Wildlife Tourism and Poverty: Present State and Strategy
for Development in South Sudan.
“We will spare no effort to free our fellow men, women and children from the
abject and dehumanizing conditions of extreme poverty to which more than a
billion of them are currently subjected” (UN).
Bojoi Moses Tomor
Head,
Department of Wildlife Science,
College of Natural Resources and Environmental Studies,
University of Juba.
E-mail: btomor@hotmail.com
Introduction
Sudan is the largest country in Africa covering an area of 2.5 million km 2. Due to
this large size, the country is covered by many climatic and ecological zones. This
diversity in habitats is in turn reflected in the country’s diverse wildlife
comprising all 12 orders of mainland African mammals (224 species and
subspecies, 7 of which are endemic), 938 bird species and 136 reptile species.
By any standards, Sudan is an exceptionally beautiful and interesting country.
The country has extensive protected areas covering an area of 4.8% of the total
land surface and hosts a variety of ecosystems, cultures and wildlife that are
major attractions for nature oriented tourists. Sudan’s wildlife resources are
considered among the finest in the world and therefore are an international level
resource of great economic potential.
Most of Sudan’s wildlife occur in South Sudan where 16 of the country’s 26
protected areas are found and the diversity of wildlife more apparent. In the Sudd
swamps alone, there are 100 species of mammals and over 470 species of birds.
In recognizing this diversity and potential, the Directorate of Tourism in the
Federal Ministry of Tourism and Wildlife in its tourism development program
designated South Sudan within the Southern Circuit, which is to be developed for
tourists with interest in wildlife viewing, photo safaris and hunting.
Unfortunately, the Directorate has not developed any plan of action for the
circuit. To date it is not clear whether wildlife country wide is a resource or a
liability under the current wildlife management system.
Sudan has a relatively huge economic potential in terms of its endowment of
natural resources, people and a diversified and pervasive climatic zones. Despite
all this however, the country faced serious economic difficulties over the 1970s,
1980s and 1990s which led to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) registering a
negative growth rate of 2%. This trend has since the advent of oil production in
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the late 1990s reversed to positive territory of 6% per annum. In 2003, GDP rose
to 5.9% (US$ 15.4billion up from US$12 billion in 2001). By far the largest
contributor to GDP is agriculture (39%), while the tourism sector contributes just
0.3% to GDP.
Unfortunately, this impressive GDP growth rate and signs of economic recovery
have done little to reverse the upward trend in poverty. The available poverty
indices suggest that poverty remains one of the most serious problems in the
Sudan. More than 90% of the population in the country is classified as poor both
in the rural and urban areas. Of the poor, 70 % live in rural areas where the
resources that contribute to the positive economic out look are based.
Additionally, human development indicators such as literacy rates, life
expectancy and child mortality are far below the levels in many middle-income
countries. This has led the country to be categorized as one of the Least
Developed Countries (LDC) among developing countries (WTO, 2004).
Under the present circumstance, the prospect of the Sudan meeting the MDG
target of halving the number of its poor by 2015 is bleak despite the oil boom. As
such imaginative approaches that take into consideration the contribution of all
potential income generating and livelihood improvement sectors should be
sought in order to score success and avoid the pitfall of dependency on a single
resource.
As wildlife is a component of many development schemes such as common pool
resource management and community based natural resource management
strategies, the primary objective of this paper is to generate a better
understanding among policy makers in South Sudan about the role wildlife
tourism can play in sustainable development and conservation.
A brief look at the present state of tourism in the Sudan in order to highlight the
opportunities and constraints inherent in the industry sets the basis for
argument. A review of the role wildlife plays globally in improving livelihoods of
the poor living with wildlife as a mechanism for identifying an environmentally
friendly, socially acceptable and economically viable approach to wildlife
utilization will form the second part of the paper. The third part of the paper
explores the linkages between wildlife tourism and poverty. Current knowledge
on the relationships between wildlife tourism and sustainable development are
addressed in part four.
Drawing on all the above, the paper then concludes by recommending broad
action programs that the Ministry of Environment, Wildlife Conservation and
Tourism (MEWCT) can undertake in order to develop a sustainable wildlife
tourism plan for South Sudan. In the conclusion, emphasis is placed on the
importance of sustainable wildlife tourism as an ideal mechanism for utilizing
South Sudan’s wildlife and its contribution towards achieving the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs) of poverty reduction and environmental
sustainability.
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1 State of Tourism in the Sudan
Tourism in the Sudan dates back to pre-independence days and history has it
recorded that as early as the 19th century, foreign visitors and explorers had
started coming to the Sudan mainly for big game and exploration. The first
tourism office opened in 1939 which later developed into the tourism and hotels
corporation in the 1970s. The first tourism legislation was enacted in 1977 and
was called “Tourism and Hotels Corporation Act (1977)”. This Act has since then
been repealed twice and is in the process of being repealed so that it complies
with the CPA and the Interim National Constitution.
Tourism development is one of several economic development strategies
available to a nation. It is the principle export of one third of all Developing
Countries and the major foreign currency earner for 49 of the Least Developed
Countries (WTO, 2004). In 1992, the World Tourism Organization (WTO)
estimated global expenditure on tourism to be US$ 3,5 trillion, making it the
largest industry in the world. In 2001, the industry generated US$142,306
million to developing countries (WTO, 2003). By 2004, the same body reported a
total sum of US$ 622 billion in receipts from international travel alone.
According to WTO (2004), the industry still is a major global economic activity
that has grown by 25% over the last 10 years despite threats from global and
regional crisis like the 9 / 11 terrorism attack in New York, the SARS outbreak in
south east Asia and the Asian tsunami.
