www.vtpi.org
Info@vtpi.org
Phone & Fax: 250-360-1560
Active Transport Benefit and Cost Bibliography
16 June 2011
Todd Litman
Victoria Transport Policy Institute
AARP (2005), Livable Communities: An Evaluation Guide, AARP Public Policy Institute
(http://assets.aarp.org).
ABW (2010), Bicycling and Walking in the U.S.: 2010 Benchmarking Report, Alliance for Biking &
Walking, (www.peoplepoweredmovement.org); at
www.peoplepoweredmovement.org/site/index.php/site/memberservices/C529.
Abley Transportation Engineers (2008), Walkability Research Tools – Summary Report, Research Report
356, New Zealand Transport Agency; at www.landtransport.govt.nz/research/reports/356.pdf.
Access Board (www.access-board.gov) is a U.S. federal agency that develops policies and
recommendations for accessible design. Publications include Accessible Rights of Way: A Design Manual,
1999; ADA Accessibility Guidelines for Buildings and Facilities, 1998; Uniform Federal Accessibility
Standards; and Designing Sidewalks and Trails for Access, Part One.
Alta Planning + Design (2005), Caltrans Pedestrian and Bicycle Facilities Technical Reference Guide: A
Technical Reference and Technology Transfer Synthesis for Caltrans Planners and Engineers, California
Department of Transportation (www.dot.ca.gov/hq/traffops/survey/pedestrian/TR_MAY0405.pdf).
APMA (2007), “What Makes a Good Walking City,” Prevention Magazine, American Podiatric Medical
Association and Prevention Magazine (www.prevention.com); at www.prevention.com/cda/article/whatmakes-a-good-walking-city/db76f6cba5638110VgnVCM20000012281eac____/fitness/walking.
David Bassett, John Pucher, Ralph Buehler, Dixie L. Thompson, and Scott E. Crouter (2008), “Walking,
Cycling, and Obesity Rates in Europe, North America, and Australia,” Journal of Physical Activity and
Health, Vol. 5 (www.humankinetics.com/jpah/journalAbout.cfm), pp. 795-814; at
http://policy.rutgers.edu/faculty/pucher/JPAH08.pdf.
Association of Pedestrian and Bicycle Professionals (www.apbp.org) provides information, support,
training and credibility to non-motorized transportation professionals.
Gary Barnes and Kevin Krizek (2005), Tools for Predicting Usage and Benefits of Urban Bicycling,
Humphrey Institute of Public Affairs, University of Minnesota (www.lrrb.org/pdf/200550.pdf).
Bicyclepedia (www.bicyclinginfo.org/bikecost) is a bicycle facility benefit/cost analysis tool available
free on the Internet.
Active Transport Benefit and Cost Bibliography
Victoria Transport Policy Institute
BTS (2004), How Bike Paths and Lanes Make A Difference, Bureau of Transportation Statistics
(www.bts.gov/programs/omnibus_surveys/targeted_survey/2002_national_survey_of_pedestrian_and_bic
yclist_attitudes_and_behaviors).
Dan Burden (2001), Building Communities With Transportation: Distinguished Lecture Presentation,
Transportation Research Board (www.trb.org), Walkable Communities
(www.walkable.org/download/TRBpaper.doc).
Dan Burden (2003), Level of Quality (LOQ) Guidelines, Walkable Communities
(www.walkable.org/library.htm); at www.tjpdc.org/transportation/walkability.asp. Shows graphically
roadway design features that optimize pedestrian and cyclist access, safety and mobility.
Sally Cairns, et al (2004), Smarter Choices - Changing the Way We Travel, UK Department for Transport
(www.dft.gov.uk); at http://eprints.ucl.ac.uk/archive/00001224/01/1224.pdf. This comprehensive study
provides detailed evaluation of the potential travel impacts and costs of various mobility management
strategies. Includes numerous case studies.
Nick Cavill, Andy Cope and Angela Kennedy (2009), Valuing Increased Cycling in the Cycling
Demonstration Towns, Cycling England, Department for Transport (www.dft.gov.uk); at
www.dft.gov.uk/cyclingengland/site/wp-content/uploads/2009/12/valuing-increased-cycling-in-thecycling-demonstration-towns.pdf.
