Carlo Nanni
GUIDE TO THE STUDY
OF THE PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
Roma, UPS, 2015
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First part:
INTRODUCTION
Chapter 1
THE PHILOSOPHICAL ROAD TO EDUCATION
In the western tradition, discourse on the question of education has achieved a privileged
position and has received a particular level of attention within the field of philosophical
reflection, especially when it comes to that which is termed "practical philosophy," which aims
to discover the reasons behind social, political and moral behavior.
The philosophical approach – as it is today understood – is not so much an application of
philosophical reflection to the personal and social reality of educational activity and purpose;
rather, it arises as a specific and more in-depth analysis of the problems posed by the educational
practice. It is well-known how – at the end of the 19th century – John Dewey taught various
courses entitled "the philosophy of education" at the University of New York. Also well-known
is his conception of the philosophy of education as "general theory of education," with the
function of perspective synthesis in regard to the other contributions with which a science of
education should be nourished/fostered. In Italy, on the other hand, the philosophy of education
came about after the separation of pedagogy from the idealist philosophical approach: the will of
a scientific pedagogy caused epistemological reflection on the scientific nature of pedagogy, and
subsequently critical-philosophical reflection against the ideologies (and the Weltanschauung)
present in various pedagogical schools and courses of study, to arise.
1. The starting point and the object of the philosophy of education
Awareness of the precedence of the concrete world of real life and its problems over the abstract
world of concepts and ideas is stronger than ever today. This underlying presupposition leads us
closer to educational reality, which should find its starting point in the problems that the social
and personal question of instruction and development places before pedagogical reflection.
Within the problematic field highlighted, what could be termed "the theoretical dimension of
formative problems" is to be clarified.
This, it seems, can be limited in such a way:
1) First of all, the theoretical-pedagogical problem can be considered all that concerns a general
understanding of the world and of life, the idea and project of "man," the conception of
knowledge and the theory of action that one has when undertaking education and instruction.
2) More directly, this problem is defined as a line of questioning on that which is thought with
regard to educational purpose and the corresponding pedagogical culture.
3) When the line of inquiry then arrives at the ideal patrimony of culture, a third realm of
theoretical problem is provided by critical reassessment of the large categories of thought that
make up the framework of the existential problem and serve as a foundational reference point at
the operational moment in the educational, personal and community action in favor of education.
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2. The tasks of a philosophical approach to theoretical-educational problems
In such a way also the tasks/functions of a philosophical approach to education are defined:
in fact, it can be affirmed that a philosophical approach should have above all the function of
ensuring a clarification of language (scientific or non-scientific) on education.
In addition, it has traditionally been asked of the philosophical approach to perform the function
of critical coordination.
The critical capacity of philosophy against stereotypes and educational cultural prejudices or
against ideological positions and points of view has been pointed out, but also fiercely denied.
Philosophical activity has been considered also as an organ of constructive imagination and of
perspective and alternative thought, which goes beyond the account of the action carried out to
the search of the possible, outlooks and intuitions aimed to seize upon new or different methods
for scientific and technological research and for concrete educational commitment.
Finally, the philosophy of education receives the difficult task - but not less important than the
others - of seeking out the ultimate sense, the justificatory foundation, the pursuit of the ideal
horizon of educational enterprise.
3. The theoretical nature of the philosophical approach to education
The philosophical approach to education is merely one of the points of view from which one can
approach education and its problems. Neither can it replace the human sciences that study
education (history, biology, physiology, psychology and sociology of education, linguistics and
educational anthropology, etc.) nor can it give order to methodology and didactics, much less to
educational technologies. It does not substitute for an educational sensibility and wisdom nor
does it take the place of the political search of the possible and practicable in education. It gives
to these reasons and indications of meaning and receives in turn stimuli for further analysis.
Among the other claims of philosophical activity, it also presents itself as an exemplary way of
facing the problems that arise from educational praxis, underlining the theoretical, general,
fundamental and essential aspects that the other approaches generally take for granted o skip
over altogether (cfr. n. 1: the object of educational philosophy).
4. Capacities and limitations of the philosophical approach to education
Philosophical activity displays that behavior characteristic of human thought that goes beyond
and does not reduce itself to thought that compares, deduces, induces, infers or strives to rational
transfer of whatever is nearby. Since it must base itself exclusively upon its own forces and the
evidence of however much one can confirm, it appears clear that in such a topic matter it is not
easy to reach clearly inconvertible affirmations. Nevertheless, one might judge these affirmations
as credible insofar as they are able to resist the attempts of criticism, since they are:
1) not internally contradictory, as far as logicality, systematic nature and justification is
concerned;
2) capable of accounting for the problematic of beginning;
3) referable to fundamentals that do not appear – in the light of reason – to be clearly erroneous
with strong evidence;
4) capable of withstanding the test of facts, taking into account the consequences that can
logically be inferred from these affirmations.
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The limitations to such a type of activity are always more deliberate: on one hand, it is carried
out as a reflection on principle and meaning; on the other hand, it is intended to resist every
attempt to make itself absolute, with the clear consciousness to emerge from a physiopsychic
background, and thus to carry the markers of tensions, contradictions, profound uncertainties,
unconscious drives, biological dynamics (more or less healthy), cultural stereotypes intermixed
with desires, aspirations, needs and demands (whether individual or collective).
5. The multiplicity of research methods
It would be more correct to speak of philosophies of education rather than of a single philosophy
of education. For this reason, people tend to be more flexible today with regard to the particular
methods that are adopted by the various forms of philosophical-pedagogical speculation.
Many use what can be termed the transcendental analytic method, which seeks to arrive from the
analysis of phenomena to the general conditions of the potentiality of a phenomenon, act, event
(in this case, that of education). Today, in the sector of the human and social sciences and also in
pedagogy, the phenomenon method is rather common, that goes beyond the empirical data and
strikes at the essential structures, the sense of the phenomena and of the educational processes,
the essence of a phenomenon, understood in the context of their vital emergence.
The dialectic method is also much followed, that aims to highlight the tensions that social
complexity and the historical dynamic introduce into educational life.
The hermeneutic method is likewise often practiced, that gives a method of interpretation of texts
or documents, as commonly happens also in the various human and social sciences. It has passed
to the interpretation of that analogous text made up by the vital processes. In the pedagogical
sphere, this method begins with the analysis of educational life experience and on the basis of
pre-understandings hopes to arrive at a renewed understanding that might give new meaning to
the educational situation.
Others prefer for an inquiry method a type of research that accounts for the system category,
hoping to encompass the network of relations and interactions that subsist between the elements
of a reality, dynamic in itself, (closed system) and also in the rapport with other realities to which
it is correlated (open system, such as is education), in the process of their continuity, change and
conclusion.
Within such a spectrum of methodological procedures, one can discern a general and common
line of development, that qualifies the philosophical-pedagogical speculation today
fundamentally as a form of praxeology, which takes its initiative from the problems arising from
educational practice and returns to these same problems under the form of specific contribution
to their concrete resolution, thanks to the individualization of their theoretical horizon.
6. The lay out of the discipline
Certain people refuse to attribute to the philosophical approach to education a denotative value
that is too precise and rigorous, as if it were a closed-off and well delineated sector that were
under examination. With the phrase “philosophy of education,” it might be better to indicate an
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attitude and a particular way of affronting educational problems, attentive to the general and
fundamental aspects of education, rather than a specific discipline. With the phrase “philosophy
of education,” one would intend the series of philosophical themes that seem to hold a more
precise interest for pedagogy, for example the relationship between actions and values, science
and philosophy, nature and culture, culture science and technology, man and world, time, etc.