The strongest growth of the tourism industry has been recorded in the developing
world with sub-Saharan Africa showing a strong growth rate of 5.5 % compared
to a global average of 4% (WTO, 2004). In 2000, tourism in the Sudan
contributed just 0.3% to GDP and in 2003, the industry generated US$ 56
million.
Though Sudan’s share of the industry is minimal at the continental level, its
growth rate of 6 % over the last 5 years is promising. The only problem is that
25% of the international tourists who visit the country come from the Middle East
and most of them are here either on a business trip or on a mission. Traditionally,
most of Sudan’s nature and wildlife based tourists come from Europe. In Dinder
National Park, Tomor (2006) found that 73% of the annual average 300 foreign
ecotourists to the park were Europeans and only 16% were from Asia (Mainly
Middle East).
1.1 Attractions
The strength of the appeal of a destination to tourists is linked to the quality of
attractions it can offer. It is the attractions at a destination that stimulate an
interest in visiting a country. Attractions provide the visitor with the essential
motivation to choose a destination and latter assess satisfaction. It is also the
attractions that provide the elements used to develop an image of the destination
to attract potential tourists.
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Sudan is a country for the adventurous tourist who is keen in exploring new
frontiers in the areas of wildlife viewing and photography, discovering cultures,
scuba diving, desert trekking and antiquities. These forms of tourism have not
been fully developed as they lack the support structures to make the product
complete for sale in the international market.
1.1.2 Wildlife
There are 26 protected areas (National Parks – 9 and Game Reserves – 17) in the
Sudan in which wildlife tourism can be practiced. The most frequented, oldest
and accessible during the 22 years of civil strife is the Dinder National Park which
hosts an average 300 foreign tourists annually. The park however, like all other
protected areas in the country has never had or used a management plan (Nimir
et al, 2003).
Most of Sudan’s 26 protected areas are found in South Sudan covering about 2%
of the region. The most notable of these protected areas are Nimule (elephant),
Southern (white rhino), Boma (white eared kob), Badingilo (black rhino) and
Kidepo. There are no recent data on the status of wildlife in these protected areas
because of the just ended war. The only information available comes from earlier
censuses conducted in the 1970s and early 1980s (Table 2).
The wildlife in South Sudan is also well known for aggregating in large numbers
of mixed or single species herds or flocks. No where is this aggregation more
apparent than it is in the Boma plains where in the 1980s, Watson (1977),
reported sighting over 1 million white eared kob (Kobus kob leucotis). In the
plain, mixed herds of White eared kob, Mongalla gazelle (Gazella t. albanotota),
tiang (Damalicus korrigum) and zebra (Equus burchelli) form especially during
the dry season. It is also in South Sudan that all the “Big Five” (Lion Panthera
leo), Leopard (Panthera pardus), Giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis), Elephant
(Loxodanta africana) and Rhino (Ceratotherium semum and Diceros bicornis))
can be found in a single protected area.
1.1.3 Archeology
Sudan’s archeological areas stretch from Khartoum to Wad Halfa along both
banks of the Nile. The closest to Khartoum in the Shendi area are the monuments
of Bigrawia, El Mosawarat es Sufra, Naga’a and Wad Ban Naga. Beyond Shendi
are Karma, Nuri and Jebel al Barkal. Some of the monuments which were flooded
after the construction of the Aswan High Dam in 1964 were relocated to
Khartoum and reconstructed in the Natural History Museum where they are
currently housed. The paintings collected at the sites are also displayed in the
gallery of the museum.
1.1.4 Desert
Deserts represent complex tourism attractions, showcasing natural, geological,
and archeological features as well as nomadic cultures and traditions. Much of
Northern Sudan is desert and ideal for tourists interested in desert trekking.
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Desert trekking is not well established in the Sudan except for hunting safaris in
search of Nubian Ibex (Copra ibex nubiana), Dorcas Gazelle (Gazella dorcas),
Oryx (Oryx dammah), Barbary Sheep (Ammotragus lervia) and Bustard.
1.1.5 Red Sea
Sudan’s coastline contains some 640 km of well ventilated (46 m depth) water of
uniform temperature (23 – 30 C up to a depth of 150 m) teaming with unspoiled
coral reefs and other marine animals. It is an ideal site for tourists interested in
snorkeling, Scuba diving and underwater photography. It is currently the biggest
attraction for tourists to Sudan. In recognizing its significance, the government
designated 260 km2 of the coastline at Sanganeb as a Marine National Park in
1990.
1.1.6 Mountains
Mountain ranges such as the Imatong mts. in Eastern Equatoria and the Jebel
Mara mts. in Darfur display unique cultural richness, economic fragility, decline
in traditional populations and activities and sensitive biodiversity. These form
important ingredients for specialized tourists such as hikers and explorers.
Unfortunately, tourism in mountainous sites has never been tried in the country
and the location of the two sites puts them at a disadvantage in terms of priority.
1.2 Constraints to Tourism
Though fundamentally important, a viable tourism industry requires more than a
range of attractions and a welcoming people. Sound infrastructures along with a
developed superstructure of facilities and amenities as well as an enabling
environment are also needed. Tourism is a highly diverse industry that requires
many different components for it to be a complete product that can be sold in the
market to potential buyers. Therefore, a deficiency in any one component can
undermine the suitability of a destination for tourism. The Sudan has been
lagging behind in the tourism business simply because it places its faith in the
natural beauty of the country while forgetting the fact that no profit can be
generated from the beauty without proper investment for its development.
1.2.1 Infrastructure
International access to Sudan is relatively difficult and expensive because up to
2005, there was only one direct flight by Lufthansa from the European market to
the country. Other carriers like British Airways get to Khartoum from Heathrow
by way of Oman. There are other indirect flights to Khartoum by way of Egypt,
Syria, Ethiopia and Yemen but these indirect routes increase travel time and cost.