CDC (2004), Worksite Walkability: Are Your Employees Walking at Work?, Center for Disease Control
(www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpa/walkability). Includes a Worksite Walkability Audit Tool. Also see Andrew
Dannenberg (2004), Assessing the Walkability of the Workplace: A New Audit, presented at the 4th
National Congress of Pedestrian Advocates, America Walks (www.americawalks.org).
Joe Cortright (2009), Walking the Walk: How Walkability Raises Home Values in U.S. Cities, CEOs for
Cities (www.ceosforcities.org); at www.ceosforcities.org/files/WalkingTheWalk_CEOsforCities1.pdf.
CPF (2008), Economic Benefits of Cycling for Australia, Cycling Promotion Fund; at
www.cyclingpromotion.com.au/images/stories/downloads/CPF_CyclingBenefits.pdf.
CSE (2009), Footfalls: Obstacle Course To Livable Cities, Right To Clean Air Campaign, Centre For
Science And Environment (www.cseindia.org); at www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/content/footfallsobstacle-course-livable-cities.
Allison L. C. de Cerreño and My Linh H. Nguyen-Novotny (2006), Pedestrian and Bicyclist Standards
and Innovations in Large Central Cities, Rudin Center for Transportation Policy & Management
(www.wagner.nyu.edu/rudincenter); at http://wagner.nyu.edu/rudincenter/files/bikeped.pdf.
Jeroen Johan de Hartog, Hanna Boogaard, Hans Nijland and Gerard Hoek (2010), “Do The Health
Benefits Of Cycling Outweigh The Risks?” Environmental Health Perspectives,
doi:10.1289/ehp.0901747, (http://ehp03.niehs.nih.gov/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1289%2Fehp.0901747).
DfT (2010), Cycling Demonstration Towns – Development of Benefit-Cost Ratios, UK Department for
Transport, www.dft.gov.uk/cyclingengland/site/wp-content/uploads/2010/02/091223-cdts-bcr-analysis-final-edit.pdf.
Jennifer Dill and Theresa Carr (2003), “Bicycle Commuting and Facilities in Major U.S. Cities,”
Transportation Research Record 1828, TRB (www.trb.org), pp. 116-123; at
http://web.pdx.edu/%7Ejdill/Dill%20Carr%20TRR%201828.pdf.
2
Active Transport Benefit and Cost Bibliography
Victoria Transport Policy Institute
Richard Dowling, et al. (2008), Multimodal Level Of Service Analysis For Urban Streets, NCHRP Report
616, Transportation Research Board (www.trb.org); at http://trb.org/news/blurb_detail.asp?id=9470; User
Guide at http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/nchrp/nchrp_w128.pdf.
ECU (2004a), Physical Inactivity Cost Calculator (www.ecu.edu/picostcalc), College of Health & Human
Performance, East Carolina University (www.ecu.edu); documentation at
www.ecu.edu/picostcalc/pdf_file/Methods.pdf. Also see, Physical Activity Facts and Figures, College of
Health & Human Performance at www.ecu.edu/picostcalc/pdf_file/FactsandFigures.pdf.
Reid Ewing, Otto Clemente, Susan Handy, Emily Winston and Ross C. Brownson (2006), Measuring Urban
Design Qualities: An Illustrated Field Manual, Robert Wood Johnson Foundation Active Living Research
Program (www.activelivingresearch.org): at
www.smartgrowth.umd.edu/research/pdf/EwingClemente_WalkableUrbanDesignFieldManual_093005.pdf.
Fietsberaad (2009), Cycling in the Netherlands, Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water
Management (www.minvenw.nl) and Fietsberaad (Expertise Centre for Cycling Policy)
(www.bicyclecouncil.org); at
www.fietsberaad.nl/library/repository/bestanden/CyclingintheNetherlands2009.pdf.
Ann Forsyth, Kevin J. Krizek and Asha Weinstein Agrawal (2010), Measuring Walking and Cycling
Using the PABS (Pedestrian and Bicycling Survey) Approach, Mineta Transportation Institute, San Jose
State University; at www.transweb.sjsu.edu/project/2907.html.
Lawrence Frank and Sarah Kavage (2009), “Seattle Area Looks At How Walkable Community Design
Can Cut Global Warming,” New Urban News (www.newurbannews.com), June; at
www.newurbannews.com/emails/jun09seattle2.html.
Lawrence Frank, Andrew Devlin, Shana Johnstone and Josh van Loon (2010), Neighbourhood Design,
Travel, and Health in Metro Vancouver: Using a Walkability Index, Active Transportation Collaboratory,
UBC; at www.act-trans.ubc.ca/documents/WalkReport_ExecSum_Oct2010_HighRes.pdf.
