Speeches – complete notes
What to include in an essay on speeches
 A brief statement about the speechmaker – who he/she was, what they did
 A brief statement about the context – where speech was made, political/social context of speech
 What the speech is about – aims, purpose, themes
 3-4 techniques, each with 3-4 examples, and their effects
 Reception:
1. By its original audience
2. By a modern audience.
 Unless specified, do two speeches with a brief look (say 1 technique) at a third.
Practice question: “The success of a speech depends on its receivers.” Discuss.
1. Socrates – “No evil can happen”
Speaker
Socrates was a philosopher whose teachings greatly influenced Western philosophy. Plato was his student.
Socrates was somewhat respected for his wit, humour and articulation but was disliked for his arrogance.
He passionately believed in the power of rhetoric and taught in public places.
Context
399 BC – ancient Athens was the intellectual centre of Greece, and one of the world’s first democracies.
Intellectuals were seen to weaken society by undermining traditional values and beliefs, and as Athens was
strictly religious, those who ignored state religious codes were seen to challenge the legitimacy of the
state. Socrates was tried for inquiring into things below the earth and in the sky, making the weaker
argument defeat the stronger and teaching others for a fee.
What speech is about
 Aims to justify his actions as fundamental rights, and his role as a teacher of philosophy
 Aims to present himself in a heroic and virtuous light
 Aiming to convince his audience to agree with him. He does not repent or change his mind –
antagonises with his audience. He accepts his death with dignity and integrity.
 Challenge of personal integrity, which is more important than the state, and more important than
wealth.
 Themes: rights of the individual, divine justice, moral integrity of the individual
Techniques
Religious association
 “I shall obey God”
 “So God bids”
 “Attached by God to the state”
Effect: presents him as he sees himself – as an instrument of God. It reveals him as a deeply
religious man in an age of conventional religion and proclaims his position as a moral leader.
However, it drew an adverse reaction from the audience, who found him arrogant. The gods are
seen as protectors of the state – Socrates is pious and concerned to promote piety and integrity.
Imagery
 “Reaping the largest possible harvest of wealth”
 “Gadfly to a big generous horse”
 “Now I go to pay the debt of death”
Effect: allows him to relate to his audience more. Metaphors allow him to explain the meaning of
his words in more simple terms. The gadfly quote compares his function of provoking and
challenging the state and its leaders to something constantly bothering a slow, cumbersome animal,
and draws attention to the fact that he is using metaphorical language, and also adds a touch of
humour to his speech.
Binary opposition
 “Life or death”
 “The right thing or the wrong”
 A good man or a bad”
 “Virtue springs not from possessions, but from virtue springs possessions”
Effect: creates a dramatic opening and begins a series of negative and positive connotations
throughout the speech. It also outlines his main message that “no evil can happen to a good man”
and sets him up as a moral leader with uncompromising dignity and authority.
Inclusive language
 “Men of Athens, I honour and love you”
 “O my friends”
 “O Athenians”
Effect: the appeal to men is a feature of Athenian oratory. The formal tone of these addresses is
appealing to the audience, and gives the address a degree of warmth and unity. They show Socrates
attempting to connect with his hostile audience.
Reception
As is shown by Plato, who recorded Socrates’ speech in The Apology, Socrates’ audience were very
hostile to his message – as he pronounces his lack of fear and his refusal to back down, “uproar ensues” in
the court. Their hostility is also shown by the fact that he was sentenced to death. However, today
Socrates is a highly respected and influential philosopher, and a modern audience values his speech for
Socrates’ intellect, dignity and articulation, as well as the speech's universal themes of the rights of the
individual and moral integrity. Socrates speech can be valued more by a modern audience due to their
differing political contexts and values - in Athens, intellectuals were seen to weaken society, but today,
Socrates is known as one of the founding figures of modern philosophy.
2. Cicero – “Among us you can dwell no longer”
Speaker
Though not aristocratic by birth, Cicero was elected as consul by defeating Catiline. Catiline repeatedly
lost elections to Cicero (who was more conservative). Cicero is widely remembered for his remarkable
Roman oratory.
Context
63 BC – Catiline was known to be dangerous but the Senate knew nothing of his revolutionary plots. The
context of this speech is that of a threat to Rome. Catiline was in the audience and while the Senate was
initially reluctant to believe Cicero they soon realised he was correct. Catiline was declared a public
enemy and was executed without trial. Cicero continued to be an influential writer and orator. This
speech was delivered before the Roman Senate.
