GENDER AND DISABLITY IN ETHIOPIA
An article extracted from the book entitled
"Disability in Ethiopia: Issues, Insights and Implications"
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, Addis Ababa Printing Press
Tirussew Teferra, PhD, Professor of Special Needs Education
Addis Ababa University, 2005
Introduction
In this chapter, an attempt is made to present a result of an empirical study conducted on gender
issues and disability in Ethiopia. It tries to describe the nature of gender disparity that exits
between men and women with disabilities in the country. Furthermore, it makes a contextual
analysis of the issue and relates with other related literature in the subject and suggests
implications for policy and practice.
The discrepancies that exist in the livelihood of persons with disabilities and non-disabled persons
is by and large attributable to the general public attitude which is predominately characterized by
enduring stereotyped gender roles. A sample study conducted on the attitude of the society
towards persons with disabilities in Ethiopia has revealed mixed, but predominantly negative
attitudes toward individuals with disabilities (Tirussew et al., 1995). As gender stereotyping,
negative attitude toward women, is very common in a patriarchal traditional society (Fellows,
1993), this negative bias is also assumed to be true for women with disabilities. Studies confirm
that although men and women with disabilities are subject to discrimination, women with disabilities
are at a further disadvantage because of the combined discrimination based on gender and
discrimination based on disability (Traustadottir, 1990). Reports indicate that women with
disabilities are doubly marginalized by their communities and organizations at the national and
international level, and indeed are worse off than men with disabilities as well as their non-disable
sisters. This gender and disability based discrimination has brought up a “double disability” for
women with disabilities (Abu-Habib, 1997). Women with disabilities may not have equal right to
-1-
share the meager resources available for persons with disabilities or to enjoy different privileges
men with disabilities possess.
The process of attitude formation is composed of cognitive, affective and behavioral components
intertwined with one another. It is an important concept that helps people to understand their social
world. Attitude formations define how we perceive and think about others, as well as how we
behave toward them. Many definitions for attitude exist. These definitions often include the
component of enduring evaluations of people, objects or issues. A widely accepted definition of an
attitude is offered by Judd, Ryan, and Parke, (1991) who believe that attitudes can be viewed as
"evaluations of various objects that are stored in memory”. According to the tri-component model,
an attitude includes affect (a feeling), cognition (a thought), and behavior (an action). Most
psychologists concur that attitudes are learned through mere exposure, conditioning and
socialization. Specifically, attitudes can be acquired from others (social learning) in the form of
classical conditioning, instrumental conditioning, and modeling as well as being acquired via direct
experience (Forsyth, 1995).
The process of socialization plays an important role in the development of attitudes. In early life
we learn through reinforcement of our behavior those attitudes which are acceptable to our parents
and siblings. We learn to practice those behaviors which yield positive results and avoid those
which produce negative consequences. We also learn though imitation (modeling) of others,
including our parents and siblings. Social learning suggests that we can learn simply by
observation, watching the rewards and punishments other people reap from their behavior as well
as deducing from their behavior what kind of behavior on our part is likely to be viewed positively
by them, thus gaining our acceptance (Underwood, 2003). This definition implies that one's
interaction with others, such as parents, siblings, teachers, peers, and relatives and our
newspapers, books, television and religious groups can affect our attitudes toward various objects.
In this context, the way people think about disability and persons with disabilities (like
misconceptions about causes and capacities of persons with disabilities), the feelings people about
individuals with disabilities (such as likes, dislikes, compassion and hostility) and the way people
interact with persons with disability (like closeness or proximity, distance or exclusion) is important
-2-
(Bronfenbrenner, 1986; Mitchell & Brown, 1991). Previous studies in Ethiopia have confirmed the
prevalence of stereotyped gender role discrimination (Anne, 1993; Abebayehu, 1995) as well as
negative attitude towards persons with disabilities (Tirussew et al., 1995). Like any attitude,
prejudice can be looked at from the tri-component model. This would suggest that prejudice
consists of an affective and cognitive component, while discrimination serves as the behavioral
component (Forsyth, 1995).
As indicated on the foregoing, it is important to note that attitudes and prejudices are learned or
acquired through the socialization process, social modeling, observational learning and other
learning processes. That is, a person’s attitude towards disability or gender has a social base. It is
connected with the person’s family and educational background, school experience, peer influence,
community and religious orientation as well as the exposure to print and electronic media. Social
construct, being the root cause for withholding wrong belief or attitude towards disability, has
brought a serious consequence in lives of persons with disabilities in Ethiopia. Unfounded beliefs,
negative values and misperceptions have been the basis for perpetuating the exclusion of persons,
especially women, with disabilities from the mainstream of society. Their effects are manifested in
different subtle ways. Some of the areas in which discrimination of persons with disabilities occur
are:

Social situations (in terms of family formation, range of participation in community,
political, culture and recreational affairs much of it being gender-specific );

Educational and training opportunities (these are often reserved for men;

Employment prospects (also usually gender based ); and

Accessibility to public services (such as public accommodations or buildings,
transportation, information and communication, recreation and sports centers)
In Ethiopia, among the millions of people with various kinds of disabilities, only very few are
beneficiaries of governmental and non-governmental services. For instance, studies on the
education of children with disabilities indicate the less than one percent of the school age children
with disabilities have access to education (Tirussew, 1993). The UN’s Standard Rules for the
Equalization of Opportunities for Persons with Disabilities clearly states that general educational
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authorities are responsible for the education of persons with disabilities, and should ensure that
girls, boys, women and men with disabilities have the same rights and obligations as others (UN,
1994). Equality between women and men is a matter of human rights and a condition for social
justice, and is also a necessary and fundamental prerequisite for equality, development and peace.
The Convention of the Right of the Child Article 23, sub-item 1, stipulates that children who are
mentally or physically disabled should enjoy a full and decent life, in conditions which ensure
dignity, promote self-reliance and facilitate the child’s active participation in the community (UN,
1989). In the Platform for Action and the Beijing Declaration, it is noted that the girl-child with
disabilities faces additional barriers and needs to be ensured non-discrimination and equal access
to all human rights and fundamental freedoms (UN, 1996).
Women with disabilities have historically been neglected by disability studies and feminist
scholarship alike, and issues of importance to women with disabilities have, for the most part, been
largely ignored by the disability rights movement as well as the women's movement. Most research
on people with disabilities has assumed the irrelevance of gender as well as other social
dimensions such as social class, race, ethnicity, and sexual orientation (Traustadottir, 1990). It is
true that persons with disabilities, whether a boy or a girl, a man or a woman face many obstacles
in their struggle for equality in Ethiopia. However, in Ethiopia, as it is true for females without
disabilities, females with disabilities encounter socio-cultural barriers which limit the degree of their
participation in mainstream society.
Studies conducted in the past decades revealed that cultural, social and political factors have
contributed to under-participation, under-achievement and under- representation of girls and
women with disabilities as compared to males with disabilities (Abu-Habib, 1997). Although
lobbying for the rights, services, education and employment of persons with disability in general is
of utmost importance and long overdue, such work has a very limited use for the females with
disabilities if they suffer from discrimination differently(Abu-Habib, 1997). Women and girls with
disabilities find themselves in the worst sort of profound isolation when their rights are neglected
because of their gender. This is the phenomenon, which is nowadays considered as double
discrimination or “double disability”.
