1
Chap 6 - Memory
Memory - an extremely capable information-processing system that all people possess.
Composed of several parts: sensory registers – input data
short-term storage – actively processing info
long-term storage – “stockpile” of info available for use
Hermann Ebbinghaus, psychologist, 19c., German – “nonsense syllables” – meaningless
combinations of letters.
- memorized lists, relearned the same lists after allowing time to past in order to
measure his recall of initial list – scientific approach to memory
Information-processing model – a contemporary perspective – memory as a series of
processing steps, akin to a computer model
Sensory registers
Role of sensory registers – what is used by our “full” body to take in impressions of our
surroundings, this information is stored temporarily.
- The availability of information depends upon its use – that is, the operations we
perform on it
- Visual and auditory registers most studied
Sensory registers have virtually unlimited capacity
- Visual image = “icon”, “echo”
- Take in colors, shapes, textures, relative brightness and shadows
As well as, smells, temperature, “mood”, etc.
(Where else have we discussed these same elements?)
Information taken in, tends to disappear rapidly.
- Visual information may disappear far more rapidly than other information –
New incoming information continuously enters the register, replacing “old
information” = a process called masking
new information replaces old information in about ¼ second!
Auditory information fades more slowly
- Icons last for several seconds (i.e., nature of speech – effects/impact of language)
Attention:
The selection of some incoming information for further processing
Select some of the incoming information for further processing: looking, smelling, tasting, and
feeling
AND, at the same time we give MEANING to the information that is coming in.
So, how do we select certain information over others?
Donald Broadbent (1958) suggests a “filtering” process at the entrance to the nervous system
allows only those stimuli that meet certain requirements to pass through. (pg. 199)
2
Information is compared to information already stored – is it recognizable? Then, we figure out
what we mean.
“Cocktail party phenomenon” – filtering out of surrounding information, some
recollection may be made later of surrounding conversations but will lack specifics
See Figure 6 - 1 The sequence of information processing
Anne Treisman (1960, 1964, 2004) modified Broadbent’s “filter” theory
Proposes a “variable” characteristic rather than a simple “on/off” switch ala Broadbent
What is meant by “variable” control? Describe a time when Treisman’s approach fit a personal
experience in your daily activities.
Thus, we can “shift our attention if pick up something meaningful,” such a hearing our name,
when we are asleep and baby cries, or we hear a strange sound.
Short-term Memory – STM
Two primary-tasks of STM: 1) to store new information briefly
2) and to work on that information (and other info)
STM is also known as working memory
Capacity of STM: can handle only so much information at one given time
“chunking” – grouping of information into meaningful units for easier handling
chunking is limited to size (too many chunks, memory decreases)
STM can handle up to five (5) unrelated letters or words at once, but five unrelated
sentences are much harder to remember
Remember! STM is straining to take in lots of other information at the same time! Busy, busy!
So, competition between tasks determines what gets priority
Note: when two memory tasks are presented in different sensory modalities (visual and
auditory) they are less likely to interfere with each other than if they were in the same modality.
Thus, a suggestion of domain-specific working memory systems operating
Encoding in STM
Storing material in STM as it sounds or as it looks?
Verbal information – stored phonologically (how is sounds)
Even if we see the word, letter, or number on a page, rather than hear is spoken
But, not all information in STM is stored phonologically
Some is stored visually, and retained on basis of meaning
Memory for images better than memory for words
Images stored phonologically and as images = dual coding of images
Thus, helpful to form a “mental picture” of something you are
trying to remember
Can hold info in STM better via rote rehearsal – repeating of information
3
Long Term-memory - LTM
The portion of memory that is more or less permanent, corresponding to everything we “know”
Types of information stored in LTM:
Capacity of LTM – can store vast amounts of information.
For example: Some people are able to remember their high school Spanish after 50 years, even
if they have had little opportunity to practice it,
Encoding in LTM – coded in terms of nonverbal images: shapes, sounds, smells, tastes, etc.
Encoded in terms of meaning – most helpful if material is familiar (e.g. verbatium)
Serial Position Effect
From a list – first items easily recalled – primacy effect
- last items most difficult to recall – recency effect
-
See chart Figure 6 – 2 The serial position effect
serial position effect – short-term and long-term memory working together
last items on list – contained in STM, immediate recall
first items on list – apt to be “rehearsed” thus transferred to LTM
middle items on list – in recall limbo – too long to be remain in STM,
and attention is drawn away to include items
before and after (first and last), thus little chance
of rehearsal
Maintaining LTM – three processes use to hold information
Rote rehearsal – standard mode of storing material – tedious practice
Mastery means achieving a automaticity (typing, your phone SSN)
Rote rehearsal with intent to learn can be helpful to material storage
Elaborative rehearsal – relating new information to something we already know
– extract meaning of new information and then link it to information already in LTM
as much as possible.
– Elaborate rehearsal is a deeper and more meaningful processing of new information
– Mnemonics – technique to assist with recall (the quick brown fox . . .)
Schemata – variation on elaborate rehearsal, a framework into which new information is fitted
A mental representation of an event, an object, a situation, a person, a process, or a relationship
that is stored in memory and that leads you to expect your experience to be organized in a
certain way.
Developed frameworks may produce stereotypes – ascribed certain characteristics to a
certain group of people
What are some of your schemata?
Refer to Summary Table – pg 208
Memory as an Information Processing System
4
How do types of LTM differ?
Episodic memories are personal memories for events experienced in a specific time and place.
(not historical facts, more akin to a “diary or journal”)
Semantic memories are facts and concepts not linked to a particular time
Akin to a dictionary or encyclopedia filled with facts and concepts
Procedural memories ARE motor skills and habits
Deal with “knowing how “ to do something: a sequence, a procedure, a sequence of
coordinated movements, often requires repetition to master skills and habits
Emotional memories are learned emotional responses to various stimuli
Emotions: love/hate, happy/sad, rational/irrational fears, disgust/anxiety
See Table 6 – 1 Types of Memories, pg 209
Explicit and Implicit Memory
What is the difference?
Explicit
Episodic
Semantic
Sometimes we are aware that
we know something
Implicit
Procedural
Emotional
Sometimes we are not aware
that we don’t know something
the difference between explicit and implicit memories means that some knowledge is literally
unconscious.
The recall of a memory is most often a “full” experience – the experience integrates all aspects
of memory to varying degrees
Priming – complete a word or picture from a fragment of a stimulus
Most like to complete fragments from items seen earlier
Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon (TOT) – not quite able to recall word or image
Becomes more frequent under stress and as we get older
5