What speech is about
 Aims to alert the Roman Senate of the threat from Catiline.
 Aims also to discredit Catiline and advocate his execution.
 Themes: justice, war and peace, rights of the state.
Techniques
Rhetorical questions
 “When, O Catiline, do you mean to cease abusing our patience?”
 “How long is that madness of yours to mock us?”
 “Do you not feel that your plans are detected?”
 “Do you dare to deny it? Why are you silent?”
Effect: the use of rhetorical questions in the introduction captures the audience’s attention and
clearly shows Cicero’s purpose of verbally attacking Catiline. Throughout the speech, sarcastic
rhetorical questions are used to mock and ridicule Catiline and mark Cicero’s presentation of
himself as heroic. Overall, the questions are used as a powerful attacking device. They are a familiar
rhetorical device to his audience. They make the audience think, engage and respond and give the
audience information under the guise of questioning.
Inclusive language
 “We”, “us”
 Catiline referred to as “enemy to the republic”
 “Us” for the Senate and “them” for the conspirators and Cicero
Effect: Cicero’s language unifies the Senate to make them appear stronger against Catiline’s threat,
and Catiline, as the enemy, is alienated and made to appear powerless. This helps to persuade the
Senate to believe Cicero.
Repetition
 “Fear”
 “Public enemy”
 “Wickedness”
 Stating intention of having Catiline executed
Effect: these negative words help to re-iterate Cicero’s message about Catiline and make him
appear evil. They reinforce his belief that Catiline should be severely dealt with (i.e. executed). The
language is persuasive and helps Cicero gain the Senate’s support.
Specific details
 “A camp is pitched in Italy… in hostility to the Republic”
 “21st October… 27th October… 28th October… 1st November”
 “That colony was fortified by my order, my garrison, by my watchfulness and care”
Effect: details are used as a device with which to taunt and intimidate Catiline, as they are seen as
solid evidence for Cicero’s claims. Because of Cicero’s part in suppressing Catiline’s revolution,
shown clearly in the details he provides, he is presenting himself as a saviour of the republic, taking
credit for finding details of the plot.
Reception
The original audience was the Roman Senate, and they would have valued Cicero’s speech for its use of
traditional oratory techniques such as rhetorical questioning, and would have understood the seriousness
of his message due to the fact that there was a direct threat to Rome. Today, we may read it as
overloaded and exaggerated as the techniques commonly used in Cicero’s time are less familiar to us. Even
so, Cicero’s speech is a historical document that fulfils its aim of discrediting Catiline.
3. Lincoln – “Government of the people, by the people, for the
people”
Speaker
Lincoln is a highly revered figure in US history, who was president from 1861-65 when he was
assassinated. He was a protector of Federal law, a unified government and the Union. In 1863 the
Emancipation Proclamation was made.
Context
1863 – US civil war was 1961-65 – saw the end of slavery and the downfall of a Southern attempt at
secession. The Battle of Gettysburg, July 1963, saw the death of 51 000. At their burial, Lincoln was asked
to speak briefly, and delivered this address.
What speech is about
 Lincoln saw the country’s lack of motivation and therefore appealed to their patriotism to unify and
inspire the nation.
 Aims to honour and commemorate the Gettysburg dead and to unify north and south.
 Themes: equality, freedom, commemoration.
Techniques
Structure
 The 3 paragraphs are organised chronologically.
 First deals with the past – reference to Jefferson and the Declaration of Independence (“all men
are created equal”) – birth of America
 Second deals with present – “we are engaged in a great civil war” – conveys purpose of
commemorating dead
 Third looks to the future – a return to the freedom and liberty of the Declaration of
Independence.
Effect: Lincoln paints a portrait of a nation born in greatness to show its ideals of liberty and
equality. In addressing the issue of the war he is honouring and commemorating the dead, and in
the third part he is challenging the audience to return to these ideals. Example – “the world will
little note, nor long remember, what we say here, but it will never forget what they did here.”
Religious imagery
 “Consecrate”, “hallow”, “devotion”
 “This nation under God”
 “New birth of freedom”
Effect: the reference to God suggests the duty to remain dedicated to these ideals, makes a sacred
connection between the living and the dead, and appeals to the devout religion of the society to
which he is speaking (see also Goldman and King).
