso and Niger, to trap soil and water, and slow run-off. (1 mark)
Instead, water will sink into the soil through the cracks and pours, preventing erosion. (1 mark)
Strips of vegetation can also be used in a similar way, and can provide fodder for animals (eg Makarikari grass) or a cash crop of pumpkins could be grown. (1 mark)
Build wells to allow effective irrigation. (1 mark)
Contour ridges slow run-off and catch sediment before it is washed away.
(1 mark)
Afforestation
To prevent soil erosion as roots will bind the soil and hold it in place. (1 mark)
Fanya juu terraces (popular in Makanya in north-eastern Tanzania) can be made by digging a drainage channel and throwing soil uphill to make a ridge.
In drier areas, trees can be planted in the ditch, and in wetter areas on the ridge. (1 mark)
In Makanya, maize is grown between the trenches. Maize crops have increased from 1.5 tonnes per hectare to 2.4 tonnes per hectare. (1 mark)
Award maximum of 3 marks for any one conservation strategy and up to
1 marks for correctly named locations not already credited in (b). Award a maximum of 4 if there is no effectiveness.

Answers should provide reasonably detailed information about farming methods and include some explanations eg:
Shelter belts on low-lying land affected by strong winds are rows of trees grown across the direction of the prevailing wind. They act as a barrier to slow down winds and protect the soil.
For North America , answers may include:
Effectiveness may include eg – most likely TVA area or Dust Bowl.
For Contour ploughing – ploughing round, rather than up and down, slopes – rain has more time to infiltrate rather than form rills and gullies down slopes – the water soaks into the land providing extra moisture as well as preventing damage to the soil on the slope.
For Shelter belts – planting rows of trees at right angles to the direction of the prevailing wind – these act as a barrier for the land behind by reducing the force of th
Q1. Assess out of 5 marks, with candidates free to discuss the drawbacks of using GDP per capita specifically, or of using any one indicator in general. Award one mark for references to inaccurate census collection. Possible answers might include:
• As an average number for the whole country, they disguise differences within the country eg rural/urban, male/female, within urban areas.
• Only focusing on one development indicator does not give a rounded view of the level of development. A country may have focused on this one area and neglected other areas of development. Credit advantages of using composite indicators.
• Development is not only about money – other aspects like freedom of speech, happiness, environmental quality etc are also important.
• GDP per capita does not take into account the fact that the value of money is different in different countries, and that it changes over time.
• GDP per capita does not take into account the informal economy – which can make a huge difference to the development of a place.
• GDP per capita does not take into account subsistence activities.
• GDP per capita does not include any profits made by the country’s multi-national companies operating in other parts of the world (unlike GNP).

Q2.Assess out of 4. 2 marks should be awarded for each fully named indicator.
Social indicators could include:
Economic Indicators could include:
Q3. Some countries have natural resources that they can sell to help generate money and improve their standard of living and level of development (1 mark) — eg oil in
Saudi Arabia/Brunei/UAE; or tropical hardwoods, copper, tin and iron ore in Brazil; or gold and diamonds in South Africa. (1 mark)
 Newly industrialising countries such as China, South Korea or Taiwan have been able to attract manufacturing industries by offering a large, low-cost labour pool, and so have increased their level of development. (1 mark) Government policies such as banning trade unions and so reducing the risk of strikes have also made some countries more attractive for manufacturing industries. (1 mark)
The lack of strict pollution laws has also made some countries more attractive for manufacturing industries. (1 mark)
 Some countries have more potential for tourism than others, which earns foreign currency, creates job opportunities and helps improve that country’s level of development
— for example beaches in Jamaica; coral reefs in Kenya; safari opportunities in Botswana etc. (1 mark)
 Widespread corruption and mismanagement have hindered the development of many developing countries — with money destined to improve living conditions of the people often being intercepted and spent elsewhere.
(1 mark)
 Political instability and civil wars (for example in Syria and Iraq in 2014) can destroy the infrastructure needed for an adequate standard of living.
(1 mark)
It also stops development in the area as money is spent on weapons rather than improving the standard of living, and there are no job opportunities or ways for local people to make money. (1 mark)
 Many countries repeatedly suffer natural disasters which destroy infrastructure and wipe out efforts for development — for example drought in sub Saharan
Africa; floods in Pakistan/Bangladesh; hurricanes in the Caribbean; earthquakes in
Haiti/Iran; or tsunamis in Indonesia. (1 mark)
 Some countries are very mountainous which makes building and attracting investment more difficult — for example Nepal. (1 mark)
 Some countries have a very hot and dry climate, which can cause desertification and make it very difficult to grow crops to feed a productive population — hindering development (for example Burkina Faso). (1 mark)
 The geographical position of some countries on the coast makes trade with other parts of the world easier and so encourages investment and development — for example
Taiwan/Malaysia. (1 mark)
Alternatively some countries are landlocked which makes trade and so investment and development more difficult — for example Chad/Paraguay.
(1 mark)

