Elements of Literature – Grade 9
Short Story Unit
Definition: According to Edgar Allan Poe a short story is a work that yields a single
overall “effect” and is short enough to be read in one sitting. A short story takes time to
establish a setting and develop characters. Short stories have the power to move or
deeply effect and make an impact on the reader. (Impact: Fifty Short Short Stories, Holt,
Rinehart and Winston, 1996)
I. Plot
plot - a series of related events or actions in a story
plot diagram –
a. exposition – gives the reader important background information; the setting (the
time, place, and circumstances that form the background of a story and often
reveal tone (the attitude a writer takes toward the subject, characters and audience
of a work) and mood (the emotional quality in a piece of literature)), characters,
and conflict (a problem or struggle of some kind that may be internal or external
in nature) are introduced
 internal conflict – struggles within the heart and mind of a character
(person v. self)
 external conflict – struggles between a character and outside forces
(person v. person, person v. society, person v. technology, person v.
supernatural)
b. rising action – series of events leading to the climax
c. climax – the point of greatest excitement or intensity in a story (the emotional
high point)
d. falling action – series of events leading to the resolution
e. resolution – the final part of the story that makes clear the outcome of the conflict
II. Character
protagonist – main character
antagonist – person or thing the main character struggles against
characterization – the way an author presents a character
 direct characterization – the writer tells the reader directly what a
character is like or what a person’s motives are

indirect characterization – the writer allows the reader to draw their
own conclusions about a character by describing the character’s
physical appearance; showing the character’s actions and words;
revealing the character’s thoughts; and showing how the character is
treated by others
credibility – characters must be believable and must behave like real people
consistency – if a character undergoes a change there must be sufficient reason to explain
it
motivation – a reason to account for a character’s actions; can be motivated by outside
forces or inner needs
static character – a character who does not change or grow in any meaningful way
dynamic character – a character who undergoes some important change or growth
stock character – a character who appears frequently in literature and conforms to a set
pattern (ex., wicked stepmother, absent-minded professor)
flat character – a character that only has one or two character traits
round character – a character who has several sides to his or her personality
III. Narrator and Point-of-View
narrator – the person who tells a story
point-of-view – the angle from which a story is told
first-person point-of-view – the narrator is a character in the story and speaks as “I”
 the character can reveal his or her feelings, thoughts and observations,
but cannot get into the minds of other characters
 the reader sees the events from the vantage point of only one character
 the reader must determine whether the narrator’s impressions are to be
trusted
first-person observer – the story is told by someone who is an observer of the action
rather than a main character
 the narrator cannot see into the characters’ minds and read their
thoughts
 the narrator is free to comment on the action and does not have to be
an objective witness
third-person point-of-view – the story is told by an outside observer who does not play a
role in the events and is told using “he” or “she”
third-person omniscient – the story is told by an all-knowing observer who knows what
all the characters can see, hear, think, and feel and comments on the action
third-person limited – the story is told from the point of view of only one character
 instead of learning what all the characters see, feel, and think, readers
get their information from one character’s viewpoint
 the reader is brought closer to one character and feel as if they are
inside that character’s mind
objective point-of-view – the story is told from the point of view of an observer who
witnesses the action but offers no commentary or interpretation of the events
 the narrator tells the reader what the characters say and do but does not
reveal their thoughts and feelings
 the narrator maintains distance from the story
unreliable narrator – a narrator who is biased and does not (or cannot) tell the truth)
IV. Theme
theme – the central idea, or insight about life that a story reveals
 usually not stated directly and therefore must be inferred
 not every story has a theme
 often revealed by the way the conflict in the story is resolved
 makes some revelation about the subject (the topic)
universal themes – deal with the basic human concerns such as good and evil, life and
death, etc.
V. Irony and Ambiguity
verbal irony – when a character says one thing but means something entirely different
dramatic irony – when the reader knows something that a character in the story does not
know
situational irony – when there is a contrast between what is expected to happen and what
actually happens
ambiguity – the reader is offered several conflicting consequences or meanings and is left
to sort them out
VI. Symbolism and Allegory
symbol – an ordinary object, event, person, or animal to which extraordinary meaning or
significance has been attached
allegory – a story in which characters, settings, and actions stand for something beyond
themselves
 sometimes the characters and setting represent abstract ideas or moral
qualities
 can be read on two levels – 1) literal, or straightforward meaning, 2)
symbolic, or allegorical meaning
 often intended to teach a moral lesson or to make a comment about
goodness and vice
VII. Additional Elements
foreshadowing – hints that the writer gives of what is to come later in the story
suspense – the element that keeps readers guessing about the outcome of events
allusion – references to features of a culture that writers expect their readers to recognize
flashback – an interruption in a narrative to relate an action that has already occurred