Emotive language
 “Liberty”, “freedom”, “dedicated”, “great”, “nobly”
Effect: appeals to the audience’s emotion, and serves to gain the audience’s support with his deep
honour for those who have died. The powerful words also serve to unite the audience.
Technique 4
 The sentence builds to a final climax – “government of the people, for the people, by the
people, shall not perish from the earth”
 Developed by linking its parts with dashes – desired result is expressed in loosely running
clauses that lead to the climax – “we here resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain –
that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom”
Effect: the final sentence is poetic and designed to highlight the themes of liberty, equality and unity.
The effect is to motivate the people, giving them something to strive and hope for.
Reception
Lincoln’s speech was received with mixed emotions at the time when it was given, as many were expecting
a triumphalist speech due to the outcome of the battle, and were surprised at his delivery of a peaceful,
non-triumphalist speech. In America particularly, but throughout the world to a lesser degree, the speech
is continuingly valued for its peaceful, forward-looking, idealistic messages and its democratic ideals.
4. Goldman – “The political criminal of today”
Speaker
Goldman was a female Jew and a political anarchist who was against conscription during World War One.
Because of all of these reasons, she was not greatly liked.
Context
1917 – US has just joined WWI – Goldman is facing a male, generally anti-Semitic jury – therefore
Goldman is at a disadvantage. She is addressing the jury at her trial for conspiracy and overt acts.
What speech is about
 Aims to justify her actions, challenge her audience’s bourgeoisie complacency and make her case
viable.
 Themes: patriotism, progress, freedom and liberty.
Techniques
Sarcasm
 “Barnum and Bailey circus”
 “Marshal McCarthy and his host of heroic warriors”
 Declaration of Independence referred to as a “dangerous document”
 “The two dangerous disturbers and troublemakers… quietly at work at their desks”
Effect: sarcasm attacks and challenges the audience’s views, and mocks/scorns the agencies of the
law responsible for her arrest. It also diminishes these agencies in the eyes of the audience, making
them seem trivial, inadequate and prejudiced. Her speech breaks through time barriers because this
is an institution that is still being questioned today.
Historical references
 Bolshevik and French Revolutions
 Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau (2 classic revered American authors)
 “Jesus, Socrates, Galileo” – political criminals now very highly revered
 Martin Luther quote – “Here I am and here I stand and I cannot do otherwise”
Effect: she challenges the institution of the law by connecting a refusal to obey the law and the
preference of morality to the law with the ideal in human society. She also shows that she is well
read, highly educated and highly intelligent. The particular references she uses support and reiterate her argument.
Rhetorical questions
 “Is there only one kind of resistance?... What right has the District Attorney to interpret that
particular passage to suit himself?”
 “Shall free speech and free assemblage, shall criticism and opinion… be destroyed? Or shall free
press and free assemblage continue to be the heritage of the American people?”
 “Have we been engaged in a conspiracy? Has that conspiracy been proven? Have we been
engaged in overt acts? Have those overt acts been proven?”
Effect: they require the audience to constantly consider and challenge their own opinions as well as
her argument, with the answers to the questions directed at legitimising her argument. Also, it
constantly involves the audience in her speech and makes them think. They present Goldman as a
confident, assertive and intelligent woman.
Biblical allusions
 “Her mad, unscrupulous worship at the altar of the Golden Calf”
 Repeated use of ‘verily resonates Jesus’ words in the Gospels
 Her arrest seen as the ‘big fish’ of no-conscription activities being caught – “the moment the
anglers pulled their heavy net ashore, it broke, and all the labour was so much wasted energy”
 Idea of a “brighter dawn” resonates John’s gospels
Effect: by constantly tapping into religious imagery, beginning with fish, she shows her ability to
connect and identify with her mostly Christian audience. Also, it portrays her message of universal
peace and liberty.
Reception
Goldman’s speech was considered too controversial and dangerous to her original audience of twelve
male jurors in 1917. This is shown by the fact that she was found guilty of conspiracy and overt acts by the
jury. Today, however, Goldman’s speech can be appreciated more fully because there is no longer a fear of
communism or anarchism. It remains relevant, nearly 100 years later, because it speaks of timeless values
and debates. She questions the eternal principles of free speech and democracy, and today, we find
ourselves facing similar issues and asking similar questions. Her questioning of whether patriotism means
blindness to one’s country’s faults and deafness to all its wrongs, or loving with ‘open eyes’ and accepting
its faults, with the hope of change for the better, is still relevant as we question this today. Her speech is
valued today not only for its great rhetoric, but for its eternal themes of justice, liberty, economic
imperialism and dissent.
