Life-Course (Developmental) Theories






Attempt to identify patterns of life & describe growth or changes in human behaviour as people mature
Some suggest that growth & improvement occur as individuals progress from one stage to the next only
when they are ready (Erikson, Loevinger, Arnett)
Others suggest that the changes in stages occurs are age-linked
Stages in which people become different but not necessarily better
(Family life-cycle, Levinson’s Seasons of Change)
Others suggest that there are no stages, development reflects constant change as individuals respond to
environmental influences (Riegel, Pearlin)
All agree that the behaviour of individuals results from inner psychological changes in response to life
circumstance.
Erik Erikson’s Eight Stages of Life
Theory of Psychosocial Development


















1st psychological stages of human development
Focuses on individual’s identity & maturity
Identity: stable awareness of who s/he is and and what s/he does and believes
Each stage presents a dilemma, person is challenged by new situations & circumstances in life
People are pushed through stages by biological clock & social clock. Identity development reflects the
progress of psychological clock
By resolving each dilemma, the individual acquires new strength needed to meet the next challenges of life
Failure to resolve a dilemma suggests that the person might experience problems later on in life
Adolescence: 12 to 18 Years
Ego Development Outcome: Identity vs. Role Confusion
Basic Strengths: Devotion and Fidelity
Every individual has the challenge to define themselves, especially when it comes to what they will be in the
future
There are many decisions at this stage
What work to do
How to be a man/woman
What to believe
Or, they remain to be confused about what role they will play in adulthood
If they resolve this stage, individuals acquire the basic strength of fidelity (ability to live by society’s
standards) & devotion
Young Adulthood: 18 to 35
Ego Development Outcome: Intimacy & Solidarity vs. Isolation
Basic Strengths: Affiliation and Love
Intimacy is being able to merge your identity with someone else’s without losing yourself in the process
A clear sense of who you are is required to form a trusting relationship – without a strong identity, a
relationship could be shallow
The strength achieved at this stage is love – an overwhelming sense of caring & generosity toward another
Erikson suggested that women, not men, might be able to form intimacy and identity at the same time by
forming relationships with others.











Middle Adulthood: 35 to 55 or 65
Ego Development Outcome: Generativity vs. Self absorption or Stagnation
Basic Strengths: Production and Care
Adults focus on their contribution to society
The challenge is to decide how to make individual contribution to society
Develop the strength of caring
Typically, people develop this by having children
Others develop it by completing good works
Klaus Riegel’s
Dimensions of Development
Development occurs as individuals adjust in response to the interaction of both internal and external changes
Biological and social clock
Integrates internal physical and psychological dimensions with external social and environmental dimensions
Explains how the pace of adult development reflects the changing social clock
Early application of ecological systems theory
4 Interrelated Internal/External Dimensions of Development
1. Individual psychological Dimension
• emotional maturity and independence
• mental process maturity
2. Individual Biological Dimensions
• Physical/sexual maturity
3. Cultural sociological Dimension
• Expectations/opportunities that each society defines for individuals
4.
Environmental Dimension
• Physical, economic/political environment in which the individual lives
Development occurs when change in one dimension requires an adjustment in another
Loevinger’s
Theory of Ego Development






Identified stages towards a higher level of development
10 stages in Ego (I myself) formation (Freud’s understanding of self/identity)
Ego development begins in infancy with the understanding that you are your own person
Autonomous Self : Full Ego development
Self-reliant person who accepts oneself as unique
Young adults are at transitional self aware level between conformist and conscientious stages






3 Stages adolescent and emerging adult
Conformist: adolescents see things in simple stereotypical ways B&W, see where they fit in
Self-Aware: see and accept differences, understanding what makes individuals unique
Clear pictures of themselves must be seen first before intimate relationships can be formed with others
Conscientious: appreciate others as individuals in reciprocal relationships
Development is determined by the individual’s psychological clock. Few achieve full development
Chronological age and social environment do not play a role
The Family Life Cycle Framework
Carter & McGoldrick





Adulthood: stage in which individuals are launched from their families of origin
Parents and children must separate from one another so young adults can accept emotional responsibility for
themselves
Focused on early adulthood in the context of marriage and parenthood
Used in family therapy
3 Developmental Tasks: Young adults master 3 tasks as they become independent:
1. Form an identity that is separate from the family
o Individuation: take, leave, create what they want
2. Develop new intimate relationships with peers outside the family
3. Make a tentative commitment to career/workplace
All of these tasks must be mastered to create self sufficient adults
Pearlin’s Theory of
Psychological Distress




Development unique to individuals yet occurs in common patterns
Disagreed with stage theories
Adulthood is a lifetime of continuous change in which individuals might experience occasional stability/
required by distress (stimulus that requires a psychological response)
4 elements that determine individual paths:





Individual characteristics (gender, race, intelligence, family background, personality, education)
Range of skills to cope with stress/change
Availability of support networks
Nature and timing of stress requiring response
Cohort effect: changes in behaviour result from socialized responses to a common social clock rather than
from age-linked inner changes.
Levinson’s Theory of
the Seasons of Life
Early Adulthood lasts 25 yrs (17-33)


Life structure is built leaving behind adolescence
Changes in attachment separating from family origin and allowing room for new adult relationships
Entering the Adult World (22-28)
 4 Major tasks:
1. Forming a dream and putting it into life structure
2. Forming mentor relationships
3. Forming an occupation
4. Forming loving relationships, marriage, family
 Dream: individual’s sense of self in the adult world is the core of life structure. This can vary. Individuals must
figure out if it is satisfying or realistic
Transition (28-33)
 Re-evaluate life structures
 Get real
Arnett’s Theory of
Emerging Adulthood
 Reasons for a distinct stage in the life course following adolescence and before adulthood
 Individuals 18-25 in industrialized countries are not yet entering adult roles, but are no longer adolescents
 Instability, semi-autonomous moving in and out of parental home, without financial independence
 Most feel they have not achieved adult status (accepting responsibility for one’s self, independent decision
making, financial independence)
 Created by post-industrial society in the late 20th century offering opportunities for more extensive identity
exploration (love, work, worldviews)separate from and prior to making decisions for adulthood