-4-
Only within the last decade have serious attempts have been made to understand the forces that
shape the lives of women with disabilities. These attempts have revealed women with disabilities
as one of the most vulnerable and marginalized groups in today's society (Traustadottir, 1990). In
Ethiopia, it is unfortunate that most disability related reports do not present their data shown by
gender, making it almost impossible to make gender analyses. It is difficult to reach conclusions
about the situation of women and girls with disabilities in the country without undertaking a genderbased empirical study. In order to examine the prevalence of gender-based issues related to
disability or double discrimination with regard to females with disabilities, this exploratory study was
conducted. Its purpose was to investigate the issue and shed light on the nature and scale of the
problem as well as its implications for policy and practice in Ethiopia.
Method
This study was conducted between February and May 1999 in Addis Ababa. It involved persons
with hearing, visual, and motor impairments. A total of 180 questionnaires were sent and 164 were
completed and returned. Of a total of 190 participants, 164 completed questionnaires, 23
participated in focus-group discussions, and 3 were involved in case studies. Those who
completed the questionnaires constitute persons with: hearing impairment (29 females and 29
males), visual impairment (27 females and 27 males) and motor impairment (26 females and 26
males). They were drawn from three major production and rehabilitation centers of persons with
disabilities in Addis Ababa. The centers were United Abilities Company, Misrach, and Ethio-Craft.
All copies of the questionnaires were filled and returned by all 164 informants. The participants in
the focus-group discussions were drawn from the female branch of the three national associations
of persons with disabilities, which include the Ethiopian National Association of the Deaf, the
Ethiopian National Association of the Blind and the Ethiopian National Association of the Physically
Handicapped; three separate focus-group discussions were held. Finally, the three case studies
were conducted with women selected from the respective national associations.
Results
Demographics of the Participants
Gender, Age and Religion
-5-
The age of the participants in this study ranges from 18 to 50 and above, whereby 59.7% fall in the
age range of 18-39. Among these, the majority (31.7%) belong to the age range between 18-29,
which indicates that most of the participants are at the peak of physical and mental vigor. The
remaining (32.3%) are also in the age bracket of 40-49. Over 98% of the participants are religious
whereby the majority (72%) of them are Orthodox and the rest (24.4% and 2.4%) are Protestants
and Muslims (Table 1).
As indicated previously, the participants who completed the study were drawn from three
production and rehabilitation centers, the United Abilities Company, Misrach and Ethio-Craft. At the
entry point, a study on the sex mix of the beneficiaries of these institutions finds that the number of
males (56.78 %) exceeds that of the females (43.21 %). It is interesting to note that studies
conducted to examine and explain the unequal employment status of women with disabilities as
compared to men with disabilities reveal that women nationally represent only one-third of the
population in rehabilitation programs (Menz et al., 1989).
Table 1: Gender, Age and Religion
Disability Group
No.
1
2
3
Items
Hearing
Visual
Motor
Total
No.
%
No.
%
No.
%
No.
%
Male
29
50
27
50
26
50
82
50
Female
29
50
27
50
26
50
82
50
Total
58
100
54
100
52
100
164
100
18-29
22
37.9
18
33.3
12
23.1
52
31.7
30-39
21
36.2
12
22.2
13
25
46
28
40-49
12
20.7
19
35.2
22
42.3
53
32.3
50 >
1
1.7
3
5.6
5
9.6
9
5.5
No Response
2
3.4
2
3.7
-
-
4
2.4
Total
58
100
54
100
52
100
164
100
Sex
Age
Religion
-6-
Orthodox
34
58.6
44
81.5
40
76.9
118
72
Muslim
2
3.4
2
3.7
-
-
4
2.4
Protestant
20
34.5
8
14.8
12
23.1
40
24.4
Others
2
3.4
-
-
-
-
2
1.2
Total
58
100
54
100
52
100
164
100
Educational Profile of the Participants
The data in Table 2 depict that except for 15.9% of the females, all the participants were found to
be literate (ranging from church education to college education). When the percentage of the
literate is further segregated by gender and educational level, the following profile is observed:
37.8% of the males and 26.8% of the females have primary education, 46.3% of the males and
37.8% of the females have secondary education, 12.2% and 6.1% of the males and females are
respectively diploma holders (two years post secondary education), and 2.4% of the females are
first degree holders (four years post secondary education).The data clearly portray that the
enrollment rate as well as the participation rate of women with disabilities across all levels of
education is by far lower than that of men with disabilities. However, it was an exception and not
the rule to find two women with disabilities exceeding men with disabilities in tertiary education
(Table 2 below ). Studies confirm higher education continues to be a challenge for women with
disabilities. Like men with disabilities, they face accessibility problems; unwillingness on behalf of
educational institutions to provide accommodations for disabilities and lack of special services such
as readers for blind students (Russo and Jansen, 1988).
Table 2: Educational Background of Participants
Items
Hearing
Visual
-7-
Motor
Total
Male
Female
Male
No. %
No. %
No
%
Female
Male
No. %
No
.
%
.
Female
Male
No
No
%
.
Female
%
.
No
%
.
No
education
-
-
10
34.5
-
-
2
7.4
-
-
1
3.9
-
-
13
15.
9
Grade 1-8
11
37.9
8
27.6
10
37
5
18.
10
5
38.
9
5
34.
31
6
37.
22
8
26.
8
Grade
9-12
12
41.4
11
37.9
15
55.
10
37
1
6
Diploma
6
20.7
-
-
1
3.7
10
3
5
18.
3
5
B.A.
42.
11.
38.
38
5
-
-
46.
31
3
10
5
12.
37.
8
5
6.0
2
-
-
-
-
-
-
2
7.4
-
-
-
-
-
-
2
2.4
-
-
-
-
1
3.7
3
11.
2
7.7
6
23.
3
3.7
9
10.
Church
education
1
Total
29
100
29
100
27
100 27
100 26
1
100 82
100 82
Additional information is available about enrolment rate of children with disabilities in three
special schools, three special classes, one special center and one inclusive school in Addis
Ababa (Alpha l School for the Deaf, Menlik II Primary School, Yekatit 23 Primary School,
Mekanisa School for the Deaf, Mekane Yesus for Mentally Retarded Children, Sebeta School
for the Blind, Kokebe Tsibah Primary School and German Church School ). These data, across
-8-
9
100 82
100
for three consecutive academic years reveals gender disparity among children with disabilities
(Table 3).
Table 3: Gross Enrolment Rate (Grade 1-8, 1995/1999)
Disability Types
Male
Female
Total
No.
%
No.
%
No.
%
Children with Hearing Impairment
1032
53.4
899
46.6
1931
100
Children with Mental Retardation
826
54.2
697
45.8
1523
100
Children with Visual Impairment
512
60.4
336
39.6
848
100
Total
2370
55.1
1932
44.9
4302
100
This data consistently confirmed that the enrollment rate of female children with disabilities is lower than that of
male children with disabilities. The trend holds very true without exception across all children with different
types of disabilities. On the other hand, the finding in the pattern of gross drop out rate tended to be in contrast
to the pattern of enrollment rate of children with disabilities (Table 4).
That is, the drop-out of female with hearing and visual disabilities s lower than their male counterparts while that
of the drop-out rate of children with mental retardation is same for both genders.
Table 4: Gross Drop-out Rate (Grade 1-8, 1995/1999)
-9-
Disability Types
Male
Female
Total
No.
%
No.
%
No.