5. King – “I have a dream”
Speaker
King was a Southern Baptist minister who advocated passive resistance and peaceful protest. He was a key
figure in the civil rights movement.
Context
August 1963 – on the steps of Washington’s Lincoln Memorial – crowd of over 200 000 at a Civil Rights
march. The weather was extremely hot so the people were volatile, and King used language in order to
control them and avoid riots breaking out. King’s deep, resonating vocal timbre held the audience’s
attention constantly – e.g. as he drew the speech to a climactic and dramatic close by almost shouting
“Free at last! Free at last! Thank God almighty! We are free at last!” He also showed audience awareness
as he spoke softly and solemnly of the suffering of the African Americans. His words were always dynamic,
passionate and engaging.
What speech is about
 King is stating a case for black America and trying to unite the US – he aims to end segregation
 His message on the most basic level is “we want freedom”
 Themes: justice, equality, freedom, racism.
Techniques
Historical references
 Declaration of Independence
 US constitution
 Emancipation Proclamation
 “Five score years ago” echoes Gettysburg Address
Effect: by referring to these pivotal documents, King shows that he is educated and intelligent. They
back up his argument, appeal to the nation’s patriotism and question the lack of progress made
throughout history. Also, the historical references used appeal to educated America. He challenges
his audience to move towards the vital goal of desegregation through relating these documents to
racial equality.
Biblical allusions
 “God’s children”
 “the solid rock of brotherhood”
 “walking together as sisters and brothers”
 Psalm 23 – “rise from the dark and desolate valley of segregation to the sunlit path of racial
justice”
Effect: unites both religious and non-religious (as they are not explicit Bible references) with a
sense of brotherhood and simple words of faith, hope and love. They show the peacefulness of his
character. He challenges his mostly Christian audience to recognise the sinfulness of racism, and
move away from discrimination. Because of their ability to relate to even a non-religious audience,
the speech remains relevant even in today’s increasingly secular society.
Repetition
 “us”, “we”
 “now”, climax at “fierce urgency of now”
 “I have a dream”
 “Let freedom ring”
Effect: gives the audience a positive vision of unity and freedom and a goal to strive towards, and
holds the audience’s attention by the use of emphatic, repeated statements. It leaves the audience
with a sense of the urgency of the need to move towards justice and liberty.
Topographical references
 “Curvaceous peaks of California”
 “Snow-capped Rockies of Colorado”
 “Stone Mountain of Georgia”
 “Lookout Mountain of Tennessee”
Effect: combines a powerful vision of a perfect America with patriotic images of its national beauty,
giving the audience great hope and inspiration. They emphasise the need to move towards this
perfect, free America with hope and positiveness.
Reception
This speech was controversial at the time when it was made, because of the great opposition to
segregation from some aspects of American society, particularly in the South. However, worldwide, it was
greatly respected because of its powerful use of rhetoric and because of its appeal to common values and
beliefs such as patriotism and religion. Today, it is considered one of the greatest speeches of the
twentieth century because of King’s skilled and intellectual use of language and because of his peaceful and
pivotal messages about freedom, equality, justice and racism. The values King expresses are those that will
always be important to mankind, and his message of civil rights and racial equality is still strived for today.
6. Levertov – “Statement for a television program”
Speaker
Levertov is an American poet and an important feminist. She was also a strong anti-war activist during the
Vietnam War.
Context
1972 – Nixon is president and the Vietnam war is drawing a great amount of protest. There was much illfeeling towards the government at the time. Levertov’s speech was submitted for a television
program and rejected on the grounds that too many Vietnam war speeches had already, but she
says it was because of her anti-government sentiment.
What speech is about
 Aims to make known the brutality of the war, to call Americans to action against it, and to show
that war is propelled by media propaganda.
 Themes: war and peace, social activism, freedom.
Techniques
Emotive language
 “Shame and horror”
 “Genocide”
 “Extinction of life on earth”
 “Systematic destruction”
 “Present slaughter in Vietnam”
Effect: this passionate language challenges and confronts the audience. It emphasises the brutality
and futility of war, and demonstrates her highly anti-war stance.