For others, it is a component of pedagogy (the anthropological-theoretical sort as opposed to the
rilevative, methodological and didactic-technological varieties).
For others, it is truly a distinct discipline of an epistemological and/or theoretical-foundational
character.
In respect to the other disciplines joined together under the generic appellation of sciences of
education, the philosophy of education should be placed among those that privilege the
analytical-interpretive importance of pedagogical knowledge; and therefore it should find above
itself the disciplines that are of prevalent character rilevativo and below itself those that are
methodological and technological-operative.
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Chapter 2
THEORETICAL LEANINGS OR TENDENCIES IN THE WORLD OF PEDAGOGY
Theoretical research is supported by (and in turn supports) major frames of reference, meaning
general views proposed as a horizon for practical, concrete action, in general and in formation
and education in particular.
A certain reference to a philosophy or at least to certain prevalent cultural opinions can be found
in educational tradition both past and present. Also common enough is the reference to religious
or ethical and humanist views on life
With a view to arriving at a sufficiently exhaustive picture of what in some ways is up till now
relevant and influential in educational practice and contemporary pedagogical research, we offer
a set of leanings or directions of a theoretical and pedagogical nature that have come together
over the last fifty years, at least in the West (and in Italy in particular).
1. Secular, neo-enlightenment leanings
In the years that followed the Second World War, the human being and his history have been
interpreted in a radically secular way, in the sense that it does not refer back to religious or sacral
or ideological views of reality, but is based exclusively on the power of reason and on scientific
and technological research. Scientific spirit and the new “ethos”, that is a lifestyle which is
secular, scientific, progressive that sees democracy as the ideal historical form for setting up
society.
Along these lines:
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Education is principally seen as education to reason, scientific and technological
progress;
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Education will find its value essentially as scientific education, inasmuch as it seeks to
utilise and adopt the content, methods and procedures of scientific and technological
research as its own;
There is an equal need seen for a pedagogy which is a true science of education, principally
made up of analysis of pedagogical discourse. The more general frame of reference is that of
substantial naturalism, in the sense that it is an ongoing interaction between the physical,
biological, psychological, logical and nature, the individual, society and culture, mostly from a
perspective that does not leave much room for or openness to transcendence. Thus there is a
“common faith” in humankind, but one that is linked with a certain relativism or economicmaterialist historicism. The most common reference is to J. Dewey, but also to K. Popper and
other school's of thought concerning critical reason.
2. Marxist leanings
In the post-war years there was discussion as to whether there was room for a pedagogy linked to
Marxism and which could qualify as Marxist pedagogy. Indeed education and pedagogy can
have meaning and not be reduced to ideological configurations only when they are part of and
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are understood within the historical process of revolutionary transformation, becoming an
opportunity and form of liberating praxis. Theory here would not be detached from practice and
would act on what is real. In such a context education is clearly called on to be an action within
or a specific way of carrying out the struggle, revolutionary praxis. The working class is the
historical subject of this par excellence.
A number of typical educational strategies come from this:
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Education should essentially be polytechnic (theoretical and practical and following
multiple techniques)in such a way as to “produce” fulfilled human beings and
harmonious development from whatever point of view, historical beings who can
transform social existence;
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Education is an industrial work, systematic action and intervention struggling against
nature and instincts to dominate them and crate a being relevant for his historical era.
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More than being a relationship of educand and educator it is education of the collective.
3. Personalist leanings
Faced with the world crisis of the 1930s, E. Mounier and friends pointed to a way out through a
personalist and communitarian revolution. Personalism was a belligerent viewpoint focused on
the person for whom it was essential to have the dimensions of responsibility (vocation),
incarnated spirituality, communication, meaning openness to the transcendent and commitment
to social involvement.
Pedagogues and educators who based themselves on ideas along these lines referred to a
Christian inspiration for life and drew on that to shape their educational, democratic and
communitarian system.
We should distinguish between personalism, understood as a generic attitude of reaction to
collective Marxism or existentialist individualism, and personalism understood as a precise
theoretical viewpoint that comes from original insights into the person as the focus of meaning
and value. In a broad sense positions like that of Maritain and others are also personalist - their
theoretical view of the value of the human person fits within a broad metaphysical framework:
Thomist, spiritualistic, existentialist, phenomenological, or some other philosophical matrix.
Attention to education is relatively common to various kinds of personalism; we can identify a
number of common factors both regarding the theory of education and school pedagogy:
1) Educational activity aimed at fostering personal 'universes' or communities of people;
2) The educand not as an empty vessel to be filled or a being to be trained but a person to be
provoked. In this sense education is a kind of 'midwife' for the person (actually a Socratic
method of leading the individual through dialogue to awareness of the truth).
3) The educand is the first factor in the educational process. The educator cooperates in the
process.
4) As a person the educand is not a res (= thing) of the family, Church or State.
Relatively close to certain kinds of personalism, but more attentive to the tradition are also
tendencies that in North American circles are known variously as “perennialists” and
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“essentialisms”. Education has the task of preparing for life and a cultivated use of reasons,
thanks to learning perennial truths and values and everything that is essentially human.
4. Pedagogical historicism
Historicism was a widespread tendency in the 1960s and 70s.
The historicist viewpoint not only states that man comes into being through history or that man's
favoured world is the one he forges over the course of historical, social cultural processes, but
ends up saying that the world and history constitute the totality and horizons of meaning which
circumscribe the human state of affairs. It can go to the point of saying that everything is
historical and there is nothing beyond history. Everything is explained according to the laws of
history, variously interpreted according to the different kinds of historicism.
One kind is at least tendentiously found in Marxist pedagogy, especially in the kind closest to
Gramsci; in secular neo-enlightenment thinking, for example Dewey's evolutionary naturalism.
But it is also found in pedagogical viewpoints that make reference to existentialism.
5. The theoretical crisis of the 1970s and the influence of psycho-pedagogies
Between the 1960s and 70s there was a considerable impact on pedagogy from the cognitive
structuralism of J. Piaget or the linguistic structuralism of J.S. Bruner or the social and
constructivist view of L. S. Vygotskij. But the impact of these new psycho-pedagogies were also
nurtured by the neo-behaviouralism of B.F. Skinner and in the 1980s by the increasingly
influential neuro-infotech cognitivism.
At the beginning of the 70s, in what were generally the circles of the so-called progressive new
left, Freudian analysis had received a good hearing for its interpretation of cultural and social
activity aimed at stemming uncontrolled instinctual drives or the pressure of the socioinstitutional Superego (culture, religion, social norms, prejudices, fashions, etc.). Thus
psychoanalysis began functioning as a critical tool for demystifying unconscious masks and
reactions of theoretical pedagogical constructs and family or school educational activity. In the
same way and at the same time, there was also a certain wave of neo-nihilism. The new masters
of thought in this case were Nietzsche and Heidegger.
6. Emancipist and neo-radical leanings
In the 1970s various pedagogical tendencies arose with different kinds of cultural reference.
Amongst these was the notable influence of neo-radical and emancipist thinking and pedagogy.
Life fully lived and the immediate satisfaction of subjective needs were pointed to as the
supreme rule for all activity. It was said that education could have meaning only to the extent that
it fought for this - freedom from all kinds of authoritarianism (micro-parental or macro-social),
to achieve the conquest of autonomy and complete self-fulfilment over indoctrinisation,
authoritarianism, conformism. It involved struggle against injustice of any kind that smothers
needs, desires and subjective aspirations.