Q4. Assess out of 4. Maximum of 3 if both physical and human factors are not covered.
Answers will depend on the disease chosen but for malaria might include:
Physical factors: or monsoon areas of the world
Human factors:
Suitable breeding habitat for the female anopheles mosquito – areas of stagnant water such as reservoirs, ponds, irrigation channels
Q5. Possible answers for methods might include:
The female anopheles mosquito acts as a vector for the transmission of malaria, so one method used was to spray pesticides/insecticides such as DDT in an attempt to kill the mosquitoes by destroying their nervous systems. (1 mark)
Breeding genetically modified sterile mosquitoes and mercenary male mosquitoes were also attempts to kill off the mosquito for good, and so stop the spreading of the disease.
(1 mark)
Another method was to use specially designed mosquito traps, which mimic animals and humans by emitting a small amount of carbon dioxide in order to lure the mosquitoes into the trap where they are killed. (1 mark)
BTI bacteria can be artificially grown in coconuts and then, when the coconuts are split open and placed in a stagnant pond, the larvae eat the bacteria which destroy the larvae stomach lining, killing them. (1 mark)
Putting larvae-eating fish such as the muddy loach into stagnant ponds or paddi fields can also help to reduce the larvae as the fish eat the larvae. (1mark)
Other methods were aimed at getting rid of the stagnant water required for mosquitoes to lay their eggs, eg draining stagnant ponds or swamps every seven days as it takes longer than this period of time for the larvae to develop into adult mosquitoes. (1 mark)
Planting eucalyptus trees, which soak up excess moisture in marshy areas,was also an attempt to prevent the formation of stagnant pools. (1 mark)
Covering water storage cans/small ponds was also used as an attempt to stop mosquitoes from reproducing successfully. (1 mark)
The increased use of insecticide-coated mosquito nets at night was an attempt to stop the mosquitoes from biting people and passing on the disease as they slept. (1 mark)
Attempts were also made to cure people once they had contracted the disease by killing the plasmodium parasite once people had been contaminated with it. Drugs like Quinine,
Chloroquine, Larium and Malarone were all developed in an attempt to kill the parasite. (1 mark)
Q6. Assess out of 5 ensuring that candidates explain why PHC is suited to developing countries to gain full marks. (Avoid crediting ‘cheaper’ more than once). Award a maximum of one marks for authentic named examples of PHC schemes.
Examples of Primary Health Care (PHC) strategies may include:

Use of barefoot doctors – trusted local people who can carry out treatment for more common illnesses – sometimes using cheaper traditional remedies.

Use of ORT (Oral Rehydration Therapy) to tackle dehydration –

especially amongst babies. This is an easy, cheap and effective remedy for diarrhoea/dehydration.

Provision of vaccination programmes against disease such as polio, measles, cholera. Candidates may also refer to PHC as based on generally preventative medicine rather than (more expensive) curative medicine.

The development of health education schemes in schools, community plays/songs concerning AIDS, with groups of expectant mothers or women in relation to diet and hygiene.
Oral education being much more effective in illiterate societies.