The situation of the national carrier, Sudan Airways has been so bad that 80% of
its domestic routes have been taken over by private airlines. Marsland Aviation
controls 70% and Airwest and Mid Airline control the remaining 10% leaving the
national carrier with just 20% of the domestic routes. There is also a limited fleet
of charter airlines in the country such as Blue Bird and Helilift.
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Although Sudan has 63 airports, 12 have paved runways and only three are of
international standard (Khartoum, Port Sudan and Juba). At present, just 6
airports have night landing facilities and two; Khartoum and Port Sudan are
equipped with the Instrument Landing System.
Sudan’s road systems of mainly dirt trucks (88%) cover a total 32,000 km. Of
these, 3,600 km are paved and another 4,000 km graded to all weather standard.
All asphalt paved roads are concentrated in central Sudan (Khartoum State) with
outlets to the northern, eastern and western states. In all 10 states of South
Sudan, there are no asphalt paved roads. All graded roads in the south were
either rundown or mined during the 21 year war. Following the signing of the
Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) and formation of the Government of
Southern Sudan (GOSS), the Ministry of Roads and Transport has managed to
grade 882 km of road with a further 1200 km under construction.
Much progress has been made in the telecommunication network but the
progress is skewed towards the center. By 2002, there were over 650,000 fixed
lines, 190,000 mobile subscribers and 84,000 internet users. In the last 3 years
these figures have grown to the extent that Mobitel, the first mobile service
provider in the country has more than 1.5 million subscribers and Sudani, the
latest addition has over 500, 000 subscribers. Unfortunately, this progress like
all others is limited to central Sudan and some northern states. South Sudan
remains as distant as it was before the CPA.
1.2.2 Accommodation
For a viable tourism industry, some form of comfort should be provided to
visitors. Comfort in the form of accommodation could be a hotel, motel, inn,
lodge or tented camp. In the Sudan, quality accommodation is concentrated in
Khartoum where 90% of the categorized hotels and inns are found. Over the last
23 years, the number of categorized accommodation has grown from 16 in 1983
to 64 in 2005. All the 4 and 5 star hotels are found in Khartoum with the
exception of the Port Sudan Hilton.
The only categorized accommodation in South Sudan is the run down Juba Hotel
(28 rooms) and Equatoria Hotel (>20 rooms) which are considered 1 star hotels.
Following the signing of the CPA, a new form of accommodation has emerged in
Juba. A number of tented accommodation in the likes of Afex, Juba Raha, Bros,
and Nile Comfort Inn carter for the many visitors to Juba.
A common feature of the accommodation facilities in the Sudan is that all are
concentrated in urban centers away from sites of tourist attractions. Additionally,
91% of the accommodation facilities have capacities of less than 100 beds.
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1.2.3 Personal security and safety
More than any other factor, threats to personal security and safety adversely
affect tourism demand. The fear of terrorism can affect global travel trends.
When regional wars, rebellions and terrorism occur, domestic and international
travel falls, and fewer tourists visit destination areas. The effects are felt most in
developing countries, where international visitors are often a significant
proportion of all visitors. A sense of personal security is also affected by the
prevalence of violent crime, petty theft, water quality, disease or bad sanitation.
The Sudan for many years has never been a favorable destination for tourist.
After the imposition of Islamic Sharia Law in 1983 which sparked the civil strife
in South Sudan, the number of tourists to the country fluctuated between 30 and
40 thousand throughout the 1980s. In the 1990-1991 periods, the number
declined by 50% from 33 thousand to 16 thousand following the out break of the
Gulf War and Sudan’s support for Iraq. In the 2000s, the 9 /11 terrorist attack in
New York did not dampen growth in the industry in the Sudan as the WTO
reported a growth of 18% between 2000 -2002 (WTO, 2003). This was expected
because Americans form an insignificant market for Sudan’s tourism. In the
Sudan, the climate for tourism development improved following the signing of
the Machakos Protocal and subsequently, the CPA.
In South Sudan, throughout the last 22 years, few tourists ever tried to venture
into the region for pleasure due to two main reasons. First, the attractions of
South Sudan, the wildlife in the protected areas were either driven away, poached
or could not be accessible from the urban centers because most roads were
mined. Second, the widespread possession of fire arms by civilians and the many
militias formed in the region meant that personal safety could not be guaranteed.
1.2.4 Services
Tourists are increasingly demanding high quality recreational opportunities and
the services that support them. Those who receive quality service during their
normal working week expect to be offered this by their leisure providers as well.
They expect guides to be knowledgeable and good communicators. They want
their hosts to make them feel welcome, comfortable and part of the communities
they visit.
Sudanese are well known world over as warm, open and friendly people with a
long tradition of generous hospitality. However, the services they provide in
accommodation establishments, restaurants, protected areas and tourism
agencies are not professional. In most cases, the tourist agencies do not have
service quality goals, or monitoring programs, making their programs appear
unresponsive and primitive. This is because most of the people working in these
establishments had no formal education in the services sectors in which they
serve.
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1.2.5 Training
Training is about developing the potential and ability of stakeholders to make
and implement decisions that will lead to more sustainable tourism, by
increasing their understanding, knowledge, confidence and skills. In the Sudan a
large proportion of the workforce in the tourism sector got no formal tourism
training whether in government Ministries, accommodation establishments, tour
operators or at the community level. For example, in the Directorate of Tourism
in the Federal Ministry of Tourism and Wildlife, only 9 out of the 63 staff of the
Directorate had some formal tourism training.