Imagery
 “The tentacles of its giant corporations”
 “The machinations of its CIA”
 “Davids to the Goliaths of capitalism”
Effect: these strong images help to portray her message as a poet. Levertov presents the
corporations and the CIA as cold and inhuman, reiterating her message that war is evil. In the
David and Goliath quote she is celebrating the struggles of those who resist the system, and the
heroism of these people, in terms common to all of her audience.
Pattern of three
 “All we say, feel and do”
 “This evil, this blight, this war”
 “Angela Davis, Dan and Phil Berrigan, Cesar Chavez”
 “Stop the bombing. Declare peace. Change the system.”
Effect: these phrases are short and direct, and once again aim to highlight the atrocity and evil of
war. The list of people shows some examples of those who have chosen resistance. The final three
sentences are simple, direct and powerful, reiterating the need for inner and outer change.
Inclusive language
 “Us”, “we” repeated
 “Our whole lives”
 “My fellow human beings”
Effect: these phrases create a sense of unity and solidarity between Levertov, her audience and
those affected by the war. They aim to make the “enemy” (the government, CIA etc) seem
inhuman and distant from the people.
Reception
At the time, there were mixed reactions to Levertov’s speech. Those from the television station would
have received her address with horror as she was highly damning of them. Her speech was welcomed by
those on the left side of politics and hated by those on the right. She could persuade a moderate or a
liberal, but not a right-wing capitalist, due to her condemnation of these people. Now, we can draw
connections between Levertov’s burning indictment of America as an aggressive nation during the Vietnam
War, and the way we see American behaving on a global scale today, in places such as Iraq and
Afghanistan. Levertov’s speech is a crisis speech, and now, we can be impartial and dispassionate as we are
not directly involved, and value her speech as an outstanding piece of oratory.
7. Atwood – “Spotty-handed villainesses”
Speaker
Atwood is a famous Canadian author and poet. She is also a feminist writer and influential member of the
feminist movement – however, she has spoken against those extremist feminists who believe women
should dress like men in order to proclaim their equality.
Context
A speech given “here and there” to educated audiences in 1994.
What speech is about
 Women in literature
 Feminism and the perceived view of being evil
 Themes: women in society, literature reflecting reality
Techniques
Personal anecdote
 “I did, after all, have curls”
 Her daughter putting on a play in which nothing happened but breakfast
Effect: introduces a personal tone to the speech, making it more accessible and interesting to the
audience, while also giving examples of the literature she is talking about.
Colloquialism
 “Flogging a few dead horses”
 “No-no’s of writing”
 “Authors need to get some words down before they can fiddle with them”
 “Female-obilia”
Effect: makes the speech more engaging and of more interest to the audience, and also adds a
humorous edge to the speech. The conversational tone of the piece ensures that Atwood is able to
keep the audience’s attention.
Literary references
 Lady Macbeth, Ophelia, Imogen, Iago
 Emily Dickinson – “we tell it slant”
 Shaw, Ibsen, Pinter, Warhol
 Henry James, Bram Stoker’s Dracula
Effect: these references are specific examples used to illustrate Atwood’s arguments and back them
up. They also help to engage her audience, who are highly educated.
Rhetorical questions
 “Is it not today – well, somehow unfeminist – to depict a woman behaving badly?”
 “What kind of something?”
 “How do I know this?”
 “How should I go about creating them?”
Effect: these rhetorical questions prompt the audience into thought, inviting consideration of the
possible responses to the questions. They also introduce to the audience the topic of each section.
Reception
Because her speech was originally given to an academic audience, they greatly valued it because of its
abundant literary references and because of Atwood’s insightful messages about feminism. The speech is
continually valued for the same reasons, and also for its intelligent humour.
8. Havel – “A contaminated moral environment”
Speaker
Havel was a playwright and essayist in Czechoslovakia, and the leader of Civic Reform.
Context
1990 – the peaceful Velvet Revolution to remove the oppressive Communist government has taken place
and after becoming the interim president for a year, Havel has been elected president of Czechoslovakia.