%
Children with Hearing Impairment
86
8.3
67
7.4
153
7.9
Children with Mental Retardation
32
3.8
27
3.8
59
3.8
Children with Visual Impairment
16
3.1
14
4.1
30
3.5
Total
134
5.6
108
5.6
242
5.6
An inspection of the Table above depicts that children with hearing impairment suffered high dropout rates compared to children with other disabilities. This may be caused problems of teaching
methodology, particularly the use of sign language. It is also important to note that the drop-out
rate of children with disabilities in the special schools and special classes is by far lower than the
drop-out rate of children with out disabilities in regular schools. Again this is an area of further
investigation, but one can guess that girls or women with disabilities may have almost no
opportunity for employment or independent living, if they do not prevail in schools. Generally, as life
is challenging and difficult for girls and women especially for those with disabilities in the country,
they may perceive educational empowerment as the only means for success in life.
Early Familial Psycho-social Conditions
A retrospective study on the encounters of gender-based discriminatory treatment at the family
level revealed that 80.5% of the females and 76.8% of the males have a good relationship with
their parents. On the other hand, some of the participants have disclosed a prevalence of hostile
relationships with their parents (Table 4). Though the findings show differences on the type of early
familial relationships, a good number of the participants of both genders tend to agree that they
had good early familial experience.
- 10 -
Table 4: Early Psycho-social Conditions
Items
Total
Male
Understanding Relationships
Female
No.
%
No.
%
Strongly agree
45
54.9
37
45.1
Agree
21
25.6
26
31.7
Disagree
9
11
11
13.4
Strongly Disagree
6
7.3
5
6.1
No Response
1
1.2
3
3.7
82
100
82
100
No.
%
No.
Strongly agree
21
25.6
15
18.3
Agree
16
19.5
19
23.2
Disagree
17
20.7
20
24.4
Strongly Disagree
27
32.9
27
32.9
No Response
1
1.2
1
1.2
82
100
82
100
Total
Hostile Relationships
Total
A t-test result based on weighted responses of the Likert type scale has shown that no statistically
significant gender-based differences were observed in the type of relationship with parents among
individuals with hearing (p>0.5) impairment and those with motor impairments (p>0.8).
Statistically significant gender differences were observed among individuals with visual
impairments (p<0.1). When early familial psycho-social conditions of the three disability groups are
considered together by gender, no statistically significant differences were found (P>0.1) (Table 5).
Table 5: T-test Result on the Prevalence of Mutual
Understanding
Variables
Cases
Mean
SD
2-Tail
Sig.
- 11 -
t-value
Hearing Impairment
Female
29
3.7586
.636
Male
29
3.6552
.670
Female
26
3.5000
.648
Male
24
3.5417
.658
Female
27
3.4815
.580
Male
27
3.0370
.649
Female
80
3.4125
.706
Male
82
3.5854
.628
.549
.60
.823
.21
.011
-.23
.102
1.65
Motor Impairment
Visual Impairment
Total
(a=0.05)
With regard to the early familial psycho-social conditions, individuals in two of the three case
studies had hostile and painful relationships with their parents. The following two captions highlight
the nature of relationship they had with their parents in their early years.
From the case study conducted with a 20 year old deaf woman has the following to say:
I was the only one who faced the greatest psychological and social problem at home.
There has been an open discrimination and oppression of me at home. Most of the
time, when my sister watches TV and when my brother listens to music, I am ordered to
prepare and serve coffee. This has created a bad feeling in my life. I was overburdened
by household activities and was not allowed even to meet relatives and I was forced to
hide myself. I was forced to stay all the time at home because my parents thought that I
could not trace the route back home. I usually do not interact with any member of the
family, I either engaged my self in doing household chores or indulging in solitary
activities such as reading.
From the case a case studies of a woman of 27 years old with motor disorders (with Rheumatic
Arthritis):
- 12 -
[My father] has never had a good mood with me and he had lost his hope about my future life. He
had the misconception especially about my education that it would never be worthwhile.
Furthermore, my relatives were also forcing me to lose hope and give up everything and stay at
home. They were doing this by discouraging words. [My mother would say]: "Is there anything you
don't get at home? Why do you want to learn? What is the use for you?"
Generally, because of fear of discrimination as well as lack of confidence on the learning capacity
of children with disabilities, most parents prefer not to send their children to school. The tendency
to discourage girls with disability to go school could be explained in terms of the need for their
service at home. The disability could be used as excuse for not sending her daughter to school, or
making the girl child with disability more vulnerable for home-based child labor.
These are early familial psycho-social impediments which act as obstacles for healthy personality
development and the realization of one's potential. Parents as well as relatives do this out of
ignorance of children’s abilities and misconceptions about disabilities. This suggests the need for a
program for awareness and professional support for parents and members of the family to ensure
that female disabled children have an opportunity for education.
School Based Encounters and Out-of-School Activities
School Based Encounters
The majority of the male and female participants (68.3% and 66.7%) disclosed that there were no
gender based discriminatory treatments made in their respective special schools by their teachers.
Similarly, most of the participants (65.9% of the males and 68.1% of the females) reported that the
school administrators provided equal treatment for the boys as well as the girls. However, unlike
the responses collected through the questionnaire, the focus-group discussion revealed a
different perspective on school-based encounters. The following is the highlight of discussions
about women with disabilities which surfaced in the focus-group discussions held with the female
wing of the three national associations.
- 13 -
Women with Motor Disorders
The participants with motor impairments in the focus-group discussed different problems faced
during their school years. Participants said that non-disabled students did not want to establish
friendship with them, teachers did not treat them like other fellow students, and they faced
continuous discouragement and low expectations from their teachers. Furthermore, physical and
architectural barriers curtailed their mobility in the school compound and classroom. One of the
participants stated the serious nature of the situation as follows:
during my school years, I was completely detached and
lonely. There was no one who was willing to sit and play
with me. While the other students were playing during
the break time, I usually stayed in the classroom and
saw them through the window while playing outside.
Women with Hearing Impairments
Most of the participants with hearing impairments reported that they attended traditional
preschools (orthodox priest schools), whereby they were frequently either rapped on the head or
pinched whenever they made articulation errors. One woman with hearing impairment stated:
“They were not able to understand and appreciate difficulty in the spoken language.
Indeed, that was a bad experience and start for us.”
The teachers in the ordinary secular schools, in spite of knowing the presence of deaf students in
the class, tend to follow rigid instruction which was predominantly verbal. It was reported that the
teachers were not willing to give special attention and support and were generally inconsiderate.
Furthermore, the participants disclosed that there were frequent misunderstandings with
teachers and deaf students, particularly when teachers knew that some deaf children can talk
but are unable to hear. As it is true for the general public, teachers tended to erroneously
generalize by making a misjudgment that those who can speak should also be able to hear.
Teachers misinterpreted these students, feeling that they are joking or trying to cheat them. This
was a source of teacher-student confrontation, at times resulting in verbal assault or physical
- 14 -
punishment for the deaf students. This is particularly true for those students who had become deaf
after their language had developed and were able to talk. There are also reports of incidents that
such children were victims of mistreatment or physical abuse by law enforcement bodies (the
police ) because the overtly misleading behavior of the deaf with speech. Focus-group
participants further pointed out that while interacting with hearing classmates, whenever they made
pronunciation errors their classmates laughed at them. Consequently, they preferred to remain
quiet and passive in class participation. On the way home, they had a lot of bad encounters with
children and teenagers, which include receiving silly remarks, insults (like calling them "dumb") and
teasing by using sign language-like gestures.