In the states, the situation is even worse with only 4 unskilled staff manning the
tourism unit in each State Ministry of Culture and Social Affairs. At the South
Sudan level, a Directorate of Tourism has been established in the Ministry of
Environment, Wildlife Conservation and Tourism but it is still under structuring
and has yet to draw up its programs and policies.
1.2.6 Tourism Institutions
Since the establishment of tourism in the Sudan, its administration has shifted
several times. As a result of the shifts the directorate underwent, no proper
policies have been developed for the operation of the industry and the links
between the Directorate and state tourism units have not been clear. Today,
responsibility for the development of tourism rests with the Directorate of
Tourism in the Federal Ministry of Tourism and Wildlife.
In the states, the development of tourism is a responsibility of the tourism unit in
the Ministry of Information, Culture, Youth and Sports. States in some parts of
the Sudan are legally allowed to develop their own tourism policies and programs
guided by the legislation and the standards set by the Directorate of tourism.
For South Sudan under the CPA and the Interim National Constitution, the
Directorate of Tourism of the MEWCT oversees the development of tourism
programs in the region. It has the legal right to develop its own tourism program
independent from the program for the Directorate of Tourism in the Federal
Ministry of Tourism and Wildlife. The responsibility of state tourism units is to
enforce tourism regulations and create a good atmosphere for tourism.
At all levels of government, the tourism industry in the Sudan lacks support
institutions such as tourism boards, training institutions, associations, societies
or councils.
1.2.7 Legal framework
Legislation, regulation and licensing are inter-related tools that can be used to
strengthen tourism management by setting out requirements that are
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compulsory and enforceable, and which lead to sanctions and penalties if they are
not met. Legislation provides the authority to enforce requirements, which are
defined and elaborated by regulations. Licensing is a process of checking and
signaling compliance with regulations or otherwise identified obligatory
standards, conveying permission to operate.
In its present state, tourism country wide is governed by the 1995 Federal
Tourism and Hotels Act derived from the 1977 tourism and Hotels Corporation
Act. In accordance with the provisions of the CPA and the Interim National
Constitution (2005), South Sudan has to develop its own tourism laws upon
which the government sets the regulations based on national and international
standards. The relevant ministries in the 10 states then enforce the regulations.
Many pieces of legislation that have impact on tourism are not specifically
enacted for the benefit of tourism alone. They include laws in areas such as
taxation, customs and immigration, transport, public safety, health, environment
and planning. Although legislation in these areas is responsibility of the relevant
ministries, it is important that the Ministry of Environment, Wildlife
Conservation and Tourism (MEWCT), has a consultative input.
1.2.8 Research
The importance of research as a planning and management tool appears not to
have been realized by tourism policy makers in the Sudan. This may explain why
there are no publications on the subject since the inception of the industry. The
only attempt at assessing the state of the industry in a protected area is Tomor
(2006), whose study covered ecotourism in Dinder National Park during the
1980s, 1990s and 2000s.
Tourism policy makers appear not to have realized that research provides new
knowledge, insight and procedures for tourism management. They seem not to be
aware of the fact that ongoing research programs can reveal trends and patterns
that are valuable for planning and management.
2 Linkages between wildlife and Poverty
The millennium declaration of the UN identified poverty alleviation as one of the
most compelling challenges the world is facing in the 21st century. Tourism is one
of the most important sources of foreign exchange earnings and job creator in
many poor and developing countries. The WTO believes that tourism can be used
to address the problems of poverty more directly.
Wildlife plays a key role in linking the poor with tourists. About 80% of all
international travelers to Africa are attracted by its wildlife. It plays a significant
role in the livelihood of poor people living in rural areas. It is a coping
mechanism for the poor during periods of stress and the lack of it creates
vulnerability to hunger.
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2.1 Wildlife and poverty
The extent to which people depend on wildlife for their survival comes in
different shades and colors. Here a few of these linkages are addressed with the
aim of selecting a more sustainable linkage to be adapted for the development of
the wildlife sector in South Sudan.
2.1 Wildlife and hunger
In many African countries, bush meat forms a significant source of animal
protein. In Ghana, where all wildlife species are edible, 75% of the population eat
bush meat regularly. Asibey and Child (1990) reported bush meat consumption
rates of 84% in Nigeria, 70% in Liberia and 60% in Botswana. In the Sudan about
70% of the population lives in rural areas where access to other sources of animal
protein is limited. It is therefore safe to say that about 80% of all Sudanese
depend on wildlife for their animal protein needs.
On the negative end, wildlife sometimes creates hunger when it interferes with
human activities. It is estimated that about 35% of all agricultural production
costs can be attributed to wildlife damage. Wildlife can also be a threat to human
life and the livestock industry.
2.2 Wildlife and food security
Wildlife has always played a significant role in the livelihood of the poor as a
coping strategy during periods of stress. An assessment carried out by Save the
Children Fund on the contribution of wild food to nutrition in South Sudan found
that most of the population relied heavily on wildlife for their livelihood whether
in the government held towns or in the New Sudan throughout the 1980s and
1990s.
Loss of resources due to unsustainable methods of use and limited access caused
by insecurity creates much dependency on wildlife for survival. In times of
scarcity, wild things even as small as caterpillars and termites, can be key food
sources. In Juba, rats in the vicinity of homesteads were exterminated by rat
eating communities in the 1980s and 1990s due to high demand and limited
options. This led to the expansion of the hunting rage for the rodents to the
outskirts of town where some hunters unfortunately lost their lives.
2.3 Wildlife and income generation
Income generated from wildlife comes primarily from consumptive and nonconsumptive wildlife tourism, wildlife hunting, trade in products and wildlife
ranching and farming. According to a 1999 study by the World Conservation
Society, each year more than 1.1 million tons of wildlife meat comes out of
tropical Africa (WTO, 2003).