Gallup (2008), National Survey of Bicyclist and Pedestrian Attitudes and Behavior, National Highway Traffic
Safety Administration (www.nhtsa.dot.gov) at
www.nhtsa.dot.gov/staticfiles/DOT/NHTSA/Traffic%20Injury%20Control/Articles/Associated%20Files/810971.pdf .
Phil Goodwin (2004), Valuing the Small: Counting the Benefits, Centre for Transport Studies, University
College London (http://eprints.ucl.ac.uk/archive/00001263/01/2004_27.pdf).
Thomas Gotschi (2011), “Costs and Benefits of Bicycling Investments in Portland, Oregon,” Journal of
Physical Activity and Health, Vol. 8, Supplement 1, pp. S49-S58; at
http://journals.humankinetics.com/jpah-supplements-special-issues/jpah-volume-8-supplementjanuary/costs-and-benefits-of-bicycling-investments-in-portland-oregon.
GTZ SUTP and the Interface for Cycling Expertise (2009), Cycling-Inclusive Policy Development: A
Handbook, Sustainable Urban Transport Project (www.sutp.org); at
www.sutp.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1462&Itemid=1&lang=uk.
Jessica Y. Guo and Sasanka Gandavarapu (2010), “An Economic Evaluation Of Health-Promotive Built
Environment Changes,” Preventive Medicine, Vol. 50, Supplement 1, January 2010, pp. S44-S49; at
www.activelivingresearch.org/resourcesearch/journalspecialissues.
3
Active Transport Benefit and Cost Bibliography
Victoria Transport Policy Institute
Susan Handy (2009), “Walking, Bicycling, and Health,” Healthy, Equitable Transportation Policy:
Recommendations And Research, PolicyLink and the Prevention Institute Convergence Partnership
(www.convergencepartnership.org/transportationhealthandequity).
Susan Handy, Gil Tal and Marlon G. Boarnet (2010), Draft Policy Brief on the Impacts of Bicycling
Strategies Based on a Review of the Empirical Literature, California Air Resources Board
(http://arb.ca.gov/cc/sb375/policies/policies.htm).
Peter L. Jacobsen (2003), “Safety In Numbers: More Walkers and Bicyclists, Safer Walking and
Bicycling.” Injury Prevention (http://ip.bmjjournals.com), Vol. 9, 2003, pp. 205-209; at
http://injuryprevention.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/9/3/205.
Sonja Kahlmeier, Francesca Racioppi, Nick Cavill, Harry Rutter, and Pekka Oja (2010), “‘Health in All
Policies’ in Practice: Guidance and Tools to Quantifying the Health Effects of Cycling and Walking,”
Journal of Physical Activity and Health, Vol. 7, Supplement 1, pp. S120-S125; at
www.euro.who.int/document/E93592.pdf.
Kevin Krizek (2007), “Estimating the Economic Benefits of Bicycling and Bicycle Facilities: an Interpretive
Review and Proposed Methods,” Essays on Transport Economics, Physica-Verlag HD, Springer
(www.springerlink.com); at www.springerlink.com/content/l835v21829468170.
Kevin Krizek, Michael Iacono, Ahmed M. El-Geneidy, Chen-fu Liao, Robert Johns (2009), Access to
Destinations: Application of Accessibility Measures for Non-Auto Travel Modes, Report No. 9, Access to
Destinations Study, University of Minnesota's Center for Transportation Studies (www.cts.umn.edu/accessstudy/publications); at www.cts.umn.edu/Publications/ResearchReports/reportdetail.html?id=1808.
LAB (2009), Economic Benefits of Bicycle Infrastructure Investments, League of American Bicyclists
(www.bikeleague.org) and the Alliance for Biking & Walking (www.peoplepoweredmovement.org); at
www.bikeleague.org/resources/reports/pdfs/economic_benefits_bicycle_infrastructure_report.pdf.
James Leather, Herbert Fabian, Sudhir Gota and Alvin Mejia (2011), Walkability and Pedestrian
Facilities in Asian Cities: State and Issues, Sustainable Development Working Paper, Asian Development
Bank (www.adb.org); at http://cleanairinitiative.org/portal/sites/default/files/documents/ADB-WP17Walkability-Pedestrian-Facilities-Asian-Cities.pdf.