In this case more than speaking of education we should speak of defence against education and
the support and invitation to self-orientation.
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7. Pedagogy of liberation
At the beginning of the 1970s, then through the decade that followed, there was enthusiastic
acceptance also of liberation perspectives coming from third world countries or at least
developing ones. Personal liberation was linked with reference to popular liberation.
The pedagogical formulation that stands out most in this regard was of course the Brazilian
Paulo Freire's
(1921-1997) with his “pedagogy of the oppressed”, which came on to the world stage at the
beginning of the 70s. It began as a model for literacy and awareness for Brazilian rural adult
populations, and then became a broad pedagogical set up joining educational activity with
popular social and political liberation. In this way, in the awareness that nobody frees anybody,
no one is freed by anybody, but we seek freedom together, the idea was to overcome a kind of
bank or deposit view of education (where the educand is like a bank where ideas or techniques
are deposited and which would end of being an oppressive and reproductive kind of domination,
also a passive one functioning on behalf of the dominant power) by means of an education which
was liberating and made things more complex. Thus literacy, seeing the complexity of things,
public awareness, political involvement go hand-in-hand. In this way of doing pedagogy
“nobody educates anyone, nobody is educated by anyone, but we educate together through the
mediation of the world.” Community education strategies are given preference. Paulo Freire,
towards the end of his life, after returning to Brazil following his time in Africa (in GuineaBissau) sought to link public awareness and liberation with autonomy and democracy, operating
at a level not only of education of adults but of the school and education system in general
speaking rather of “pedagogy of autonomy” and “pedagogy of hope”.
8. Technological and functionalist leanings
The scientific and technical mentality has increasingly penetrated the world of education over the
most recent decades. This case of the rationalisation of learning processes has been seen as an
effective antidote, on the one hand, to the limitations of traditional schooling. Attention is
focused more on development of the child's mind than on his or her interests and activities. There
has been a growing idea of school and education in general which highlights not the function of
socialisation but formation of intelligence. It is also true that this scientific and technological
thinking is ultimately directed to acquiring skills that allow one to respond to the needs of
personal fulfilment and social effectiveness.
9.Theoretical and pedagogical tendencies during the crisis of modernity
In recent decades the modern western view has been strongly criticised.
There is talk of the decline or end of modernity or mroe commonly of the shift to univocal and
not uni-directional kinds of post-modernity”. With regard to this current feeling, philosophical
and pedagogical research needs to highlight the problems faced by things considered the
cornerstones of modern educational culture: confidence in the subjective capacity of freedom
and human transformation; an almost sacred faith in reasons, science and the technical; the hope
of the possibility of transparent communication and a correct and fruitful dialogue between
individuals, social groups, whole peoples, nations and cultures.
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At a broader level philosophical and pedagogical research is called to cooperate with other
scientific and theoretical approaches in search of an educational culture of any significance and
future with respect to current ways of being and acting.
Conclusion. Theoretical tendencies and human growth
In the thick of educational activity these theoretical models enter into a dialectic with subjective
possibilities of education.
The affirmation of a legitimate pluralism in such theoretical tendencies or leanings seems
assured.
Here we limit ourselves obviously to general theoretical models which are the specific object of
this discussion of ours, without going on to other types of models and their respective functions
(teaching, learning models, school management models etc.). Nevertheless it is clear that these
theoretical tendencies and more so specific models, need always and in every case submit to the
rules of critical judgement.
In this work of critical scrutiny and elaboration, of foundation and thinking ahead in a planned
way, that requires a prior linguistic, communicative consonance, we see a clear need for the
contribution of a solid and clear philosophy of education (and, in a believing context, theology of
education) and of a constructive and correct dialogue for development which will enrich each
and every person.
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Chapter 3
NEW AND VITAL CONTEXTS AND THEORETICAL RESEARCH
The philosophy of education takes on special procedures as a result of the general and specific
context that qualifies the object under investigation in various ways.
1. The novelties of the 90s
Already at the end of the 80s people began speaking of the post-industrial society at the level of
economics, due to the emergence and social dominance of the advanced service sector compared
with the earlier hegemony of industrial activity, that is the so-called secondary
industries(compared with primary industries like agriculture and animal breeding. At the social
level we speak of growing complexity and differentiation to indicate that presence of diversified
and differentiated interests in society (and sometimes inconsistent or disjointed ones) subjected,
however, to sophisticated games of mutual re-adjustment, or autonomous and dynamic
regulation. The multiplication of more or less local centres, acts as a counterpoint to the growth
of multinational power; along the same lines we can interpret the increased fragmentation of the
times and modes of individual and collective existence; the tendency to disenchantment or
sticking to different values according to the diversity of life's circumstances;
2. Post-modernity
At a cultural level people began speaking of the post-modern. In many senses.
2.1 At the level of anthropology and values
At the anthropological level, people began speaking of the “post-modern man”, an image of man,
that is, which offers room for difference, otherness, limits, alternative forms of emancipation and
liberation. The view of modern man (homo copernicanus and homo faber) was in crisis. A new
kind of modernity was imposed: the planetary form of the information society, dominated by
new information technologies, would lead in each case, in value terms, to an essential search for
a new subjectivity, rationality, way of planning, a new citizenship, a new awareness based on
new more universal and intercultural values. In this sense some believe we ought speak not of
'post' but “hyper-modernity”, due to new computerised and telecommunication technologies
including at the level of seeking cultural innovation.
2.2 Modernity, modernisation, post-modernity
The term “modernity” from late Latin “modernum”, derived from the adverb “modo” (= or now)
or “mox” (= now, immediately), really means “current". But historically it came to indicate the
attitude and way of seeing things typical of western post-mediaeval historical awareness, that
tends to distinguish itself from the earlier era (= mediaeval) not only chronologically but also in
view of cultural outlook. We note that already in the mediaeval period there was the problem of
the difference between ancient and modern. They said we were: “dwarves on the shoulders of
giants” (John of Salisbury, ca. 1120). But modern post-mediaeval consciousness is based in turn
on the idea of “modernisation”, meaning on the assemblage of structural innovations from
economic production, inn turn based on scientific and technological innovation, on the set of
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guiding criteria for political activity both in relation to the “rejuvenation” of internal social
organisation and international policy on development models. From a chronological point of
view, both the adjective “post-modern” and the abstract noun “post-modernity”, would indicate a
situation, a state, a condition, a literary, artistic, philosophical and cultural sensitivity in general
which was distancing itself from the modern.
2.3 The post-modern situation for knowledge
Post-modernity would show up especially at a gnoseological level: meaning at the level of
research, knowledge, linguistic expressiveness and would make manifest the limitations and nonabsolute nature of the great narratives (= ideologies) of western modernity which in their own
way philosophically, ethically and politically legitimated the hegemonic social knowledge. This
would clearly testify to the cultural changes going on in society in advanced development,
characterised by the intrusion of information technology and culturally by the decline of
metaphysics. There would be no more absolute, global, unique, definitive knowledge, but a
fragmented, culturally characterised, limited, complex, interpretative or more simply tecnicopractical or worse, ”marketised” knowledge, but also “allusive” to the beyond, the more
(compared with what exists or the behavioural and social effects it produces).