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By all standards, tourism is the largest generator of income in the wildlife sector
and the most sustainable utilization strategy. It is an industry that has had a very
demonstrable impact in the economies of many countries in the world. Globally,
the industry generated some US$ 443 billion in 1997, US$ 622 billion in 2004
and is expected to exceed US$ 2 trillion by 2020 (WTO, 2005). Tourism
contributes 10.4% to global GDP and accounts for 12% of total exports in
international trade.
In countries like Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania and Botswana where much of the
industry relies on wildlife, substantial revenue is generated from the industry. In
1998, about 12,344 million tourists visited sub-Saharan Africa. A majority of
these international travelers went to South Africa (48%), Zimbabwe (13%), Kenya
(8%), Botswana (6%), Tanzania (4%), Uganda (2%) and only 0.3% came to Sudan
(WTO, 2003). In 2004, Kenya earned US$ 577 million, Uganda, US$ 512 million
and Tanzania US$ 523 million from wildlife tourism (WTO, 2005)
3 Wildlife tourism and poverty
Tourism is the world's largest industry, and every year it pumps billions of dollars
into some of the poorest countries in the world. It creates jobs, reduces poverty,
builds new roads, airports, hotels and hospitals. According to Louis D'Amore,
president and founder of the Vermont-based International Institute for Peace
Through Tourism, 46 of the 49 least-developed countries, have tourism as their
largest foreign-exchange earner. It is the principle export for one third of all
developing countries. The industry generated some US$ 142,306 million to
developing countries in 2001. In 2004, Kenya, with one of Africa's mostdeveloped tourism industry, hosted about 600,000 tourists and pocketed US$577
million, or about 12% of GDP. On average, each tourist spent US$ 961 in the
country.
Tourism is growing much faster in developing countries than in developed
countries. It is estimated that the industry is growing at a rate of 5.5% and 6% in
Africa and Asia respectively, where a majority of the worlds poor live. This
growth rates are considerably higher than the world average annual growth rate
of 4%.
3.1 Wildlife tourism and poverty reduction
Wildlife tourism has characteristics that fit perfectly with approaches for poverty
reduction. Most poor people live in wildlife rich areas which are agriculturally
marginal and/or remote from markets. In such areas where other livelihood
diversification opportunities don’t exist, wildlife tourism does offer opportunities
for enterprises and employment. It is in tourism that entry barriers to
establishing new small businesses are quite low. Tourism also creates
opportunities to support traditional activities such as agriculture and handicrafts.
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In many countries including Sudan, wildlife along with much of the wildlife rich
land (protected areas) is owned by the State. This means that governments can
influence the pattern of private sector tourism development and its impact on
poverty in the process of granting rights of use and access to these assets. These
natural assets give many developing countries a comparative advantage over
developed countries.
Three quarters of people in extreme poverty live in rural areas much of which is
attractive to tourism. Due to its location, wildlife tourism can provide seasonal
employment opportunities to the poor in rural areas that can fit into their other
livelihood opportunities.
Being labor intensive, the industry creates
opportunities for employment of women and young people. It is estimated that
for every tourist, 8 jobs are created in the tourism sector, agriculture and other
support business.
Wildlife tourism supports conservation because the more poor people are the
more demand they put on wildlife and the faster wildlife declines. Therefore in
order to maintain wildlife productivity, it is important that poverty is reduced
through wildlife tourism. Wildlife therefore can pay for its survival through a
sustainable tourism program.
3.2 Approaches to poverty reduction through wildlife tourism
1. Employment of the poor in wildlife tourism enterprises
Providing employment is one of the major ways in which wildlife tourism can
contribute to the quality of life of poor people living with it. This enables poor
people to benefit from the entrepreneurial skills and market access of those with
established business. For better performance, increased staff retention, greater
efficiency and productivity however, it is important that labor regulations are
enforced and the principles of good employment practices (promotion, training,
minimum age, safety and health) are observed.
2. Supply of goods and services to wildlife tourism enterprises by the poor
Reduction of leakage of income generated from wildlife tourism from a
destination area is vital if the industry is to improve the welfare of the poor. This
can be done by encouraging and facilitating local sourcing of supplies. By
encouraging tour operators to use locally based service providers and products,
income generated from the industry can be retained for the benefit of local
communities.
3. Direct sale of goods and services to visitors by the poor
The informal sector is one of the most direct ways of getting visitor spending into
the hands of the poor. Disadvantaged people often gain access to tourists and
seek to earn income from them through activities such as street trading, sell of
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handicrafts, pottering, personal guiding and informal accommodation. To avoid
chaos and overcrowding, the informal sector can be strengthened through
capacity building, quality control, licensing and providing tourists with better
information.
4. Supporting the establishment of enterprises by the poor
Supporting locally owned businesses or their establishment places power and
control into the hands of the poor. This entails that poor people are encouraged
to establish micro, small, and medium enterprises (MSMEs) through capacity
building and financial support programs. Much of the profit generated by locally
owned businesses is retained within the community.
5. Use proceeds from tax or levy on wildlife tourism income or profit in poverty
reduction programs
Income from wildlife tourism can be used to tackle social issues and benefit poor
people indirectly. This can be done through development of pools of funding that
can be directed towards social or community schemes such as education, health
and social welfare. In Uganda 20% of wildlife tourism income is directed towards
development of the local community involved.
6. Voluntary giving by wildlife tourism enterprises and tourists
Payments into general charities and programs in destinations or specific support
for projects by tourists or tour operators can be very effective in poverty
reduction.