What speech is about
 Stating his democratic goals
 Illustrating the wrongs of the removed government
 Showing that nobody is blameless
 Presenting an idea of hope for the future
 Themes: oppression, totalitarianism, individual rights, democracy, social action
Techniques
Repetition
 “We”, “us” (referring to the population)
 “Moral”
 “Let us”
Effect: the repetition of inclusive words serves to unify his audience and show that they must work
together for the success of a peaceful, free Czechoslovakia. He repeats the word “moral” to
remind the audience what the speech is about, and of the moral regeneration needed in
Czechoslovakia. His repetition helps to re-iterate his message for the audience
Imagery
 “Armed with its arrogant and intolerant ideology”
 “Nuts and bolts of some monstrously huge, noisy and stinking machine”
 “Totalitarian machinery”
 “Totalitarian yoke”
Effect: the continued negative imagery relating to the previous government helps to demonstrate
their evil in a way that is accessible to the audience.
Historical references
 Masaryk (first president of independent Czechoslovakia pre-WWI and father figure of nation)
 Ends with a quote from Komensky (“great Czech educator”) – “people, your government has
returned to you!”
 “At one time we were the spiritual crossroads of Europe”
Effect: gives the audience a vision of what Czechoslovakia can return to – the greatness from which
it has originated – and appeals to the audience’s patriotism to inspire hope in them.
Emotive language
 “Cry out loud”
 “Love, friendship, compassion”
 “Contaminated”
 “Horrors”
 “Gentle revolution”
Effect: the contrast of negative emotive language for the past forty years and the positive language
for the future creates a sense of hope and a sense that a new era is beginning.
Reception
This speech was valued by the audience it was given to because they had suffered greatly under
communism and welcomed the idea that democracy was coming to their country. However, it would also
have been difficult to listen to because Havel does not simply vilify the communist regime, but claims that
they were all a part of making it work by not speaking out against it. The speech is valued today because of
its idealistic messages about democracy and Havel’s articulation and intelligence.
9. Keating – “Funeral service of the unknown Australian soldier”
Speaker
Keating was a Labor prime minister during the early 1990s and an intellectual.
Context
Remembrance Day (11th November) 1993, at the Funeral Service of the Unknown Australian Soldier:
remembrance for all Australians who have suffered or died in armed conflict. This year (1993) was the 75th
anniversary of the WWI armistice. Present at the occasion would have been politicians, representatives of
the armed forces and other distinguished guests.
What speech is about
 Honouring and remembering the Australian war dead, without seeking to glorify war
 Themes: honour and remembrance, patriotism, war
Techniques
Repetition
 “We do not know” x6
 “One of the _ Australians”
 “We have lost”, “we have gained”
 The pronoun “he”
Effect: in stating all that is unknown about him, Keating builds up a picture of an ordinary person
who served his nation, thus invoking the audience’s patriotism. He builds an image of the ordinary
Australians who became heroes and this is reinforced by the repetitive, emphatic phrases used
throughout the piece. Repeating the pronoun “he” personalises Keating’s argument.
Inclusive language
 “We”, “us”
 “He is one of us”
 “On all sides”
 “All those men and women”
Effect: Keating creates a sense of unity in his audience, and links this to patriotism by the phrase
“one of us”. This also shows that Australia’s war dead have become part of our national identity.
Emotive language
 “Vast and all-consuming”
 “Mad, brutal, awful struggle”
 “Transcended the horror and tragedy and inexcusable folly”
 “Enshrine a nation’s love of peace”
Effect: the positive diction associates the soldiers with heroism and invokes the audience’s
patriotism, and contrasts greatly with the bleak view of war given by the negative diction, to show
war’s futility and the fact that the glory lay among the lower ranks, rather than among those
commanding them.
Statistics
 “45 000 Australians who died on the Western Front”
 “416 000 Australians who volunteered in WWI”
 “324 000 Australians who served overseas in the war”
 “60 000 Australians who died on foreign soil”
 “100 000 Australians have died in wars this century”
Effect: the statistics inspire pride in Australians, by showing the vast contribution of Australians to
international war efforts. They also authenticate Keating’s claims.
Reception
This speech was, and is, considered to be one of the great Australian speeches, because it is not a
triumphalist speech and because it recognises and commemorates the great contribution of Australians
while still maintaining that war is something that should be avoided at all costs.
10. Pearson – “An Australian history for us all”
Speaker
Pearson is an Aboriginal academic, who is an activist for Aboriginal issues but is also critical of some
aspects of the Aboriginal community (e.g. the high rate of reliance on welfare), and advocates increased
responsibility for the Aboriginal community.