3. New scenarios at the beginning of the 21st century: globalisation and its surrounds
At the turn of the century and in the first decade of the 21st century there is a notable change of
the “scenarios” in which individual and community existence takes place. It is marked by the
internationalisation of the business community and globalisation of the market; life changes and
certainly anthropological views change, with elements of continuity, but also undeniable accents
of structural, cultural, value-oriented, personal, communal diversity
3.1 Internationalisation of the business community and globalisation of the market
Internationalisation of production leads to the concentration of business groups and globalisation
of ways of producing and consuming. Economic power begins to concentrate in the hands of a
few “lobbies”. Globalisation of the market leads to international exchange, information goes
planetary and the exchange of consumer goods brings about a marked human mobility between
one nation and another; indeed between one continent and another, giving rise to indiscriminate
contact between people and cultures, but on the other hand leading to phenomena of cultural
homogenisation and erosion of national and local specificity or of particular ethnic groups. There
is a high risk of a fundamental economism of values and anthropology, extolling values of
success, efficiency, productivity, possession, of always being “up to date”.
3.2 New information and communication technologies
The new information, computer, telecommunication technologies, especially in industrialised
countries have over the last decade brought about a scenario of radical social transition towards
new forms of living and social organisation that have us now speaking of a “knowledge society”.
On the economic plane the knowledge society is leading to what is labeled as the “new
economy”. Indeed, this transition to a knowledge society is transforming the meaning and way of
working. New professions are emerging. Old trades are changing “skin”, others are completely
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disappearing. Growing complexity demands technical specialisation, but also know-how, ability
to control and manage processes, business creativity and inventiveness, a capacity for innovation
and constant updating. The very relationship with reality and time are being strongly transformed
and made new with the daily offering of everything on TV and the time people spend on the
Internet: thanks to digital technology, the so-called “virtual” is imposed on the “real” or at least a
“second Life” is created, the digital world that encourages communication and socialisation of
everyone and amongst everyone in real time but also creates new kinds of loneliness and
“saying goodbye” to reality and direct, material, physical, interpersonal contacts.
3.3 Multicultural and intercultural dynamics: integration and new citizenship
Multiculturalism is an increasing feature of life within nations and internationally. Practically it
means having not only genetically different people or groups living together in the same
neighbourhood. Different cultures, religions and lifestyles are now cohabiting. There are not only
forms of genetic cross-breeding, but ethnic, cultural and religious as well. On the cultural plane
we extol the phenomenon of pluralism at every level. The invitation is to discover ways of
intercultural dialogue without falling into cultural and value relativism. But it is the notion of
integration that is highlighted in all its multivalency and ambivalence at every level. Integration
can be understood in terms of assimilating what is different, sharing something in common in
social terms and private differentiation of detail, institutionalisation of differences that are
“confederated”, free interplay of differences in common social life or even active and civil
dialogue between differences in view of a mutual and common “rapprochement”.
In turn all this range of problems has us looking at “citizenship” differently, sense of social,
national, religious belonging; a commitment to human development and being part of social,
civil, international and world development.
3.4. Between old and new values
The pre-eminent values seem to be those tied to a good quality of subjective life, individual wellbeing, the search for health and success at all costs. Self-fulfilment becomes almost an obsessive
“'me' religion.” It is not easy to understand that having, or doing things effectively and
efficiently do not fully satisfy our being, so it is difficult to day to understand the limitations of
being and acting. But also the risk of new forms of alienation or narcissistic regression seems
anything but hypothetical.
3.5 Ethical and religious styles between absence, indifference, religiosity, fundamentalism and
involvement
Novelties also show up at the level of behaviours and motivations for choices and the way we
lead our lives. Globalisation can foster relativism of values and fragmentation in life.
Secularisation has extended to the practical level (inasmuch as the minds and hearts of the people
are more taken up with consumerism, well-being and entertainment), but this is counter-balanced
by a “re-enkindling” of the sacred, magic, rites, new forms of religiosity and the widespread
tendency to a subjective and cosmic religiosity with its classic expression in New Age
movements. For these reasons, many have given themselves over to heavy forms of fideism,
religious fundamentalism or on the opposite side to that, almost magical ritualistic experiences.
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It is also true that, despite many experiences to the contrary, we note the growing interest in
quality of life, the defence of human rights and the struggle for civil and political rights under the
banner of a keen awareness of personal dignity. There is an increase in new movements
promoting human and civil development for all, protection of the environment and ecosystem or
cities with a more human face. Traditional religiosu confessions too are showing clear signs of
attention to social problems, especially justice and peace.
4. Globalisation and “fluid (or liquid) modernity”
Globalisation as highlighted the weakness and problems of modern western culture. From a
sociological point of view, Z. Bauman in particular has noted that globalisation has meant that
western “solid modernity” is in crisis. The entire world is in a state of “liquid modernity “ or
“fluid modernity“ (meaning a modernity that emphasises networks, flows, ongoing processes,
but that also leads to insecurity, uncertainty, strong levels of unpredictability, sentiments of
generalised confusion and fragmentation), even leading to forms of “nihilism”, understood as the
personal and common feeling of emptiness that pervades our lives and intimacy and that leads
only to “sad passions”.
4.1. The concept of 'glocal'
In this kind of framework, globalisation has seen the phenomenon of 'localism' strongly emerge,
especially in recent years. In the desire to balance global and local, economically and
theoretically the idea of “glocal” has developed. It has been seen as a likely alternative to the
unilateral expression of the cultural hegemony of those who are prominent in “global”, but also
not to be reduced just to “local”. The “glocal” approach instead tries to make room for encounter
and dialogue, negotiation between people at global and local level and dialogue between local
people themselves, with a view to building a stronger negotiating commons, carrying out
projects in cooperation and building up local, regional forms of solidarity and even international
and world solidarity. Thinking glocally then is presented as a possibility for thinking which is
not linear and unique but complex and systematic, articulated and differentiated.
4.2 Logical, pedagogical and ethical demands: intercultural education
The current experience of globalisation allows us to “see the world” in a way which is effectively
“ecumenical” and “catholic” (in either a secular or religious sense!). The dynamic dialogue urged
by glocal thinking, does not mean levelling out or hiding differences. Sharing values and
convergence in protecting and defending, promoting common human rights and “looking after
mankind.” Dialogue demands clarity and awareness of one's own identity. Intercultural education
is presented not only as a specific part of education but a way of doing education today (equal for
all, not only children and/or migrants). Indeed we all need to live in a multicultural situation. The
same can be said for the pedagogical invitation to educate or be educated to “multiple
citizenship“. This too is the result of sincere and hard-working intercultural dialogue and trying
out educational best practice. But it requires effective implementation of international law and
sub-national minorities.
14
In turn – at the production and market level – there is a need that interdependence in fact at all
levels is supported by virtuous and ethical solidarity (in Christian terms we would say
responsible and loving “fellowship”).
15
Chapter 4
NEW TENDENCIES IN EDUCATION
The philosophy of education is also affected by novelties and the spread of education in
contemporary society, where there is talk of the “educational emergency”, both in the sense that
"it is very difficult to educate", but also in the sense that "it is more important than ever for our
world to be involved in educating for everyone's good".
1. Contemporary confidence in education
Faced with the many challenges ahead of us – says the UNESCO Delors Report, the name of its
coordinator, (1997) but actually bearing the title Learning: the treasure within – education seems
to be a valuable and essential means which could allow us to achieve our ideals of peace,
freedom and social justice in the 21st century. It should carry out a fundamental role in personal
and social development. The commission is convinced that education can be the “winning card”
or at least “necessary utopia”, for fostering a development which is as systematic, harmonious
and authentic at all levels of life as is possible, reducing poverty, preventing exclusion, avoiding
the clash between peoples and nations, struggling against oppression, domination and war as a
solution to conflicts or development needs.