7. Investment in infrastructure stimulated by wildlife tourism
Investment in wildlife tourism in a destination area can result in the provision of
additional services such as roads, clean water, electricity, health care and
telecommunication to rural communities living with wildlife. This can be of great
benefit to poor communities in areas where it is difficult to reach people through
traditional development activities.
4 Sustainable Tourism
Over the last 30 years global awareness of sustainability issues has grown
considerably. Most governments and development organizations agree that,
without sustainability, there can not be development that generates benefits to all
stakeholders, solves serious and urgent problems such as poverty and preserves
the natural and built environment on which human prosperity is based. The
analysis of the relationship between wildlife and poverty shows that wildlife
tourism is the most sustainable approach for its utilizing.
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4.1 Relationship
development
between
wildlife
tourism
and
sustainable
Wildlife tourism is in a special position in the contribution it can make to
sustainable development and the challenges it presents. Globally, it is the fastest
growing sector of the tourism industry and commands about 80% of all
international travel to Africa (Weinberg et al., 2002; WTO, 2004). Its dynamism,
growth and contribution to the economies of many countries and local
destinations puts it at a special position as a vehicle for sustainable development.
The special relationship existing between consumers, industry, environment and
local communities creates awareness about environmental issues and differences
among nations and cultures. This relationship leads to dependency of visitors,
who seek to experience intact and clean environments and exotic wildlife, on host
communities whose hospitality is paramount for visitor spending. This direct and
close relationship can be very positive for sustainable development.
4.2 International recognition of sustainable tourism
The importance of tourism as a vehicle for sustainable development and the need
for tourism to integrate sustainability principles has been increasingly recognized
in international fora and echoed in policy statements.
The UN Commission for Sustainable Development in its 7th session in 1999,
urged governments to advance the development of sustainable tourism.
Accordingly, governments were expected to develop policies, strategies and
master plans for sustainable tourism based on Agenda 21, as a way of providing
focus and direction for relevant organizations, the private sector and local
communities.
In 2001, the UN general Assembly endorsed the 1999 WTO Global Code of Ethics
for Tourism that invited governments and stakeholders in the tourism sector to
introduce laws, regulations and professional practices contained in the code into
their tourism development plans.
The Quebec Declaration on Ecotourism in 2002 (International year of
Ecotourism) recommended to governments, the tourism industry and other
stakeholders measures required to foster development of ecotourism on
sustainable basis.
The World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg (2002) called
for promotion of sustainable tourism as a strategy for protecting and managing
the natural resource base.
The Convention on Biological Diversity Guidelines on Biodiversity and Tourism
Development (2003) requires governments to integrate sustainable tourism into
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their strategies and plans for tourism development and national biodiversity
strategies and action plans.
4.3 Linkage between wildlife tourism and sustainable development
The objectives of wildlife tourism and its benefits are more less similar to those of
sustainable development. Wildlife tourism aims at generating financial support
for formation, management and protection of natural areas, raising economic
benefits for local communities living near protected areas and creating support
by local communities for conservation.
Wildlife tourism increases jobs and income for local communities living with
wildlife. It is a source of foreign exchange given that it attracts mainly
international tourists. Many governments of wildlife rich nations use the industry
for economic development as it is comparatively inexpensive to create a job in the
tourism sector than in other sectors of the economy.
Wildlife tourism can be a key factor in supporting the conservation of the natural
and cultural heritage of a country. It generates the funds that can be used directly
to help meet or offset the costs of conservation, maintenance of cultural
traditions and provision of education. Indirectly, wildlife tourism can bring to a
country the public and political support for conservation. Local communities
benefit through maintenance of their traditions and values and therefore the
industry creates greater pride in the community.
4.4 Making wildlife tourism sustainable
Developing a sustainable wildlife tourism strategy requires that the conditions for
the industry to continue as an activity in the future are right through proper
policies. It should also take into consideration the ability of society and the
environment to absorb and benefit from the impacts of tourism in a sustainable
manner. I present here a brief account of the key aspects of the economic, social
and environmental impacts of wildlife tourism that can make it more sustainable.
4.4.1 Economic viability
The viability of a wildlife tourism industry depends on success of the wildlife
tourism businesses in providing benefits to local communities. For sustainability,
policies should be directed at creating a good trading atmosphere, maintaining
and projecting an attractive destination, understanding the needs of customers
and satisfying their needs.
4.4.2 Social equity
Wildlife tourism policies should target disadvantaged groups such as the poor so
as to create equitable distribution of economic and social benefits. This can be
achieved through creating policies that empower disadvantaged groups to
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develop or participate in income generating activities such as supply of goods and
services. Policies should also ensure that income generated from wildlife tourism
is used to support social development programs such as health care, education,
and social and community projects.
4.4.3 Biodiversity conservation
Wildlife tourism activities should support the conservation of wildlife and its
habitat and minimize damage. Part of the income generated should be used for
conservation programs in the destination in order to maintain its appeal to
visitors. The industry should increase visitor awareness and support for
conservation. It is important that government policy is directed at promoting
development and management of wildlife tourism given that its practice
conserves the environment and sustains the wellbeing of local people. For
sustainability, policies should be directed at minimizing damage from wildlife
tourism to areas where biodiversity may be vulnerable, raising visitor awareness
and appreciation of biodiversity and raising support for conservation from
visitors and enterprises.
4.4.4 Environmental purity
Maintaining environmental purity entails reducing waste and harmful emissions
to the environment so as to preserve the quality of the air, water and land on
which the wildlife depend. Policies should promote reduction in the use of
environmentally damaging chemicals, avoiding the discharge of sewage to water
catchments, minimizing waste or proper disposal, influencing the establishment
of facilities and encouraging the use of more sustainable transport.