Context
1996 – UWS Chancellor’s Club Dinner (academia) – a convivial atmosphere. In 1992, the Mabo decision
invalidated “terra nullius” and gave Aboriginal people the right to claim Native Title where it had not
already ceased. The Wik decision in 1996 extended the Mabo findings, saying that Native Title could
coexist with pastoral leases, but where there was conflict, pastoral lease would prevail. These were the
first times legislation and case law recognised Aboriginals as the first inhabitants of Australia. Also in this
year, PM Howard criticised the “black armband” view of history, which caused debate over how
Australians should respond to their past.
What speech is about
 Reflection of history debate (above)
 Themes: reconciliation, guilt, responsibility and racism
 Argues reconciliation is not about “laying the blame” – about recognising injustices and bearing
responsibility
 Shows he does not advocate black armband, but is critical of Howard
Techniques
Colloquialism
 “Hot button issue”
 “Prideful bits”
 “Opening our hearts a little bit”
 “Live and let live”
Effect: the speech is formal but these colloquialisms help to appeal to a wider audience than just the
academics he is directly addressing, making it more accessible to all Australians by giving it a more
Australian flavour.
Direct quoting
 Howard, Senator Herron (Minister for Aboriginal Affairs) to demonstrate the views held by the
government and the nature of public opinion.
 High Court justices Deane, Gaudron and Brennan to back up his claims with the views of
respected, authoritative public figures.
 Keating – demonstrating the progress made while he was PM.
 Academics Robert Hughes and Professor Bill Stanner – to validate his claims.
 Acknowledges Schroeder, the academic who taught him – courteous – also subtly establishes
his own academic credentials and pays tribute to his teacher.
 Longest quote is a letter from an Aboriginal writer who emotively challenges the white
domination – Pearson uses it as a tool for emotionalism and outrage – by means of the letter
he conveys a far more emotive attitude.
 Political figures – presenting the debate as a political issue.
Repetition
 “Ordinary Australians” – to make speech inclusive of greater Australian population and make
the speech more accessible.
 “Us”, “we”, “our” – in relation to Aboriginals – to declare solidarity with Aboriginals and to
compel the population to unity and reconciliation.
 Notion of “open hearts” – to reinforce Keating’s message that reconciliation is about
compassion and acknowledgement rather than guilt.
 “Hot button” cliché – drawing attention to the fact that reconciliation is a major Australian
issue and to engage the audience with colloquial language.
Negative diction
 “Stupid”, “ungracious and insensitive” to attack Howard’s views of reconciliation and his
promotion of acquiescence and that Australians don’t want to feel guilt.
 “Derogation and diminution”, “a legacy of unutterable shame” to describe and emphasise the
historical suffering of the Aboriginal people.
Effect: this negative diction is an attacking device against those whose views he opposes, e.g.
Howard.
Reception
Pearson’s speech would have been received with controversy because of the debate going on at the time
about how Australians should respond to their past, and because of his condemnation of key public figures
such as Howard. However, the speech is valued for its logical and persuasive argument about Australian
history, and its balanced and open-minded views on the topic.
11. Suu Kyi – “Keynote address at the Beijing World Conference on
Women”
Speaker
Aung San Suu Kyi, daughter of General Aung San who fought for Burma’s independence, is the key figure in
Burma’s National League for Democracy. Since winning national elections in 1990 (by 82%, but she was
not given power from the reigning Junta), she has been in and out of house arrest. She is very peaceful and
positive and a staunch Buddhist. She advocates peaceful resistance.
Context
1995, Beijing – her audience is women (and men) around the globe. Her speech was read on video
because she cannot leave Burma.
What speech is about
 Analysing the role of women in the political process, and around the world
 Providing an analytical overview of the global forces affecting the quality of life of the human
community, and the challenges these pose for the oppressed
 The international liberation of women
 Themes: role of women in society, tolerance
Techniques
Word choice
 “Not least among these obstacles are intolerance and insecurity”
 “War toys of grown men”
 “Disinformation engendered by men”
 “The human race is not divided into two opposing camps of good and evil. It is made up of
those who are capable of learning, and those who are incapable of doing so.”
Effect: Her word choice ensures that her speech is not aggressive or overly passionate. By
maintaining an elegant, gender inclusive argument her speech is dignified, positive and peaceful. She
avoids the labels of good and evil and avoids preaching. By not allowing her passion to manifest
itself in the form of anger or aggression, her language is unifying and powerful. Her word choice is
simple, direct and clear. Her linguistic attacking devices are very subtle (e.g. “war toys of grown
men”) so as not to appear aggressive.