2. Expansion and new understanding of education in contemporary society
In fact, in recent decades there has certainly been a growth in awareness worldwide, but also in
the volume of educational activities, educational agencies, important people,educational
professions. We can therefore say that the very concept of education has been enriched with new
connotations, additional to the traditional ones. Education is not only something that goes on in
the family or school or parish or in groups. New settings, earlier to the family to look after, or to
religious or philanthropic charity or social volunteer activity, are now considered to be “the
field” of public, social, formal education. Just think of the educational concern increasingly
given to various life circumstances (women, children, youth, adult, elderly) or particular
situations in life (neglected or hospitalised children, adoptions, engaged couples, handicapped
people, unemployed, delinquency, drug-dependency, AIDS sufferers, the terminally ill, old age).
2.1. Continuing education and the educating society
Even regarding pedagogy (= reflection and study of and for educational praxis), compared with
the tradition, it has to be said that contemporary pedagogical awareness urges us not to limit
education to occasions of pure transmission of culture and know-how, primary and secondary or
upper or specialist university education, but to see it more globally, think of it as continuing
education, understood both as education for all of life and at different stages (Lifelong.), and for
all of life in its many dimensions (Lifewide = liberating and holistic education) and in every
situation in life and the many 'worlds' in life as a result of historical and cultural processes (On
going.).
Something similar is said about an educating society. Others speak of an educative society not
only in the sense that educational and social agencies are effective and work together, cooperate,
but that society as a whole puts itself in the position of giving attention to its own formation
16
across the board, being all things to all people, as a condition for the common good developing
at all levels, not only production and economy, but culturally, ethically, humanly personally.
We need to take this up later.
2.2. Everyone's right to education. Formal, non-formal, informal education.
The 21st century opened from an educational point of view with a UNESCO Declaration which
states that everyone has the right to continuing education.
International documents also state that there is a need for integration between agencies in the
social system as regards formation, instruction, education: be it public (state and non-state
schooling) or the broader area of civil society (the third sector), which would allow us to
distinguish formal education (intentional and organised, as in schooling), from non-formal
(intentional but less organised, as in the family) and from informal education ( neither intentional
nor organised as such, as happens in peer groups, community life beyond the “parallel school”
that is the mass-media and new computerised media.
3. Broad international directions in education
At international level we can identify two broad models of education, instruction, formation:
3.1. Functional and technological model
Examples of this are the White Book (Cresson, 1996), entitled: Teaching and learning: towards a
knowledge society, proposing instruction and European education which:
- encourages acquiring new knowledge;
- sees school along business lines;
- fights exclusion;
- fosters knowledge of three community languages;
- puts capital investment and training on the same footing;
- prefers alternating school and work;
- encourages educational systems which integrate school, business, neighbourhood, educational
agencies
in local communities, national and international education policies;
- fosters continuing education;
- connects education and training with local development policies.
And we should just note the cognitive and technological emphasis (“towards a knowledge
society”) and the economic and functional one(= school, training for greater productivity and
economic development, and therefore less attentive to the humanistic and personalistic emphasis)
3.2. The humanistic solidarity model
Locating itself at a world level, the aforementioned Delors Report promises a global education
which combines within it education and training and has 4 "pillars" as its principle.
-learning and getting to know (= cultural formation);
-learning how to do things (= acquiring important skills for this) ;
17
-learning how to be (= achieving human capacities of awareness, freedom, responsibility,
solidarity),
-learning how to live together, with others (this is the novelty when compared with the Faure
Report in 1972, entitled Learning to be),that is, having good relational and social skills, for a
good and active participation in social and community development in in a worthy and
qualitatively democratic way, participative, collaborative, empathetic and of course with critical
ability, openness to the future, the beyond, to values, transcendence.
4. Strategies for managing school and teaching
These general approaches are reflected in the general educational, formational strategies where
we note a plurality of approaches and procedures in school and other training setups.
4.1. Strategies for school management
School autonomy has been sought, but there is an appeal to a more horizontal (amongst
schools) as well as vertical support (administrative or other governmental interventions:
superiors, municipalities, regions, ministry ...).
There is a certain tension between a model of the school as community (specified as a learning
community to differentiate it from other types of community) and a model of school as a social
enterprise for education and training.
There is a pluralistic management allowed for school institutions of public service, between state
and non-state or private (so-called third sector).
Innovation internationalisation are prominent as well as seeking an education which is up to the
mark with international development trends.
4. 2. Prevailing approaches in teaching
The pedagogical focus on the learner is widely shared (preferring personalisation and
differentiation/individualisation). Perhaps it would be better to speak of the focus on learning
(rather than on teaching, as it as in the past), where the learner is part of an educational
community of learning).
Education is also strongly focused on integrating theory and practice, knowledge and skills,
ideas and action, in both senses.
With regard to the insistence on the relevance of basic education, there is the added emphasis
today on excellence, merit, forming leaders. The direction of schooling and training is seen as a
fundamental dimensions for young people. So also, in the West, where ageing is predominant,
adult education continues to be important (re-literacy, prevention and recovery) with attention to
quality of life and the so-called university of the elderly or what (in Italian) is called the 'third
age'.
A little more disappointing are proposals and experiments on alternating school and work or
trade type courses running autonomously alongside secondary school courses. Still more at the
level of need than reality is the enabling of post-secondary professional formation (an unsolved
problem at the universities and resolved by offering so-called “masters” or professional
specialisation courses running alongside academic courses).
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5. Conclusion: a look at the future
The prevalence of the relationship between education and production leads to encouraging forms
of education to entrepreneurship, or education to the new, the unexpected, our “earthly identity”
(E. Morin).
The Council of the European Union, in a report on 18.12. 2006 pointed to 8 basic skills or
European citizenship (easily extensible to “the citizen in a multicultural world”):
1) mother tongue communication;
2) communication in foreign languages;
3) mathematical skills and basic skills in science and technology;
4) digital competence;
5) learning how to learn;
6) social and civic skills;
7) spirit of initiative and entrepreneurship;
8) cultural awareness and expression.
We should just note in this case too, how “vital” (life) skills of a personal nature are missing.
Perhaps there is some mention of ethics. But almost nothing is said about inwardness and
spirituality (intellectual, moral, aesthetic, religious…) or being open to transcendence (personal,
social, to do with values, ethical, religious…).
It seems, in fact, that we continue to think of education as almost only education-instructionpublic school formation, not the entire worldwide social system of education and training.
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Second Part
CRUCIAL POINTS OF EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITY
Chapter 1
DYNAMICS OF GROWTH AND EDUCATION
For centuries a teacher-centred view has prevailed in education, meaning an idea based on the
almost exclusive importance of the educator as a person and function with regard to those who
are being educated. With the New Schools movement in the 20th century, a 'Copernican
revolution' took place: the child, not the teacher, was at the centre: the child was the 'sun' around
which the educational system turned. Thus we have ended up with a kind of contrast between
the activities of the educator and the pupil, between hetero-education and self-education. These
opposing views need to be overcome in a higher synthesis that sees them sharing responsibility
together for life and common growth in humanity.
1.Multiple effects on growth
Development in the humanities has helped considerably in identifying the different areas and
their multiple effects on the growth of human beings.
These effects are almost in concentric circles - with the pupil at the centre. They display
interactions that run from the most impersonal to the most personal, from the most indirect to
most direct, from the most functional to the most intentional, from the most informal to most
formal and from the least organised to the most organised.
In the outermost circle we could put what is happening to the growing individual, brought about
by events and factors that come only partly under direct human responsibility.