Women with visual impairments
The participants reported that while they attended residential school for the blind, teachers, school
administrators and care takers treated students equally regardless of gender. There were
occasions where teachers gave special treatment to girls, particularly when they demonstrated
good academic achievement. It was further noted that unlike the males, females were not
allowed or free to go out of the compound of the boarding school, which ultimately limited their
social interaction and mobility. When they complete eighth grade, that is, around age 15, blind
students start to attend the neighborhood’s regular high school. During this transition period, most
of the participants disclosed that they encountered serious difficulties such as sexual abuse both at
school and on the way to school. It was also unfortunate to note that most of them did not have sex
education and were ignorant about sexual culture.
Among the three focus-group discussions, all except the women with visual impairment indicated
the prevalence of discriminatory treatment during their school years. This occurred mainly in
regular schools in contrast to special schools, and probably also occurred for boys with disabilities
.Until recently, most regular schools did not make special provision and adaptation for students
with motor disorders and hearing impairment. The women with hearing impairment indicated that
lack of instructional materials, inappropriate teaching methods, inconsiderate teachers, and
negative attitude of teachers and students were their major problems. On the other hand, women
with motor impairment mentioned financial, material, and architectural barriers (inaccessibility of
buildings, pathways etc.) as well as the distance from home to school as their main problems.
- 15 -
Blind students were by far better off from than others in terms of gaining special attention and
provision in regular schools. However, that does not imply that they have everything they need at
school.
The focus-group discussion suggests that girls with visual impairments who attended residential
special schools seemed to be favored and encouraged for high academic achievement as
compared to boys with visual impairments. However, according to the focus-group discussion,
unlike the boys with visual impairments, the mobility of girls with visual impairments were confined
to the school compound, limiting their opportunity for social relationships, blocking the desire to
move from place to place, and limiting their knowledge of conditions outside of their
surroundings. This is a phenomenon of gender discrimination which gives boys with visual
impairment an advantage while endangering of girls with visual impairment. The residential school
might have introduced such gender discriminatory regulations in light of the traditional stereotyped
belief that “women should always stay at home”. It may also be argued that the school sets such a
rule in order to protect blind girls form different forms of sexual abuse such as abduction and rape.
Whatever the reason may be, the consequences of such discriminatory treatment can have farreaching psychological consequences on the self-esteem, confidence in moving from place to
place, scope of social relationships and range of learning experience of girls with visual
impairment.
Another issue surfacing the in the focus-group discussion with women with visual impairments was
that they were subject of sexual abuse, and they had neither sex education nor the knowledge of
sex culture. This finding warrants the need to develop a strategy to protect women with disabilities
from different forms of abuse as well as the need to introduce sex education in the curriculum of
the upper grades of the primary schools. A sex education and sex culture course is critically
important for all girls with disabilities in particular and persons with disabilities in general. Persons
with hearing and visual impairments are in a disadvantage in terms of access to electronic as well
as print media in Ethiopia which could provide accommodations that convey sex education
instruction. That makes them more vulnerable to HIV/AIDS infection as well as sexually transmitted
diseases than the hearing and seeing persons. The introduction of such a course or giving special
- 16 -
attention, particularly for girls and women with disabilities will help to better control and curb the
prevalence of the pandemic in this special population.
Out-of-School Activities
Both genders from the respective groups more or less identified the following out-of-school hobbies
or activities. They participated in: reading, listening to music, and watching TV (29.9%), going to
church and recreational places (15.4%), engaging in household chores (13.7%), visiting relatives
and friends and taking care of children (10.2%) and doing handicraft (5.1%). However, a good
number of the females with disabilities (30.8%) disclosed that they spend most of their time in
household chores including hard labor, while only (13.7%) of the males with disabilities where
engaged in similar activities. The gap between the two genders in terms of being engaged in
household chores and hard labor is indicative for the prevalence gender stereotyped tasks. Indeed,
in Ethiopia, housework is generally considered as the domain of girls and women. Generally, this
finding revealed that students with disabilities tend to spend their out-of-school-hours in
recreational but solitary activities such as reading, listening to the radio and watching the television.
Both males and females out-of-school activities tended to occur in the home. However, there are
gender differences most male students with disabilities spend their out-of-school–time in
activities which enrich their knowledge and relax their mind, while the female students with
disabilities are tied up with household chores and toiling in manual labor. This may have
tremendous ramifications in their school performance as well as self-esteem of female students
with disabilities.
Gender Role Stereotypes, Patterns of Friendship and Marriage
Gender Role Stereotypes
Participants were asked about their parents’ perception on gender role stereotyping during their
childhood periods. Forty four percent of the parents classified farming and herding as tasks of
boys, while 57.9% classified household chores as tasks of girls. This difference suggests that
gender role profiling has been part of the culture in the early socialization process at a family level.
According to half of the male and female participants of the study, different household chores such
as cooking, washing and caring for children were regarded females’ jobs. On the other hand, half
- 17 -
of the male and female participants pointed out those manual tasks which require energy and
strength, tasks outside the home, as well as responsibilities of heading a household are jobs
predominantly considered as duties of men.
An attempt was also made to explore the gender role profile in the training or field of study of the
participants (Table 5).
Table 5:
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Field of Study of the Participants
Items
Sociology
‘Amharic’ Language
English
Nursing
Mechanic/Technician
History
Book Keeping
Secretary
Math’s
Chemistry
Art
No Field of Study
Total
Total
Male
Female
No.
%
No.
%
1
5
1
9
1
1
1
62
82
1.2
6
1.2
11
1.2
1.2
1.2
75.6
100
1
6
1
1
2
2
71
82
1.2
7.3
1.2
1.2
2.4
2.4
86.5
100
It was unfortunate that 86.5% of the women and 75.6 % of the men were without any specific field
of study. An inspection on the specific field of study of the participants tends to reveal a genderstereotyped pattern. The field of studies in which women with disabilities tend to lean were
sociology, language, nursing and secretarial sciences; men with disabilities were Inclined to
mechanics, book keeping, math, chemistry and art. Indeed, there seems to be an overlap on book
keeping and Language studies among both genders. Generally, the fields of studies of women with
disabilities as well as men with disabilities tend to cluster in soft and hard sciences, respectively.
- 18 -
The gender-role stereotyping which has its roots in the traditional culture is pervasive in the
different facets of life of girls and women with disabilities in the country at large. This not only
undermines the capacity of women with disabilities by limiting their share of contribution to certain
spheres of life, and but also overburdens them with domestic household chores. Its impact is
pervasive in education and training as well in career development. The tendency to study soft
sciences and joining predominantly the caring, nursing and secretarial professions is also the
consequence of gender role stereotyping. Gender role stereotyping may also discourage males
from the household activities or the caring professions. This among others undermines the
tremendous role that men could have contributed in child care as well as other caring professions.
Patterns of Friendship and Marriage
In the focus-group discussion, friendship and marriage were among the central issues raised by
the participants of the study. In this connection, generally the women with hearing impairment,
particularly the deaf, tend to stick together as friends with similar disabilities. They also prefer to
marry with deaf men. This closed marriage in their opinion keeps the deaf cultural and linguistic
milieu intact and maintains the well-being of deaf persons. Women with visual impairments as well
as those with motor disorders showed no special preference for persons with disabilities in finding
a mate. However, the women with visual impairments expressed their observation about the
discriminatory treatment they received based on their gender. They stated that because of the
attitudes and mentality of the mainstream society, they are generally looked down on by members
of the community. Consequently, they are not free to choose their mates like any other members
of the society. The participants further indicated that most married with men with disabilities, yet
blind men have a broader choice to select their partners and most of them end up marrying sighted
women.