Sometimes these initiatives are backed up by the building of small local health centres staffed by visiting doctors.

PHC can also involve the building of small scale clean water supplies and Blair toilets/pit latrines – often with community participation.

The use of local labour and building materials is often cheaper; it also provides training/transferable skills for the participants and gains faster acceptance/usage in the local and wider community
Q7. Possible answers might include:
 Barefoot doctors have been particularly effective in China because:
— individuals were chosen by each village to be trained to a basic level of health care and so were fully trusted by the community. (1 mark)
— in countries with large rural areas it is very difficult to ensure that every village has access to a fully trained doctor/hospital. (1 mark)
 The use of Oral Rehydration Therapy (ORT) has been particularly effective because:
— it is an easy, cheap and effective method of treating dehydration through diarrhoea — allowing even the poorest developing country to tackle this health problem. (1 mark)
— the World Health Organization estimates that ORT saves about 1 million babies each year in developing countries. (1 mark)
 Organised Health Education Programmes have been effective because:
— they educate people about how to prevent diseases spreading (for example by the use of mosquito nets to prevent Malaria). (1 mark)
— preventing disease is easier and more cost-effective than trying to cure someone once they have a disease. (1 mark)
— the use of village meetings, songs, plays and posters to pass on health education messages are particularly effective in places with an illiterate population where a written leaflet would be of limited use.
(1 mark)
 Small-scale health projects (such as building clean water supplies and pit latrines) can be effective because:
— using local labour and building materials for these projects reduces the cost. (1 mark)
— they also provide the locals with training and transferable skills, which can help them to improve their standard of living in other ways.
(1 mark)
— using local labour also ensures that the projects gain faster acceptance and usage in the local and wider community. (1 mark)
 Organised Vaccination Programmes to immunise against preventable diseases like polio, cholera, measles, tetanus etc are estimated by the World Health Organization to save between 2 and 3 million lives every year. (1 mark) These preventative measures are less costly to fund than the long-term cost of caring for people suffering from these diseases.

Climate Change
Q1A. Possible answers might include:
 Solar activity: variations in solar energy and sun spot activity can alter global temperatures. Scientists have shown that variations in sun spot activity follow an 11-year pattern. (1 mark)
Scientists at Cardiff University have discovered that periods of low sun spot activity corresponded with colder ocean currents. (1 mark)
This caused high pressure to build in the North Atlantic Ocean, “blocking” of warmer ocean currents, and subsequently caused more extreme winters, in
2010 and 2013. (1 mark)
In the current cycle, a peak in sun spot activity was anticipated in 2013, but in fact there was more sun spot activity in 2011. (1 mark)
 Changes in the Earth’s orbit and tilt: Milankovitch’s research suggested that every 41,000 years there is a change in the tilt of the Earth’s axis. A greater tilt means more sunlight in polar regions and colder temperatures. (1 mark)
Over a 97,000 year cycle, the Earth’s orbit stretches from circular to eliptical, affecting the amount of energy received. (1 mark)
 Volcanic eruptions: Dust particles in the atmosphere after violent eruptions reduce the Earth’s temperatures by shielding the Earth from incoming solar radiation and reflecting energy. (1 mark)
This was apparent when Mount Pinatubo erupted in 1991, sending millions of tonnes of ash and gas 21 miles high into the atmosphere, resulting in average temperatures falling by up to 0·5 ⁰ C. (1 mark)
 Ice cap/sheet melting: Melting of ice caps releases additional fresh water into the oceans, which in turn alters oceanic circulation with cold and warm ocean currents being affected. (1 mark)
This also reduces the albedo effect as there is less energy being reflected as more land is exposed. (1 mark)
 Melting permafrost: As permafrost melts within the Arctic tundra, frozen organic matter is decaying, and methane and carbon dioxide, which have been stored for thousands of years, is being released. (1 mark)
Q1B. Possible answers might include:
For reducing emissions of greenhouse gases:
 At a local level, individuals are encouraged to reduce, reuse and recycle products so that less refuse is sent to landfill sites. The amount of waste being received at landfill sites has fallen dramatically, which shows that council policies and education campaigns have been effective. (1 mark)
 To reduce the amount of carbon dioxide generated by the burning of fossil fuels, households are encouraged to reduce energy consumption by insulating their homes, flooring lofts or switching lights off, etc. Studies have shown that the amount of energy being used by households has fallen significantly, showing these measures have been effective. (1 mark)
 Studies by the government have shown that greenhouse gas emissions have fallen by a fifth over the last 20 years, therefore local and national policies to encourage the use of environmentally-friendly vehicles and to monitor emissions carefully are proving effective. (1 mark)
The Kyoto Protocol outlined agreements between developed countries to reduce their carbon emissions by 5% between 2008 and 2012. Developing countries were also encouraged to reduce their emissions. In 2012, the Doha
Amendment replaced the Kyoto Protocol). (1 mark)