In this circle we could put the huge range of social and cultural influences on growth that in an
anonymous, non-intentional way, and for the most part unconsciously expressed way (that is,
often without any educational intention) affect the individual personality in formation
(traditional or prevalent models of fashionable life…)
A circle further in would hold the influences emanating from agencies or organisations that are
not traditionally considered as educational but that fit, even consciously and more directly within
the educational process: see for example social norms regarding the economy, the family, justice,
life patterns that follow the fashions, etc., and specifically the social 'system' of sport and
amusements and most of the "parallel school" which is mass and computerised media
As part of all these above we need to include all intentional and explicit educational media and
interventions, meaning those employed by specifically delegated educational agencies and
institutions with direct educational intent and goals. Most interventions by family and school
certainly belong to this inner circle inasmuch as they are explicitly directed to the development
of growing individuals.
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2. The active role of the learner: from hetero-education to self-education
It should be noted that the individual is not someone who passively and completely undergoes all
this, but someone who accepts, accommodates, reacts in an active way, perhaps even quite
evidently modifies everything going on around him or her. So we can speak of interactions and
mean dynamic two-way activity rather than one way activity.
The pupil is no passive object of educational activity, but someone who takes up an active stance
towards what comes from others or the environment, given due permission, or his or her own
level of development, or environmental opportunities, or indeed encouragement from educators.
The pupil can be an “inner barrier” to every external effect.
The idea of self-education – very dear to contemporary culture – suggests the hypothesis that
pupils who are assisted (or they could also be impeded), are capable of self-development and
can gradually move, ever more consciously and totally, from hetero-education to self-education:
that is – though not without help from others (parents, teachers, leaders, professional educators,
priests, catechists…) – they can take a stand regarding themselves and their potential and
abilities and decide to intervene in their own development and on their more or less structured
personalities. So we can say that the pupil is a “protagonist” or key player in education.
But we need to clarify two things.
This leading role played by the student highlights the fact that intentional education is not only
one of the factors in personal development, but is also an attempt to influence personal
development, and also an attempt to affect the personal development of the student or contribute
to it. Some believe this is always a risk where we cannot be sure of certain and positive results.
Secondly, it is also true that this leading role played by the student, when it is not just rhetoric or
a false or self-righteous or meaningless claim, is more than just a fact. It can support, encourage,
allow, assist formation structures that make self-development and self-direction possible, but
always on the basis of the student's potential, which is never just a funnel to fill or soft wax to be
moulded, but something to be properly nourished, awakened and fostered.
3. Growth in otherness and in difference
Human growth comes about always and everywhere through otherness and difference.
The 'other' – personal or impersonal otherness – can be an obstacle or even a lupus or worse still
“hell”, as Sartre put it. But other than being a hostis, or enemy, the 'other' can also be or become
a hospes, meaning someone who welcomes or is welcomed (host or guest), companion on the
journey in our historical existence, member of our common social enterprise: "homo Deus pro
proximo suo", or "man is God for his neighbour" (as St Thomas Aquinas is thought to have said).
I would just like to note in passing that the first 'otherness', the first 'other' we have to deal with is
in fact our own ego, since I am 'I' to myself; as my first neighbour, the one I first owe respect to
is the person I am (cf. the Latin saying: "caritas incipit ab egone", or "charity begins at home - to
myself").
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Twenty five years after the Faure Report - which in 1972 pointed to “Learning to be” as the
purpose of education in the future, through knowing, knowing what to do, and knowing how to
be, the Delors Report by UNESCO returns to the importance of learning: but with its four
“pillars” of education for the 21st century it goes further than Faure, adding learning to live with
others.
4. Relational anthropology as a basis for education
Today at is fashionable to speak of self-education and self-care. The risk is that it refers to a
fundamentally individualistic anthropology (maybe under the banner of a misunderstood
personalism). It seems more than ever to day to be heading in the direction of self-fulfilment
which has become a real “ego religion” which loses sight of the “we”, the life of others, of
community.
The most significant gain of the second half of the 20th century was awareness of intersubjectivity, seen as an originating moment of subjective existence. Like M. Buber we can truly
say that “in the beginning there was relationship”. From this comes the emphasis on democracy,
the need for interpersonal and social dialogue, communication.
Faced with difficulties in interpersonal communication (due to selfish and subjective limitations
and forms, but also more objective ones), E. Mounier states the need to learn how to go out of
oneself, understand others, learn how to take on, or take up the fate of others, their sufferings,
joy, their duties; knowing how to give, how to be faithful.
Moreover, the tradition reminds us that commitment does not necessarily spring from the
aspiration to give of ourselves (in line with the saying that "good in itself tends to spread":
"bonum diffusivum sui") and may also arise as a need to help each other, being aware that we
need each other (according to the Aristotelian Thomistic tradition man is social, because he needs
the other: "eo quod aliis indiget"). E. Lévinas indicates that the other's face is an appeal to give
him/her a response. The “principle of responsibility” is, according to H. Jonas, something that is
found at the beginning of each social or individual ethic.
A relational anthropology, indeed, allows us to better conceive of and more healthily carry out
an activity and intervention of self-education, preventing it from becoming a kind of “sublime”
selfishness, which could result in the deadly disease of total narcissism. In fact in a relational
perspective, self-education can be envisaged as taking a stance and fostering good quality
personal growth while growing with others in a gradual way, evolving, maturing structuring
oneself in terms of potential, talent, energy (and age). In this way the individual gains more and
more self-mastery, learns to 'captain' self in the common adventure of “human navigation
through time and space.
5. Reciprocity in education and being educated together
Education is intrinsically a relationship of mutual assistance involving self, others, and the
commons.
It is a discreet kind of help: it does not quite show how powerful it is. Possibilities for education
are decidedly limited personally, structurally, culturally. Like all historical activities, education
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too depends not only on an aware free decision by people who tackle it, but also on the concrete
possibilities offered by the environment, other things at our disposition which, as many or as
good as they may be, are never unlimited, infinite, absolute. They can often be more of a
hindrance than a help, an impediment more than an advantage. It is the same for the potential of
human freedom which can be decidedly conditioned.
Moreover, contemporary awareness of basic co-existence and interdependence at all levels gets
us thinking about education, mutual aid for constant research in and fostering of a good quality
of life for everyone.
Though the intrinsic asymmetry of the educational relationship remains intact, in education
educators are involved not only as educators but also as people, in an ongoing process of
improvement in their own personal life. educators help the pupil, but are also helped in their own
right. Children are educators of their parents, parishioners educate their parish priest, students
educate their teachers. It also works the other way: not only by educating are people educated,
but by educating ourselves we educate!
6. The “pedagogical game”
In Christian-inspired educational circles, we often speak of the “centrality of the child” with all
the best intentions in the world, but run the risk of making the child an “object” of the
educational concern of the adults, perhaps obsessively concerned that nothing is wanting in
achieving educational success.
But what is really at the centre is growth and appreciation of the individual's life, and the child
needs to be jointly responsible for this. Education is not so much educators acting “on” and
“for” the pupil. Rather is it in function of the educational relationship “between educator and
educand (pupil)”, aimed at competent personalisation and good quality of one's own, the other's,
the community's life. Pupils are neither objects nor beneficiaries but active and responsible
subjects of growth. And they need to be increasingly so as they grow, bit by bit, in every place
and situation of education.
The educational relationship is not locked up in a dualistic and intimate I-Thou, but is as broad as
all of life. Its supreme reference point is humanity in all its modes, personal, historical, cultural,
past, present and future.