Further more, the participants with visual impairments discussed incidents whereby blind husbands
divorced their blind wives as they became relatively successful in life. It was also further noted in
the focus-group discussion that if the onset of the disability is after marriage, and if it was the wife
who lost her sight, it would most likely result in divorce. However, if it was the husband who lost his
sight, his marital status will not necessarily be threatened.
- 19 -
It perhaps not surprising to find that gender disparity is operating in patterns of friendship and
choice of marriage among women with disabilities. It is worth noting that the focus-group
discussion has proved to be a powerful tool of investigating the feelings of the participants and in
bringing such delicate issues as gender discrimination to the forefront. In such studies, as a matter
of approach, employing female researchers, particularly those with disabilities can be helpful to
generate and capture useful empirical data.
The present study has revealed that the pattern of friendship and marriage for women tends to be
with men of either similar disabilities or different disabilities. This does not mean, however that
there are no women with disabilities married to persons without disabilities. It merely indicates
women with disabilities have fewer options in finding mates than men with disabilities.
Employment Opportunities
Both male and female participants declared that they faced serious challenges in the process of
getting employment opportunities even when they have the required training and qualifications.
One of the major challenges identified by both genders in the process of getting employment is the
overarching reluctance of the employers to hire a candidate with disability. Accordingly, it is not
uncommon to be disqualified when an employing agency or organization discovers that the
applicant has certain disabilities regardless of eligibility for the job. Such incidents were reported
by 63.1% and 69.7% of the male and female informants, respectively.
The focus-group discussions held with females with disabilities from the branch of the respective
national associations of persons with disabilities are presented below.
Women with motor impairments disclosed that getting employment opportunity is a serious
problem for females with disability. The employers always raise issues, which are irrelevant for the
job at the time of interview. One of the participants narrates her experience as follows:
…on one occasion, I together with other with candidates applied for employment. We
were able to sit for the interview in which we were asked to explain our life history. I know
that I was successful in the interview but while the others (able-bodied) were employed, I
- 20 -
was denied the opportunity because of my disability… a sad story in my life. … most
employers do not consider us as being fit for a job in their organization.
Women with visual impairment pointed out that most females with visual impairment are very poor
and leading a miserable life in society. They are the poorest of all. The employment opportunities
are very limited as compared to male blind persons. Most of them lack both professional and
skilled training, which limits their occupational opportunities.
Women with hearing impairment stated that the work that employers offer most often is manual
labor for which only males are usually favored. Even if the applicant has the required knowledge
and competence, when employers discover that the applicant has hearing impairment he or she is
automatically rejected. During the time of interview, questions such as “How do you reply to a
telephone call?” which is irrelevant to the job, are raised. They are embarrassed and have no
where to appeal. There are no conditions which encourage or facilitate the employment of deaf
persons in general and deaf women in particular.
The data clearly revealed the discriminatory treatment and the hurdles that persons with
disabilities, particularly women, face at the time of employment. Questions on the range of
participation in managerial posts as well as the availability of upward mobility in positions after
being employed in an organization were raised to the participants of the study. With regard to the
participation in decision making 63.7% of the males and 76% of the females reported that their
involvement ranged from low to very low. Furthermore, it was reported in the focus-group
discussion that the prevalence of discriminatory treatment in promotion, transfer, scholarship and
other privileges were common for both genders.
Community Participation
Most of the participants (85.4% and 70.7% of the males and females respectively) were members
of the community self-help social organizations. These traditional community organizations are:
Equib [interest free community saving], Edir [voluntarily organized service associated with death],
Mahiber [social set-up of the orthodox religion to celebrate days of the Angles] and Senbete [a
social set-up of orthodox religion]. Out of these, the majority of the males (90%) and females
- 21 -
(87%) were found to be members of Edir. The involvement in Edir entails among other things
participating during funeral ceremonies, preparation of the mourning places (arranging a sitting
place, usually large tent with chairs and tables for mourners who come to pay their respect),
contributing money for funeral ceremonies and comforting the mourners for a few days. Regarding
the range of participation, the data revealed that 50% of the males and 24.6% of the females
disclosed that their participation in community affairs ranges from high to very high; while about
half of the males and the majority (75.4%) of the females reported that their participation ranges
from low to very low. In general, the data indicated that both genders tended to participate in the
local social organizations, which are considered as one of the possible indicators for social
integration. A t-test, which was run across the three groups, revealed the existence of a statistically
significant difference (p<, 05) between genders in the degree of participation in local organizations.
That is, the participation rate of women with disabilities in community organizations is
comparatively lower than that of men with disabilities.
An inter-group gender analysis revealed that statistically significant differences exist within the
hearing impaired (p<, 01) as well as within those with motor impairments (p<, 05) (Table 6). With
regard to the visually impaired there was no statistical difference in the range of participation
between female and male disabled. In the focus-group discussions and case studies women with
disabilities disclosed the discomfort they felt when they go to social gatherings such as burial
ceremonies and weddings. They declared that finger pointing followed by gossip and cruel
remarks made by the people in such gatherings are very discouraging for persons with disabilities
in general and female disabled in particular.
TABLE 6: T-Test Result on the Range of Community
Participation by Gender
Variables
Cases
Mean
SD
2-Tail Sig.
t-value
Female
26
2.0385
.824
.000
4.87
Male
25
1.1600
.374
Hearing Impairment
Visual Impairment
- 22 -
Female
23
2.6522
.832
Male
23
2.0000
1.000
Female
22
2.7273
1.032
Male
25
2.2800
.980
Female
71
2.4507
.938
Male
73
1.8082
.952
.020
2.40
.135
1.52
.000
4.08
Motor Impairment
Total
(a=0.05)
Furthermore, as part of social fabric and social networking skills, the participants were asked to
express their degree of involvement in the activities of their respective national associations. The
majority of both males and females with disabilities (73.1% each) indicated that the extent of their
participation in their national associations, that is, Ethiopian National Association of the Deaf
(ENAD), Ethiopian National Association of the Blind (ENAB) and Ethiopian National Association of
the Physically Handicapped (ENAPH) ranges from very low to low. The rest, 24.2% of the males
and the females 21.9% of the females, disclosed that their participation ranges from high to very
high. In the focus-group discussion held with the female branch of the respective national
associations, the low involvement of the females in the decision making process clearly surfaced.
The gender disparity calls for appropriate intervention in order to promote active involvement and
raise the scale of female participation in the respective national associations.
Emotional, Sexual Abuses, and Domestic Labor
A sizeable number of the participants, 95% of men and 93.9% of women identified the main act of
violence against them as more psycho-social and verbal, which among others include usage of
offensive words such as nicknames based on disability, avoidance (physical and social), as well
as being scorned. Verbal violence towards persons with disabilities in a form of stereotyped
derogatory terms and figurative expressions was found to be common in the language of the
general public, including the media. These disparaging verbal attacks were invariability used
against both genders with different types of disabilities. These include all the terms which were
discussed in the first chapter. These derogatory words and figurative expressions seem to be
- 23 -
generally used out of lack of knowledge not to deliberately offend persons with disabilities.