 However, on a global scale, emissions continue to rise, and methane levels are predicted to continue to rise due to emissions from landfill sites and rice fields. (1 mark)
For managing the local effects of climate change:
 Flood defences have been built to manage the local effects of extreme weather events. The Thames Barrier has successfully protected London fromflooding on numerous occasions and is predicted to provide protection from“one in a thousand year” flood events. (1 mark)
However, a second barrier may be needed to cope with flooding beyond 2070 and advance warning systems need to be further developed to advise householders of the potential risks of flooding. (1 mark)
 To manage the effects of drought during periods of extended rainfall, the UK has implemented hose-pipe bans but these are unpopular and difficult to enforce. (1 mark)
London has built a desalination plant, which is only intended to be used in periods of extreme drought due to the high operational costs. (1 mark)
Possible answers might include:
Q3a. Carbon dioxide from burning fossil fuels — road transport, power stations, heating systems, cement production — and from deforestation, particularly in the rainforests where more carbon dioxide is present in the atmosphere and less being recycled in photosynthesis (1 mark) and peat bog reclamation/development (particularly in Ireland and Scotland for wind farms). (1 mark)
CFCs: disused refrigerators release CFCs when the foam insulation inside them is shredded. (1 mark) The coolants used in fridges and air conditioning systems create CFCs which are safe in a closed system, but can be released if appliances are not disposed of correctly. (1 mark)
Methane: from rice paddies to feed rapidly increasing populations in Asian countries such as India and China (1 mark), belching cows to meet increasing global demand for beef. (1 mark) Methane released from permafrost melting in Arctic areas due to global warming. (1 mark)
Nitrous oxides: from vehicle exhausts and power stations. (1 mark)
Sulphate aerosol particles and aircraft contrails: global ‗dimming‘ — increase in cloud formation increases reflection/absorption in the atmosphere and therefore cooling. (1 mark)
Q3b.
Possible answers might include:
Rise in sea levels caused by an expansion of the sea as it becomes warmer and also by the melting of glaciers and ice caps in Greenland, Antarctica, etc. (1 mark)
Low–lying coastal areas, eg Bangladesh affected with large-scale displacement of people and loss of land for farming and destruction of property. (1 mark)
More extreme and more variable weather, including floods, droughts, hurricanes, tornadoes becoming more frequent and intense. (1 mark)
Globally, an increase in precipitation, particularly in the winter in

northern countries such as Scotland, but some areas like the USA Great
Plains may experience drier conditions. (1 mark)
Increase in extent of tropical diseases, eg yellow fever as warmer areas expand, possibly up to 40 million more in Africa being exposed to risk of contracting malaria. (1 mark)
Longer growing seasons in many areas in northern Europe for example, increasing food production and range of crops being grown. (1 mark)
Impact on wildlife, eg extinction of at least 10% of land species and coral reefs suffer 80% bleaching. (1 mark)
Changes to ocean current circulation, eg in the Atlantic the thermohaline circulation starts to lose impact on north–western Europe, resulting in considerably colder winters. (1 mark)
Changes in atmospheric patterns linking to monsoon, El Nino, La Nina, etc. (1 mark)