Education resembles a “pedagogical game” which finds not only its setting, its tools and 'field' in
the educative community, but also its ultimate reference and its prime mover.
Educators and their pupils are active in their own growth, the growth of others and growth in
common, while still maintaining the asymmetry of the relationship as part of community/family,
educational group: each has his or her own and different roles and proper functions all working
together towards the ultimate goal and even projects and strategies, different though they may be.
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Chapter 2
EDUCATION: ONE AMONGST OTHER FORMATION ACTIVITIES
Now that we have explored the frame of reference for education it is time to clarify and show
the specific nature of educational activity.
Terms and concepts such as development, formation, education are often thought to be
synonyms. In turn the term 'education' is linked with and often considered a synonym of
upringing, instruction, training, vocational training, guidance, updating, promotion and so on.
1. The concept of formation?
We begin with the concept of formation which is the first term of reference for education.
Under the impetus of globalisation the concept of formation has taken on new connotations, but
along with that a strong degree of ambiguity or ambivalence.
The term, in use since the 18th century, is more than just a word. It is programmatic
1.1. Formation as a shaping activity
A first meaning, also part of common parlance, is to think of 'forming' as 'giving form to',
shaping, moulding, like a sculptor does with marble, or the potter with clay, or a blacksmith with
iron, or a musician or artist according to their artistic skills and ideas. This meaning also applies
to education, understood as shaping the human being (cf. Greek 'paideia').
Contemporary pedagogical awareness tends to distance itself from this idea of formation since it
seems to regard the child's personality as an inanimate thing or something that adults produce. It
is substantially passive when compared to the formation activity of the adult.
2.2. Formation as taking shape in a dignified human way
It is also true that in the western cultural tradition, as well as having the meaning of 'form' (in
Greek 'morfé'), the way something is configured, formation has two other meanings: "an
example" or "model to imitate".
It was along such lines that the Christian ideal was seen to be an "imitation of Christ".
Related to the philosophical meaning of form, formation is seen as a personal involvement in
giving shape to, enabling someone's potential.
1.3. Formation as an integrated process of personal development
The idea of formation has gained a certain pedagogical consistency in the modern era with the
emphasis on the image of man as someone who builds himself up and also with the idea of
progress and development marked by reason, skills and human techniques. The German word
"Bildung", seen as a process of unlimited personal development, refers to this meaning of
formation
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In the world of the Enlightenment and German Romanticism, formation came to mean "selfnurturing", "culture of the spirit" (in the German sense of spirit, "der Geist", which implies
intellect, aesthetics, ethics, religion, culture and the harmony they find in the person).
Modernity has placed the emphasis on self-construction. But maybe this does not sufficiently
highlight the sense of each one's 'measure' and could lead to problems for people who are overburdened by the myth of self-fulfilment.
1.4. Formation as training for professional or social roles
Given the positivism and pragmatism of the last two centuries and even more recent times,
especially in the immediate post-war period, and the impulse from economic and productive
recovery, the tendency now is to think of formation almost exclusively in terms of learning and
preparation for work, professional or social roles (as in the English term "Training" and
expressions like: teacher formation, parent formation, work preparation, forming the formators,
leaders, staff, training teams, etc.).
In this way formation becomes synonymous with "competence", understood as mastery of
information, knowledge, expertise and gaining skills, sow e can act, work, produce more
efficiently and effectively.
1.5.Formation as improving individual and collective development
Formation or preparation for roles (and of the individual) is seen as a central issue and resource
for national and international policies (UNO, UNESCO, European Union…) and is called on
(and financially supported) as a supporting factor in the development of peoples. Understood this
way the problem of formation is strictly connected with the other central issues in development
like the economy, health, the environment, population.
And it is not only about specific skills for a role or social status, but more broadly considered in
terms of life skills, general skills.
2. Formation and its personalities, institutions and activities
Formation then comes to mean the process by which individual potential reaches maturity, or by
which native human capabilities are consolidated and structured, or how we learn what we are
lacking in for a dignified life as human beings in carrying out the social roles assigned to us or
which we choose. It is interaction with the environment and its concrete environmental,
historical, cultural, material and spiritual possibilities (= resources) , and through the mediation
and support of individuals (parents, educators, instructors, teachers, tutors, facilitators, assistants,
etc.), institutions (family, school, churches, groups, associations, mass media, social organisation
of sport and leisure, etc.) individual and social activities more or less specifically undertaken for
this purpose (upbringing, prevention, treatment, care, training, socialisation, enculturation,
teaching, instruction, education, entertainment, catechesis, etc.).
25
3. The specific nature of education with respect to formation and other educational
activities.
Regarding our understanding of formation and other educational activities,''education" (in the
broad sense a synonym, along with training, teaching, learning, upbringing), points to a specific
meaning: personal and social assistance which fosters the basic skills for living in a conscious,
free, and responsible way, in solidarity with the world and with others, in the flow of time and
age, in the intertwining of interpersonal relationships and social life as we find them historically
set up.
3.1. Etymology
Is uncertain.
It lies somewhere between "educare" (= upbringing, cultivating, nurturing) and "educere" (=
draw out, develop) it goes back to efforts to foster something which affects us from the outside
(upbringing, protecting, health, care, nutrition, hygiene) and and also other more inward matters
(imagination, observation, intellect, reason, critical thinking, emotions, relationships, expression
and being able to do things).
In modern languages, the English word "education" is still very close to instruction or school
education, while "bringing up" refers to growing up (especially in the family) and "training" for
enabling people to act. The German"Erziehung" emphasises what we do for the process of
human transformation, which laboriously draws out everyone's human side.
3.2. The specific internal nature of formation
Already J.J. Rousseau, in the first chapter of his Emile, stated that each of us is educated by three
teachers: nature (= internal development of our faculties and organs); other human beings (= being
taught how to make this development happen), and things (= acquiring personal experience in
relation to things around us).
Aiming to be more precise, after the 1920s, pedagogues began to distinguish between intentional
education and functional education.
By intentional education they meant a specific and intended range of activities and interventions,
explicitly arranged in a certain methodical order methodical, done by people who have duties
and responsibilities for education, individually and/or collectively, with a view to fostering,
encouraging the formation process in individuals who are the subjects of education.
By functional education they meant the many effects on personality development that come
about unintentionally through socio-cultural, political, economic, natural environment factors, or
major historical and even small daily events.
In similar terms today we speak of informal education (= the influence of the environment and
the dynamics of communication), of widespread education (= institutional or contextual
instances with a broad formative effect, such as sport, entertainment, being part of a group), and
of formal education, specifically as practised by the social system of education, or even, or even
26
of non formal education, }indicating intentionally educational activities, but not necessarily
systematically organised, planned sequentially or evaluated (as often happens with family
education or in spontaneous groups, by contrast with education or courses of study or vocational
training).
3.3. Specific nature and properties of formation compared to other kinds of formation activities
Personal growth and its ongoing formation involves institutions and people in a wide range of
activities (formative activities). They are all aimed at human development, but unlike economics
or politics, they focus on personal growth. Amongst these, education seems to be characterised
by its focus on the totality and unity of personal life. Precisely for this reason it has to take
account of the whole sphere of relationships bound up with human existence (in this sense we
speak of "forms of education": physical, mental, intellectual, moral, aesthetic, religious, technical
-professional education, etc.)..