However, there are people who deliberately call people by their disabilities as well as use such
terms to attack persons with disabilities. These are highly offensive terms and figurative
expressions with discriminatory content denoting incompleteness of the individual, imperfect
physique and motor performance as well as inferior cognitive and language development.
Use of these offensive and abusive terms has serious psychological implications for persons with
disabilities, acts as a source of degradation and hostility, and results distancing from mainstream
society. Studies also indicate that a single powerful label can devalue the person as a whole
(Wright, 1983).Therefore, the need to be sensitive in semantic formulation and selection of words
while addressing person with disabilities should be given due consideration to avoid humiliation
and unwanted consequences. Such an understanding is a sign of honor and respect to
humankind and paves the way for a tolerant, harmonious and an inclusive society.
In the focus groups, an attempt was made to explore forms of violence other than the verbal
assaults mentioned above. Women with disabilities reported a prevalence of physical attacks,
sexual harassment and rape. Women with visual impairment reported incidence of rapes. The
case blind girls were misled by sighted persons to places where they were engaged in group sex.
This sort of sexual abuse seems to be quite prevalent in the country but it is taboo to discuss it. As
a result, the participants reported that a great number of blind women have become single mothers
responsible for child care as well as being head of the house hold. It was further noticed that the
victims were not only raped but some were exposed to hazardous health conditions such as
sexually transmitted diseases. The women with hearing impairment reported sexual abuses in
primary schools, particularly when the latrines are shared by boys and girls.
In regards domestic labor, women with disabilities complained of hard domestic labor at home.
Women with visual impairment as well as one of the hearing impaired women reported that
females with visual impairment in rural areas are exposed to hard labor. They spent most of their
time in grinding grains at home for their family and sometimes for the neighbors.
- 24 -
These findings call for further investigation as well as a broader and inclusive multifaceted genderbased intervention in the country.
Self-Esteem and Self-Efficacy
A great number of the male and female participants (95.1 and 90.2% respectively) expressed that
they have already established a feeling of self-confidence or a positive self-esteem. No marked
disparity occurred between genders in the state of the current self-esteem. even though a slight
difference is observed in favor of the men with disabilities. With regard to self-efficacy, that is, the
potential for learning and promoting oneself, sizable portions (89% of the males and 69.5% of the
females) of the participants have also confirmed that they have positive evaluation of their capacity.
However, in terms of this dimension a noticeable gender gap favoring men with disabilities was
observed. Furthermore, 11% of the males and 28% of the females negatively rated their capacity
to learn and develop. A t-test result on self-efficacy (the potential for learning) revealed a
statistically significant difference among males and females of hearing (p<0.02) and visually
(p<0.01) impaired persons. However, no statistically significant difference between genders was
found between persons with motor impairments (p>0.8) (Table 7).
Table 7: T-Test Result on Potential for Self-Enhancement
Variables
Cases
Mean
SD
2-Tail Sig.
t-value
Female
29
2.6307
1.049
.020
2.39
Male
29
3.3793
1.347
Female
27
3.0741
.874
.016
2.49
Male
27
3.5926
.636
Female
24
3.3750
.703
.825
.22
Male
26
3.4231
.824
80
3.0000
1.091
.003
3.06
Hearing Impairment
Visual Impairment
Motor Impairment
Total
Female
- 25 -
Male
82
3.4634
.819
(a=0.05)
A high percentage of male and female participants (98.8% and 93.9% respectively) expressed that
they would be able to lead an independent life like the non-disabled persons, if societal impositions
are lifted and access for free development is facilitated and encouraged. In spite of the various
discriminatory treatment as well as discouraging social experience, it is encouraging to note that
most of them have positive self-esteem and spiritual strength. Studies also indicate that there is
Inconclusive evidence to support the common assumption that the presence of a physical disability
is associated routinely with low self-esteem (Crocker & Major, 1989). Some possible reasons for
the negative rating towards self-efficacy (learning ability) by a good number of the participants may
be explained in terms of the age bracket of the participants as well as their satisfaction with their
present job. As matter of fact, all participants of the study are employed and over 37 % are within
the age bracket of 40-50.
Discussion, Summary and Conclusion
In general, persons with disabilities of both genders face numerous and common life challenges in
the course of their daily living. Disability- related problems are by and large embedded in the socioeconomic and cultural conditions (Mitchell & Brown, 1991; Bronfenbrenner, 1986) which
manifested in the form of lack of opportunities for education and employment, social exclusion
(social events, marriage, friendship, membership in local organizations, inaccessibility of various
services etc.), acts of violence (sexual, physical, psychological etc.) and stereotyped societal
perception (ignorant, Incapable, weak, hopeless, etc.) towards persons with disabilities. Although
men and women with disabilities are subject to discrimination because of their disabilities, women
with disabilities are at a further disadvantage because of the combined discrimination based on
gender and disability. Gender is the structure of social relations that centers on the reproductive
arena, and the sets of practices (governed by this structure) that bring reproductive distinctions
between sexes into social processes (Connell, 2002). Sex is usually understood as the relating to
the biological and physiological body. Gender is often understood as the cultural interpretation of
- 26 -
sexual bodies, embedded in the whole apparatus of a society’s roles and norms. Gender, as a
relationship between sexes in societies, is usually seen as operating hierarchically, with men being
more powerful and dominant. These power relations produce stereotypes of masculinity and
femininity traits and behavior that are expected of men and women. Role expectations of women
as the nurturer and men as breadwinner have real consequences for persons with disabilities in
terms of education, employment, living arrangements, personal relationships, victimization and
abuse. These consequences, in turn reinforce the stereotypical images in the public sphere
(Meekosha, 2004).
This study, which is the first of its kind in the country, provides information about the effect of
gender difference on persons with disabilities. The findings indicate the presence of double
discrimination on women with disabilities, where gender role stereotyping has served as the basis
for the subsequent disparities observed in the livelihood of males and females. The following
discussion highlights the multi-faceted manifestations and effects of gender and disability on the
lives of women with disabilities. The main parameters through which gender disparity has been
observed in this study include education, employment, friendship and marriage, community
participation, emotional/ sexual abuse and domestic labor as well as self-efficacy.
Gender Role Profiling
The study has clearly indicated the prevalence of gender role profiling at a family level in the early
socialization processes. According to these findings, the gender role stereotypes for the girls were
mainly in house hold chores (57.9%) which include cooking, washing clothes, grinding and
pounding foodstuff, while for boys were farming and herding (44.4%). In addition, 50% of the
participants reported that while child care was identified as one dominant role of women, manual
work, activities outside the home and heading the household were considered the role of the men.
The impact of gender role stereotyping has been pervasive in the education, training and career
development of the participants of the study. The data indicated women with disabilities tend to be
inclined to study “soft” sciences as well as to join the caring, nursing and secretarial professions.
- 27 -
Studies suggest that the combined effects of gender and disability stereotyping track women with
disabilities into the most traditional female roles. As a result, women with disabilities are unlikely to
have the educational opportunities that will allow them access to highly valued, well-paying
professional positions (Russo and Jansen, 1988). Furthermore, evidence confirms that
stereotypes are that a form of misinformation which becomes ingrained in popular culture, and thus
develops into a part of society's "normal" and frequently unquestioned consciousness. Stereotypes
thus become structured in the institutions of society and are actualized as policies and practices
which regulate the lives of citizens. For instance, studies in other parts of the world indicate that
like non-disabled women, women with disabilities are channeled into traditional female fields by
school counselors, and they are likely to encounter even greater obstacles than non-disabled
women if they attempt to pursue a career in male-dominated professions (Russo & Jansen, 1988).