Todd Litman (2003), “Economic Value of Walkability,” Transportation Research Record 1828,
Transportation Research Board (www.trb.org), pp. 3-11; at www.vtpi.org/walkability.pdf.
Todd Litman (2004), If Health Matters: Integrating Public Health Objectives into Transportation
Decision-Making, Victoria Transport Policy Institute (www.vtpi.org); at www.vtpi.org/health.pdf;
previously published as, “Integrating Public Health Objectives in Transportation Decision-Making,”
American Journal of Health Promotion, Vol. 18, No. 1 (www.healthpromotionjournal.com), Sept./Oct.
2003, pp. 103-108; at www.vtpi.org/AJHP-litman.pdf.
Todd Litman (2005), Whose Roads? Evaluating Bicyclists’ and Pedestrians’ Right to Use Public
Roadways, VTPI (www.vtpi.org); at www.vtpi.org/whoserd.pdf.
Todd Litman (2006), “Managing Diverse Modes and Activities on Non-motorized Facilities: Guidance
for Practitioners,” ITE Journal, Vol. 76, No. 6 (www.ite.org), June 2006, pp. 20-27; based on Todd
4
Active Transport Benefit and Cost Bibliography
Victoria Transport Policy Institute
Litman and Robin Blair (2005), Managing Personal Mobility Devices (PMDs) On Non-motorized
Facilities, Victoria Transport Policy Institute (www.vtpi.org); at www.vtpi.org/man_nmt_fac.pdf.
Todd Litman (2007), Guide to Calculating Mobility Management Benefits, Victoria Transport Policy
Institute (www.vtpi.org); at www.vtpi.org/tdmben.pdf.
Todd Litman (2009), Transportation Cost and Benefit Analysis: Techniques, Estimates and Implications,
VTPI (www.vtpi.org); particularly the “Barrier Effect” chapter at www.vtpi.org/tca/tca0513.pdf.
Todd Litman (2010), Short and Sweet: Analysis of Shorter Trips Using National Personal Travel Survey
Data, VTPI (www.vtpi.org); at www.vtpi.org/short_sweet.pdf.
Todd Litman (2011), Evaluating Non-Motorized Transport Benefits and Costs, Victoria Transport Policy
Institute (www.vtpi.org); at www.vtpi.org/nmt-tdm.pdf; originally published as “Quantifying Bicycling
Benefits for Achieving TDM Objectives,” Transportation Research Record 1441, Transportation
Research Board (www.trb.org), 1994, pp. 134-140.
Todd Litman and Steve Fitzroy (2005), Safe Travels: Evaluating Mobility Management Traffic Safety
Impacts, VTPI (www.vtpi.org); at www.vtpi.org/safetrav.pdf.
Nathan McNeil (2010), Bikeability and the Twenty-Minute Neighborhood: How Infrastructure and
Destinations Influence Bicycle Accessibility, Portland State University (www.ibpi.usp.pdx.edu); at
www.ibpi.usp.pdx.edu/media/McNeil_Bikeability_June2010.pdf.
Measuring Walking (www.measuring-walking.org), describes internationally standardised monitoring
methods of walking and public space.
NACTO (2011), Urban Bikeway Design Guide, National Association of City Transportation Officials
(www.nacto.org); at http://nacto.org/cities-for-cycling/design-guide.
Dan Nabors, et al. (2007), Pedestrian Road Safety Audit Guidelines and Prompt Lists, Pedestrian and
Bicycle Information Center (www.pedbikeinfo.org), Federal Highway Administration Office of Safety; at
http://drusilla.hsrc.unc.edu/cms/downloads/PedRSA%20-%20FINAL%20-%20high-quality.pdf.
NZTA (2010), Economic Evaluation Manual, Volumes 1 and 2, New Zealand Transport Agency
(www.nzta.govt.nz); at www.nzta.govt.nz/resources/economic-evaluation-manual/volume-1/index.html
and www.nzta.govt.nz/resources/economic-evaluation-manual/volume-2/docs/eem2-july-2010.pdf.
Theodore Petritsch, et al. (2008), Health Benefits of Bicycle Facilities, Paper 08-1230 Transportation
Research Board Annual Meeting (www.trb.org); at
http://pubsindex.trb.org/document/view/default.asp?lbid=847922.