Listing
 “Peace, security, human rights and democracy”
 “Tolerance, human rights, democracy and peace”
 “Productivity, equity, sustainability and empowerment”
Effect: Suu Kyi uses lists of powerful, weighty abstracts to emphasise and reiterate her message.
They also resonate her theme and her peaceful nature, and what she sees to be the most
important of the issues for the human race to move towards.
Personalising of argument
 “My own experience during the years I have been engaged in the democracy movement in
Burma has convinced me of the need to emphasise the positive aspects of tolerance”
 “The struggle for democracy and human rights in Burma is a struggle for life and dignity”
 “In my country at present…”
 “The Buddhist pavarana ceremony”
Effect: Suu Kyi supports and justifies her argument by bearing personal witness to her message. Her
reference to Buddhism combines the desire for religious truth with modern democracy and the
desire for a democratic process, particularly in Burma. By giving a specific example of a nation, she
is appealing to the global community and also re-iterating the message that there is a global instinct
for peace.
Authoritative evidence
 UN quotes: “Human security is not a concern with weapons – it is a concern with human life
and dignity”
 Statistical: “14 out of the 485 elected MPs were women… less than 3% of the total successful
candidates”
 Scientific: “recent scientific research on the human brain has revealed that women are better at
verbal skills while men tend towards physical action”
Effect: by giving concrete evidence, Suu Kyi is supporting her claims. Scientific research and
statistics are seen as validation. It shows the logical structure and development of her argument and
supports it with recognised authority.
Reception
Suu Kyi’s speech was greatly valued by her original audience because she was addressing a world
conference on women, where the issues she spoke about were particularly important. Her speech is
continuingly relevant because of its peaceful nature, and because it gives an insight into what are some of
the most important issues facing the world today – and always – without placing blame on any person or
group.
12. McAleese – “The defence of freedom”
Speaker
Mary McAleese is the president of Ireland. She grew up in Northern Ireland amongst Protestant and
Catholic unrest. She also worked in the areas of justice, equality, reconciliation and anti-sectarianism as a
lawyer.
Context
1998 – the speech was delivered to a Massachusetts audience (an area highly concentrated with Irish
people) of academics.
What speech is about
 The human right of free speech and the troubles this poses when translated into everyday life and
into the world.
Techniques
Emotive language
 “Chaos”
 “Hate”
 “Personally oppressive and humiliating”
 “Appalling violence”
Effect: by using negative emotive language to describe the possible effects of free speech on others,
McAleese gives her audience a clear picture of its potentially oppressive nature.
Authoritative references
 Magna Carta, 1628
 UN Declaration on Human Rights
 First Amendment to the American Constitution
 Article 40 of the Irish Constitution
Effect: McAleese, a lawyer, uses these legal references continually throughout her speech to
construct and demonstrate her argument. This gives her information full credibility.
Specific examples
 “This year’s trouble at Drumcree” – an orange march resulting in 3 children to be burned to
death
 Robert Viktora, who put a burning cross in the yard of a black family, had 1st Amendment rights
upheld and wasn’t persecuted
 Nazi march through Jewish town in Skokie, Illinois, supported by 1st Amendment
 The experience of women “having something to say but saying it to a brick wall in a society
dominated my men”
Effect: these examples back up McAleese’s arguments about the oppressive effect of too much free
speech and show the types of problems that can arise.
Rhetorical questions
 “If all citizens are to be equally accorded fundamental freedom of speech than must we be
prepared to tolerate marches by people whose views we disagree with?”
 “What of the silent places into which they creep – fearful for their present and terrified for
their future?”
 “What does it mean to children to tell them that their oppressors were exercising their
freedom of speech, and that the state defends their right to do so?”
Effect: McAleese’s questions prompt her audience into thought, to consider the problems posed by
free speech and how the right can be enhanced. It also allows the audience to reflect on those who
are “at the receiving end of hate speech.”
Reception
McAleese’s speech would have been valued by her audience because they were in an academic capacity
and were largely Irish, so the references to legal texts and also to various Irish examples of her message. It
can be valued by modern audiences because it is a modern text, and also because its argument is logical,
balanced and insightful and gives a new view of the issue of free speech.