Stereotypes can also be internalized in a process known as “internalized oppression”, which
causes the target to act as if the misinformation were true, thereby reinforcing its apparent
credibility (Grass, Undated). In fact the internalization of the negative images which constantly
bombard women with disabilities appears to lie at the heart of the whole issue of the invisibility of
women with disabilities and the poor treatment they have received to date in the areas of
education, workforce participation and access to various community services (Palmer & WoodcoftLee, 1990). It is critically important to underscore that additional disadvantages brought to women
with disabilities through gender role stereotyping undermines their capacity and limits their role in
society. This gender-dynamic calls for a protracted strategy to uproot the gender role profiling and
curb its ramifications in the lives of women with and without disabilities, as well as the society at
large who promote these false premises. Such an undertaking not only benefits girls and women
but also gives the opportunity for boys and men to be involved in household chores, in child care
as well as other professions. That helps males to mobilize and develop their skills and abilities in
the so-called “women domain” tasks or professions and creates a conducive environment for
growth and development in the family as well as in the society at large. Inclusiveness as opposed
to exclusiveness has the advantage in any stream of life, of promoting mutual understanding,
tolerance and healthy relationship among people.
Education
- 28 -
When it comes to education, enrollment as wells as the participation rate of girls with disabilities is
invariability lower than that of boys with disabilities. Furthermore, the enrollment rate of girls with
disabilities is lower than that of boys with disabilities in the special schools and special classes
covered in this study. Gender perspective studies of non-disabled girls in Ethiopia confirmed that
school participation rate of girls is alarmingly limited (Abebayehu, 1995; Seyoum 1986; FINNIDA,
1996). Other studies on the education of women with disabilities also confirm that women with
disabilities are likely to have received less education than men with disabilities (Meekosha, 2004;
Bowe, 1984). Only 16 percent of all women with disabilities are likely to have any college education
compared to 31 percent of non-disabled women and 28 percent of men with disabilities (Bowe,
1984).
On the other hand, the finding in the pattern of gross drop-out rate in these schools on the three
consecutive years shows a different pattern favoring girls with disabilities. That is, the drop-out
rate of girls with hearing and visual disabilities is lower than their male counterparts. Generally,
evidence indicates that girl’s or woman's access to education, employment and training is closely
connected to societal assumptions about women's bodies and sexuality, domestic and childcare
responsibilities and “appropriate” feminine behavior
(Tomas, 1991). It can be assumed that once girls with disabilities have overcome the barriers
related to gender and disability and have the opportunity to go to school, they may tend to
persevere and succeed in schools.
Employment
Men and women participants in the study stated that they faced serious challenges in the process
of getting employment opportunities even when they have the required training and qualification.
Accordingly, it is not uncommon to be disqualified when an employing agency or organization
discovers that the applicant has certain disabilities. Studies also confirm that both men and women
with disabilities are disadvantaged in their search for employment. While men with disabilities
have serious employment problems, women with disabilities are significantly worse off, and this
seems to be true for all types and levels of disabilities. Men with disabilities are almost twice as
likely to have jobs as women with disabilities (Bowe, 1984). The ability to obtain employment can
be severely restricted by employers' prejudicial assumptions about the types of work considered
- 29 -
'suitable' for women, or the 'difficulties' involved in employing a person with a disability. These
discriminatory attitudes can prevent job seekers with disabilities from accessing educational,
training or employment opportunities because of the systemic and institutionalized nature of
discrimination.
The gender-dynamic makes virtually every aspect of a woman's experience of disability more
difficult (Tomas, 1991). In an Australian study, of all groups women with disabilities were the most
disadvantaged in terms of workforce participation. Women with disabilities are doubly
disadvantaged: not only are job opportunities limited by traditional ideas of "women's work" which
are frequently associated with low pay and few opportunities for advancement, but jobs seen as
suitable for people with disabilities are similarly stereotyped: for example blind people answer
telephones, deaf people work on keyboards (Palmer & Woodcoft-Lee, 1990). Evidences also
suggest that women tend to be directed towards home-based activities, while men are likely to be
supported into more public and outward-looking opportunities (Nosek & Hughes, 2003).
Community Participation
In general, most of the participants were found to be members of the local self-help local
organizations [Edir, Mahiber, Equip and Senbete]. These are traditional community-based
organizations, which are considered to be one of the possible indicators for social integration (for
details see the sub-item 4.2.7). Even though there seems to be a fair range of participation in the
local organizations, gender disparity prevails, and as the reflected significant differences anmong
groups in this study. In the focus-group discussions and case studies women with disabilities
disclosed about the discomfort they felt when they go to social gatherings such as burial
ceremonies and weddings. They declared that finger pointing followed by gossips and cruel
remarks thrown by the people in such gatherings are embarrassing. Other studies suggest that
women with disabilities are more likely to experience public spaces as intimidating and dangerous
than men with disabilities (Meekosha, 2004).
- 30 -
Patterns of Friendship and Marriage
Generally, persons with disabilities particularly the deaf tend to stick together as friends with similar
disabilities. Women who were deaf preferred marry deaf men. According to their opinion, this
closed marriage promotes healthy interaction and keeps the linguistic milieu (sign language) and
the deaf culture intact. Those women with visual impairments as well as those with motor disorders
tend to show no special preference in friendship and marriage. They particularly, the women with
visual impairments often times end up to marry men with similar or other disabilities. It was also
noted that the incidence of disability on pf the spouses, especially, if it is the wife, that could act as
the cause for divorce. Another study revealed a similar finding that when a disability was acquired
or worsened during marriage, 42% of the women felt that their partner became emotionally distant,
they were no longer compatible (35%), the partner stopped treating them with respect (31%), or the
partner stopped wanting them sexually (30%). Some of the partners became overprotective and
tried to do too much for them when they became disabled or more disabled (18%) Nosek,Howland
& Rintinala, 1997.
The present finding reveals how disability and gender disparities are operating in patterns of
friendship and choice of marriage among women with disabilities in the country. Other studies
confirm that compared to both men with disabilities and non-disabled women, women with
disabilities are more likely to never marry, marry later, and be divorced if they do get married (Asch
& Fine, 1988; Hannaford, 1989; Simon, 1988). In a study by Bowe (1984) revealed that 60 % of
non-disabled women and 49 % of women with disabilities were married. Because studies report
many myths about eh competence of parents with disabilities, women with disabilities often
encounter negative attitudes in marriage. It is preconceived that women with disabilities are often
unable to fulfill the cultural expectations of 'good' mother and 'good' wife or partner (Wilde, 1997).
This stereotyped gender-role identification could be one of the possible explanations to the
problems surrounding marriage and divorce of women with disabilities.
Abuses and Domestic Labor
- 31 -
Among others, sexual abuse and domestic labor are sensitive issues which are not explored in
Ethiopia. This study constitutes the first attempt to formally assess the prevalence of different forms
of abuses against girls and women with disabilities in the country. The participants of the study,
44.1% of the men and 41.5 % of the females expressed that they experienced hostile relationships
with their parents (Table 4). In the two case studies, the prevalence of hostile psycho-social
conditions clearly surfaced. For many of these women with disabilities, difficult psycho-social
encounters were common at home in the early years of life. Indeed, as discussed in the second
chapter in detail, this is the critical period in which love, affection and acceptance are most
important for the child’s healthy development.
Later in life, different forms of abuses against girls and women with disabilities were noted.