Lee Pike (2011), Generation Of Walking, Cycling And Public Transport Trips: Pilot Study, New Zealand
Transport Agency (www.nzta.govt.nz); at www.nzta.govt.nz/resources/research/reports/439/docs/439.pdf.
John Pucher and Ralph Buehler (2008), “Making Cycling Irresistible: Lessons from the Netherlands,
Denmark, and Germany,” Transport Reviews, Vol. 28, No. 4, July 2008; at www.vtpi.org/irresistible.pdf.
John Pucher and Lewis Dijkstra (2000), “Making Walking and Cycling Safer: Lessons from Europe,”
Transportation Quarterly, Vol. 54, No. 3, Summer 2000, Eno Foundation (www.enotrans.com); available
at www.vtpi.org/puchertq.pdf.
5
Active Transport Benefit and Cost Bibliography
Victoria Transport Policy Institute
John Pucher, Jennifer Dill and Susan Handy (2010), “Infrastructure, Programs and Policies To Increase
Bicycling: An International Review,” Preventive Medicine, Vol. 48, No. 2, February; prepared for the
Active Living By Design Program (www.activelivingbydesign.org); at
http://policy.rutgers.edu/faculty/pucher/Pucher_Dill_Handy10.pdf.
John Pucher, Ralph Buehler, David R. Bassett and Andrew L. Dannenberg (2010), “Walking and Cycling
to Health: A Comparative Analysis of City, State, and International Data,” American Journal of Public
Health, at http://ajph.aphapublications.org/cgi/reprint/AJPH.2009.189324v1.
John Pucher, Ralph Buehler, and Mark Seinen (2011), “Bicycling Renaissance in North America? An
Update and Re-Assessment of Cycling Trends and Policies,” Transportation Research A, Vol. 45, No. 8,
pp. 451-475; at http://policy.rutgers.edu/faculty/pucher/TRA960_01April2011.pdf.
Kjartan Sælensminde (2004), “Cost-Benefit Analysis of Walking and Cycling Track Networks Taking
Into Account Insecurity, Health Effects and External Costs of Motor Vehicle Traffic,” Transportation
Research A, Vol. 38, No. 8 (www.elsevier.com/locate/tra), October, pp. 593-606.
Gian-Claudia Sciara, Susan Handy and Marlon G. Boarnet (2011), Draft Policy Brief on the Impacts of
Pedestrian Strategies Based on a Review of the Empirical Literature, for Research on Impacts of
Transportation and Land Use-Related Policies, California Air Resources Board
(http://arb.ca.gov/cc/sb375/policies/policies.htm).
SFDPH (2008), Bicycle Environmental Quality Index (BEQI), San Francisco Department of Public
Health; at www.sfphes.org/HIA_Tools_BEQI.htm.
SQW (2007), Valuing the Benefits of Cycling: A Report to Cycling England, Cycling England,
Department for Transport (www.dft.gov.uk); at www.dft.gov.uk/cyclingengland/site/wpcontent/uploads/2008/08/valuing-the-benefits-of-cycling-full.pdf.
Fred Sztabinski (2009), Bike Lanes, On-Street Parking and Business A Study of Bloor Street in Toronto’s
Annex Neighbourhood, The Clean Air Partnership (www.cleanairpartnership.org); at
www.cleanairpartnership.org/pdf/bike-lanes-parking.pdf.
S. Turner, R. Singh, P. Quinn and T. Allatt (2011), Benefits Of New And Improved Pedestrian Facilities
– Before And After Studies, Research Report 436, NZ Transport Agency (www.nzta.govt.nz); at
www.nzta.govt.nz/resources/research/reports/436/docs/436.pdf.
UTTIPEC (2009), Pedestrian Design Guidelines: Don’t Drive…Walk!, Delhi Development Authority, New
Delhi (www.uttipec.nic.in); at www.uttipec.nic.in/PedestrianGuidelines-30Nov09-UTTPEC-DDA.pdf.
Walk Friendly Communities (www.walkfriendly.org) is a national program sponsored by the U.S.
Department of Transportation to encourage towns and cities to establish a high priority for supporting
safer walking environments. The Resources section provides useful information.
WalkIt: The Walking Resources Database (www.walkit.info) provides extensive resources for pedestrian
planning in urban development, local transport, health and recreation.
WalkScore (www.walkscore.com) calculates the walkability of a location based on proximity to public
services such as stores, schools and parks.
6