5.1 Implementing a sustainable wildlife tourism strategy for South
Sudan
South Sudan’s wildlife has had little influence in the lives of the people managing
it or living with it. Since the inception of the concept of preservation based on the
Wildlife Ordinance of 1935 which created protected areas, there has never been a
serious attempt at developing a strategy for proper utilization of wildlife in the
region. To date, no protected area has had or used a management plan.
This lack of vision and strategy has led to neglect of scientific principles of
wildlife management and elevation of the law enforcement aspect of it. As a
result, wildlife, a resource that has changed the livelihoods of many poor people
and their economies in many Sub-Saharan African states has become a liability to
both the government (cost of management) and the local communities (denial of
access to the resource) on whose land protected areas are established.
15
For most of the post independence time, South Sudan has been a battle field and
successive governments sanctioned from Khartoum, did little to develop the
resources of the region because most were castrated and the others were
handicapped. During this time, wildlife in particular, suffered the most because
the development of its preferred income generating sector -tourism requires a
secure environment in which the climate for investment is good.
Now that peace has come to South Sudan, the task of changing the status quo lies
squarely on the shoulders of policy makers in the Government of South Sudan
assisted by the sons and daughters of the region, who over the years have
acquired skills all over the globe but had no chance of using them. A collective
action is needed if we are to realize the UN MDG of eradicating extreme poverty
and hunger and our own vision of taking towns to villages. It is important that
every resource with potential to alleviate poverty is utilized if we are to meet the
set goal of reducing poverty by half come 2015.
As South Sudan will start from zero, our first priority will be to lay the foundation
for a sustainable tourism industry by establishing the institutional structures and
regulations by which we operate. The development of infrastructure and
superstructures for tourism along with support facilities form the core of the
development process for the industry.
5.1 Recommended action programs for developing a sustainable
wildlife tourism strategy for South Sudan.
From the analysis of the state of tourism country wide, South Sudan, the home of
Sudan’s wildlife was left out from all tourism development programs originating
from the central government. Only consumptive wildlife tourism (game hunting)
was practiced in the region during the Regional Government era of the 1970s.
As we proceed to develop an Environmental Management Plan for the country
and South Sudan in particular, the neglect of the wildlife sector requires reversal.
A wildlife development program has to be factored into the plan knowing that the
development of such an industry can have positive or negative impact on the
environment. Our drive therefore should be to develop a wildlife tourism industry
that is environmentally friendly, socially desirable and economically viable. In
short, the industry developed must be sustainable.
It is clear from the review that a sustainable tourism program can help alleviate
the chronic issue of poverty in South Sudan while maintaining the existence of
wildlife in the region. A broad outline of the action programs that the MEWCT
need to undertake in order to initiate a sustainable tourism program for the
region is presented.
16
1. Develop wildlife tourism objectives and policies
The primary objective of a wildlife tourism program for South Sudan should be to
develop an industry that can contribute to poverty reduction through generation
of income and employment. In order to achieve this objective, government
policies should be directed at;
i) Ensuring economic viability and competitiveness of South Sudan as a wildlife
tourist destination.
ii) Seeking a widespread and fair distribution of economic and social benefits
from wildlife tourism.
iii) Supporting the conservation of protected areas, habitats and wildlife while
minimizing damage from the industry to the resource base.
iv) Minimizing the pollution of the air, water and land through reduced
generation of waste and harmful emissions by tourism enterprises and tourists.
2. Strengthening institutions and economic linkages
i) Public sector institutions
The present organizational structure and staffing positions of the MEWCT
requires improvement if a successful wildlife tourism industry is to be developed.
The ministry and in particular the Directorate of Tourism is grossly under
resourced in terms of manpower and funding. It is important for the government
to embark on public sector institutional development for the industry. The
linkage between the Directorate of Wildlife and that of Tourism must be defined
and strengthened.
ii) Strengthening linkages with states
Currently, the linkages between the Directorate of Tourism at GOSS and state
tourism authorities is not clear. Based on the CPA and the interim constitutions,
states have a right to develop tourism programs. The same documents however
do allow the Directorate of Tourism to create the legislation by which the states
execute their tourism programs. It is important that the thin line dividing the two
administrative and management set ups is clearly defined so as to avoid
duplication and antagonism. This can be done by developing a tourism and hotels
ordinance that defines the roles of each level of government and the rights and
obligations of the private sector and tourists.
iii) Strengthening linkages with the private sector
The private sector comprising of hotel business, tourism agencies, airlines, tour
operators and suppliers of tourism goods and services needs to be developed in
17
South Sudan if the tourism product in the region is to be complete. The
government therefore needs to set policies which neither compromise standards
nor intrude into the rights of the private sector. A conducive climate for
investment for both domestic and foreign entrepreneurs must be created.
iv) Strengthening linkages with other sectors of the economy
In order to maximize the socio-economic benefits of tourism, the revenues
generated from the industry must remain in South Sudan. Leakage of tourism
revenues can be avoided by encouraging local sourcing of supplies, employment
of local labor and support of locally owned businesses.
3. Improving access transport and infrastructure
i) International air access
Direct international flights to Juba are needed if visitors are to spend more time
in South Sudan and visit parts of the region other than Juba. Currently, visitors
come to South Sudan by way of Khartoum, Nairobi or Kampala. These indirect
flights increase flight time and cost which can discourage potential customers.
The airports in Rumbek and Malakal need to be upgraded to international
standards and the capacity of Juba airport should be increased to handle heavier
traffic.
ii) Internal access
In the tourism industry, customers need to get to places they would like to visit in
reasonable speed, comfort and safety. The present road systems in South Sudan
can not provide such luxury and hence deter progress. The MEWCT therefore
needs to coordinate with the Ministry of Transport and Roads so that important
links to protected areas are included in the road building program of the
ministry. Specifically, the major access roads to Southern, Shambe, Badingilo,
Boma and Nimule National Parks and the Sudd wetland need to be given priority.