According to a sizeable number of the participants, 95% of men and 93.9% of women identified
verbal abuse as a source for humiliation and avoidance of social situations. The offensive words
and expressions towards persons with disabilities manifest in a form of stereotyped derogatory
terms and figurative speeches. These disparaging verbal attacks were invariability used against
both genders with different types of disabilities by the general public and sometimes by the media.
When it comes to sexual abuse, there were incidents of rape and group sex directed towards
women with disabilities. As the most vulnerable and powerless group, different types of sexual
abuses against girls and women with disabilities can be quite prevalent in Ethiopia. Indeed, these
days, reports on incidence of sexually abused girls and women with mental retardation as well as
those with hearing impairment have started to appear.
Women with disabilities also complained of being forced into hard domestic labor at home. Women
with visual impairments in the rural areas in particular are exposed to hard labor, such as grinding
gains at home and sometimes for the neighbors. Another case study conducted with a blind street
girl in Addis Ababa described how difficult it is to be growing up blind (Selamawit, 2000):
… I was kept inside the house most of the time grinding grain. Growing up blind was hell,
my hands were numb and swollen from the work, and I was expected to do it all the time
- 32 -
because I am blind and cannot do any other meaningful things. I was also expected to
cook and prepare coffee.
The same study indicated that families who have daughters with visual impairment tend to hire her
labor to the neighbors indicating how difficult it is to live as a blind girl in the rural areas. In the
urban sector, it is not uncommon to observe able bodied persons using children with disabilities for
begging as a means to generate Income for their livelihood.
Abuse of girls and women with disabilities is an area that has received growing attention in recent
years (Nosek,Howland & Rintinala, 1997; Nosek & Howland, 1998; Nosek & Hughes (2003).).
Much of the literature in this area is based on studies which show that women with disabilities are
at a much greater risk of being sexually abused than other women. This is true in society in
general, and within residential facilities in particular (Craine, et al., 1988; Musick, 1984; Senn,
1988). One author reports that sexual assault and battering may be two or three times higher for
women with disabilities than for other women (O'Toole, 1990).The more vulnerable and powerless
people are, the more they are at risk of being sexually abused (Traustodottir,1990).
A study in Canada surveyed 245 women with disabilities and found that 40% had experienced
abuse; and the perpetrators were spouses, strangers, parents and service providers. According to
this study, less than half of these experiences were reported, due mostly fear and dependency
(Ridington, 1989). Another study conducted on 166 abuse cases of women with cognitive
disabilities revealed that in 96% of the cases the perpetrator was known to the victim; and 44%
were service providers Sobsey & Doe, 1991). Further more, Nosek & Howland (1998) reported the
prevalence of emotional, physical and sexual abuse against women with disabilities constituting
52%, 36% and 37 %, respectively. It was also noted that women with disabilities tended to
experience abuse for longer periods of time, reflecting the reduced number of escape options open
to them due to more severe economic dependence, the need for assistance with personal care,
environmetal barriers, and social isolation (Nosek,Howland & Rintinala, 1997).
The present study indicates that the abuse of women with disabilities in Ethiopia is similar with the
international situation. There is no question in one’s mind to imagine that the situation of girls and
- 33 -
women with disabilities in Ethiopia to be even worse than the situations discussed in the studies
above. This warrants the need to explore and develop a strategy to protect girls and women with
disabilities from different forms of abuse such as labor exploitation, psychological and sexual
abuse.
Self-Esteem and Self-Efficacy
Among male and female participants expressed that they have already established a feeling of
self-confidence or a positive self-esteem in dealing with their disabilities. Another national survey
also revealed that, 78% of the women who had disabilities reported high or moderately high selfesteem (Nosek,Howland & Rintinala, 1997). With regard self-efficacy, the potential for learning and
promoting one’s capacity, males and females confirmed that they have a positive evaluation.
However, a noticeable gender gap favoring men with disabilities was observed in this parameter.
A more precisely, difference among males and females of hearing and visually impaired persons
appear to occur. However, no statistically significant difference between genders was found in
persons with motor impairments.
Other studies also confirm that women with disabilities experience major psycho-social problems
that remain largely neglected including depression, stress, lowered self-esteem, and social
isolation (Nosek & Hughes, 2003). A general lack of opportunities for personal development and
limited life choices has resulted in timidity and low Self-esteem among many of the women
(Palmer, and Wood-Lee, 1990). The internalization of gender role stereotypes in combination with
the disability stereotypes has adversely affected the self-efficacy of the women with disabilities. A
study conducted on non-disabled students in Addis Ababa has also revealed the prevalence of
lower level of self-efficacy in girls than in boys (Yalew, 1996). This indicates that gender role
stereotyping operates against the self-efficacy and adjustment of both girls and women with and
without disabilities.
- 34 -
Summary and Conclusion
Results of the present study are constant with previous findings in regards to gender and disability
in other parts of the world. This new and emerging scholarship is somewhat limited and much
remains to be learned about women with disabilities. At the same time this scholarship provides the
basis and the promise for future advances. Women with disabilities are the most vulnerable and
marginalized groups in today's society. A better understanding of their lives is needed in order to
remove the obstacles that still remain in their way to equality (Traustadottir, 1990). The disability
stereotyping interacting with gender-role dynamics has made women with disabilities the subject of
double discrimination in many different facets of life. Among others, the gender disparity in
education and training, employment opportunity, range of community participation as well as
patterns of friendship and marriage are pertinent. Furthermore, women with disabilities have also
been exposed to different forms of emotional and sexual abuses, as well as being subjected to
domestic labor exploitation.
This is a national issue which has to be addressed by concerted efforts of the government,
associations of persons with disabilities and associations of women and other civic societies.
International disability projects have recently tended to focus their greatest efforts on the “poorest
of the poor”, women with disabilities, and the most disadvantaged segments of their potential target
population. Unless these disparities properly addressed, girls and women with disabilities will often
lead a misery life .The greatest success in reducing gender disparities happens in those countries
where the political will for change at the very top levels of government is matched by a demand
from within communities (Friedman A., 1992).
Based on the findings of the study, the following points need due consideration to relieve women
with disabilities from this double disadvantage in Ethiopia:

Educating parents as well as other members of the family on caring and managing children
with disability, as well as enlightening them about the importance of love and affection and
the danger of gender stereotyping in the socialization process.
- 35 -

Raising awareness of the family as well as the public about the adverse consequences of
gender role and disability stereotyping, in the lives of women with disabilities including
access to education, employment, and range of participation in social and political affairs
as well as their psychological well-being. This raising-awareness objective should extend
from the bottom to the top, that is, from the grass roots at community level high up to the
parliamentarians.

Conducting gender sensitive assertive training and special back-up support for girls or
women with disabilities so that they can build-up positive self-esteem and efficacy and lead
a quality life. Disability-specific counseling, tutorial and coaching programs need to be
developed for the girl-child or women with disabilities in their respective schools or
institutions. Enlightening the community, the school or institution on issues surrounding
gender and disability and different forms of abuses.

Understanding and integrating issues about women with disability into mainstream human
rights and the women’s movement so that it gains special attention and momentum as part
and parcel of these movements.

Consider and enforcing policies and proclamations to ensure that girls or women with
disabilities have equal access for education, employment and information.

Introducing and enforcing legal protection to safeguard the girls or women with disability
from any form of violence and exploitation (sexual, psychological, labor etc.).
- 36 -
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