4 Improving service standards
i) Train-the-Trainer program
The quality of the staff of the service sector needs a lot of effort to bring them to
acceptable standard. This will not be possible if all the staff are to undergo formal
training because of the cost, lack of specialized institutions and lack of time for a
reasonable number of service providers to receive formal training. The best way
out is to conduct a training needs assessment and select already skilled
professionals in the various sectors of the industry and train them how to pass
their skills to others on the job. The trainer keeps the job in the establishment
he/she works in but acts as a catalyst for training.
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ii) Develop tour guide and operator services
The quality of tour guides is key to the success of a wildlife tourism industry.
Wildlife tourism is a specialized form of tourism that requires professionalism as
some of the tourists are themselves knowledgeable. Therefore a wildlife tourist
guide needs to know the wildlife under his range, has to be sociable and balanced
in personality.
iii) Construct proper accommodation facilities
For visitors to relax after a long flight to South Sudan, comfort must be provided
in the major towns of the region. Each town should have at least one 3 star hotel
in addition to lower category lodging. In the protected areas, lower grade lodging
such as tents, bungalows and lodges constructed using local materials should be
provided.
5 Creating greater market awareness
In its present state, South Sudan is an unknown quantity in the international
tourist market. Awareness of the regions wildlife tourism potentials is key to its
development for both domestic and foreign tourists. The image of South Sudan as
a wildlife tourism destination can be marketed through;
i) Development of promotional materials such as
documentaries and general tourist information material.
brochures,
maps,
ii) Carrying out market research to understand potential customer perceptions,
attitudes and holiday requirements.
iii) Promoting South Sudan’s wildlife tourism potential through more pro-active
use of the internet.
iv) Setting up overseas representation of the business in identified main source
markets and not relying on diplomatic and trade missions.
v) Formulating a marketing strategy and plan based on a realistic and sustainable
budget.
6. Improving security and personal safety
Security and safety play a key role in a tourist’s choice of a destination. South
Sudan has been insecure for most of the time Sudan has been independent. All
effort should be exerted on protecting the CPA which to a large extent has
brought some sanity to South Sudan. To improve security and tourism prospects
in the region:
19
i) The Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA), has to be disbanded through all possible
means be it political or otherwise
ii) All gun trotting militia youth need to be demobilized and sent to school so that
they understand the fact that there are other better ways to a decent living
compared to the harsh bush environment.
iii) Tourists need to be assured that South Sudan is getting better by the day and
the peace dividends are being felt even by wildlife. The reported return of
elephants to their former range from wherever they have been in refugee or
internal displacement is proof of this fact. The awareness program should be
directly under the President of GOSS and Commander-in-Chief of the SPLA. It
should involve all stakeholders of wildlife tourism.
5.2 CONCLUSION
Over the last 5 years, the WTO estimates Sudan’s tourism sector to have grown by
6%. This growth however contributed just 0.3% to GDP and had little influence in
the livelihoods of the rural poor as it was concentrated in the states of Khartoum
and Port Sudan. Like all development oriented sectors in the country, South
Sudan’s contribution to this growth was zero as its main attractions, the wildlife,
was and is still inaccessible. Our drive therefore should be to create the structures
and superstructures that can make the resource accessible to potential customers.
Globally, it is recognized that wildlife plays a role in the livelihood of many poor
people and therefore has been incorporated into government and donor policies
of poverty reduction in many countries. So far, the best wildlife related approach
to enhance livelihoods of poor people is tourism. Most of South Sudan’s Ecosystem still remains intact and unspoiled and thus provides a strong basis for
sustainable wildlife tourism development. All that is required is proper planning
and management of the available resources.
It should be born in mind that sustainable wildlife tourism cannot thrive if we do
not take care of our fragile environment. In this context, therefore, we should
always remember the cardinal point that we all have a duty to practice
responsible tourism so that at the end of the day we shall be able to conserve our
fragile environment and biodiversity for the benefit of mankind. To this end there
is therefore, an urgent need to put the necessary legislations and codes of conduct
in place so as to ensure balanced development of wildlife tourism in South Sudan.
Exchange of information and experience with neighboring countries would also
be vital in achieving the required results for the development of sustainable
wildlife tourism and conservation of the environment.
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Table 1: Population Estimates of Large Wild Mammals in South Sudan
Species
Baboon
Bushbuck
Buffalo
Duiker
Elephant
Mongalla Gazelle
Girrafe
Lelwel Hartebeest
Hippopotamus
White-eared Kob
Uganda Kob
Nile Lechwe
Oribi
Reedbuck
Roan Antelope
Sitatunga
Tiang
Waterbuck
Zebra
Giant Eland
White Rhino
Warthog
South Sudan1
320,000
133,000
326,000
180,000
1,000,000
750,000
18,000
-
Southern
National Park2
1,148
269
60,850
10,940
1,325
8,132
111
472
685
1,043
2,580
118
168
2,213
Sudd Wetland3
268
4,501
234
2,964
65,937
4,527
234
2,252
11,672
2,489
32,279
6,006
33,380
4,124
1,108
359,496
8,851
3,889
-
Watson, F.H. (1977) Sudan National Livestock Census and Resources Inventory
Report. Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, Khartoum
1
2
Boitani, L. (1981) The Southern National Park. A Master Plan, Juba, Rome
Howell et al., (1985) The Jonglei Canal. Impacts and Opportunities. Cambridge
University Press. Cambridge
3
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