Indeed education seems to find its "proprium", i.e. its direct and specific approach, by referring
itself to the organic structure of the human personality and its historical, conscious and free,
responsible and supportive behaviour. Understood this way other formation activities (learning,
teaching, cultural education, methodical activities like socialisation and enculturation, training,
upbringing, healthy development bio-psychic development) are considered to be 'education' in
such a way that the human being can be a healthy, educated, socialised, competent, professional
person who lives authentically.
For these reasons, perhaps we need to say that only by a thorough investigation into life and
human freedom can we better understand and more adequately understand the specific meaning
of education: in the sense that we are educating, properly speaking, only when we are help
'humanity' to grow, when we are acting for the "genesis of the person", when we set people on
the road to acting freely and responsibly, and in an ethically sound and practically capable way.
But it is clear that at this level we see the predominant influence of the ideas people have about
the world and life, and more particularly the image people have of man and his destiny.
4. Formation as process and education as planning.
The fact that development, learning, training and education are synonyms is due, ultimately, to
the fact that we are dealing with something which is in process, the human being and his constant
growth towards being a worthy human being. This involves multiple factors.
4.1. The world's trend is to be subjective; society's intentions
There are many theories to do with the human being 'in process' (behavioural and biological
theories of neo-behavouralism, structuralist or neuro-biological or social cognitivism, dynamic
psychology, psychoanalysis, etc.)
Taken together we see that the explanation for development has to take into account both the
ontogenetic dimension (ie = each one's native gifts, or "inheritance") and the social dimension (=
"environment", "culture", "education"), and these two interact dynamically. The world's trend
towards the subject and the intentionality of the social world collide in each individual as he or
27
she develops (what we call personal experience, which takes up an active position in this regard,
as it finds these things and for the possibilities they offer).
This radical ability of the individual to take a leading role, be an actor and builder of his own
personality (E. Mounier would say of his "character"), though not without conflicts and
limitations, has been particularly highlighted by the tradition of humanistic and existential
psychology.
4.2. Nativists and empiricists
In the history of pedagogy the problem has been often presented as an opposition between
nativists and empiricists. For the first group, our genetic, hereditary and congenital heritage, our
personal attitudes, natural inclinations, our temperament or personal character, if not determining
factors, at least have a predominant influence on how someone develops. For the second group,
man at birth is like a 'tabula rasa', i.e. a being who is not in any way determined. It is the
environment - and education as part of that - which determines what man will become. What we
experience becomes the source of our development. Environmental stimuli constitute the
substance of the future personality.
According to nativists, formation means becoming who we are. According to empiricists human
grandeur comes from achieving a more advanced level of civil development. In the first case the
emphasis is on nature, in the second on culture.
4.3. Negative and positive education
In turn, social assistance for formation has been variously interpreted. Some have regarded it as
something by way of help for, others as a constraint to development.. The question connects with
the ever-recurring ideal of 'life according to nature', which can be considered an instance of the
myth of the "noble savage "of modern times, but perhaps also to do with the emphasis today on
spontaneity and going back to the roots.
On the one hand it is stated that the human species and the individual human being are originally
"good". On the other it is stated instead that human beings become good in the course of history
and their personal history, through spiritual forces and participation in the heritage of culture and
the life of the society they belong to. For the first group, social assistance for formation means
mostly not creating difficulties for self-development, the free expansion of the person, for the
freedom to learn. This is how J.J. Rousseau vigorously puts it, for whom education is "negative"
in the sense that all it does is to force the development of individuals, which should be
spontaneous. Or we need to get busy eliminating the factors that prevent full self-fulfilment of
the individual. In this sense we speak of "indirectly negative" education. At most we can
consider creating favourable conditions for development (= "indirect positive" education). In any
case a 'non-directive' approach can be of benefit, one which leaves it to the person or group to
guide their own formation.
From the opposite point of view it is clear that, albeit gradually and discretely, social assistance
for formation occurs essentially as an intervention that channels and structures how individuals
or the collective develop in certain directions, either by command or prohibition, reward or
punishment, advice or persuasion, and by stimulation or explicit or exemplary proposal, or
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through disciplined training or organised learning. In this sense we speak of "positive education"
(not in the sense of "good" but in the sense that it intentionally puts educational intervention in
place).
5. The "need" for education
On the basis of the contributions of the humanities concerning the initial situation of human
development, many educators, especially in the German setting, have sought to demonstrate the
need for general education and the universal need for educational intervention. Man seen as an
educable creature, destined to education. Education is essential for the human being seen this
way, in the sense that without it what is a mere seed of possibility does not become fully man.
Indeed, according to some, it is possible to arrive this way at a definition of man as animal
educandum: "needing to be educated".
What is certain is that the human being has to be formed. Speaking of a need and necessity of
education in the strict sense (= intentional and formal education) would be going too far. One can
grow up even without school and without this more organised kind of formation.
But, we need to ask ourselves whether today, in the complex society in which we live, a
specific and systematic social intervention which is conducive to human growth might not in fact
be essential, one which is adjusted to the level of our current existence and as such to be
humanly worth living. In this sense, education could be called "morally necessary", because that
is the right and duty of organised society; not, therefore, in the sense of something useful, but
something additional.
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Chapter 3
THE EDUCATIONAL RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN CONTRADICTIONS AND THE SEARCH FOR AUTHORITY
Educational processes are realised through interpersonal and social relationships.
Educational activity is always relational. The educational function is not a function of the
educator, but rather a function of a relationship between people aimed at a social purpose other
than personal.
1. The specific nature of the educational relationship
The educational relationship, like any other interpersonal relationship, has to respect the
subjectivity and freedom of the partners involved, but also the intrinsic interaction and
reciprocity of the relationship. Pupils and educators relate by communicating, talking to one
another, listening to each other, giving and receiving transparently without trying to dominate,
deceive, or exploit one another. This should be the case in every authentic human relationship.
Together they are active partners in a shared commitment to growth, liberation, human
development, human improvement, individual and community existence.
1.1.The asymmetry of the educational relationship
However, the educational relationship has some peculiarities of its own.
The educational relationship presupposes a fundamentally and specifically asymmetric starting
point in the sense that the individuals in the relationship do not only play roles and perform
different functions, but are involved in the relationship on an uneven playing field as regards
their different needs of personal life. This is a specific difference, not an absolute one.
1.2. Help in the educational relationship
The educational relationship specifically has the characteristics of a helping relationship that
arises from a request (individual and often clearly social) that appeals for support, assistance, in
view of personal development and quality of life of the individual or others, which is a response,
or better put, an educational offer.
1.3. Educative love
The fundamental attitude of respect and human development in the educational relationship, due
to its affective tone and its basic intention is often referred to as "educative love", not without its
moments of pain and joy, suffering and satisfaction, closeness and distance, antipathy and
sympathy, crisis and profound misunderstanding. In addition to a kind of impulsive love (eros),
friendship (philia) and self-sacrificing devotion (agape) educational love is characterised by the
benevolent and loving care (stergo) typical of parents towards their children. It is not always
easy to keep these aspects in right balance: we need "to love well, want what is good, and love
by doing things well."
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2. The nature of the educational relationship
The peculiarity of the educational relationship allows us to sketch out the basic characteristics of
the educational relationship.
2.1. It can be understood as a teleological relationship, meaning intentionally directed to
pursuing formative ends and objectives.
This educational intention can be experienced in conscious and explicit form, but also implicitly
and indirectly or even at the level of collective consciousness, that is, as a form of cultural
behaviour.
2.2.The educational relationship is achieved when there is effective communication and personal
interaction: it has an inherently dialogical character
2.3. The dialectical interplay of the educational relationship and its internal tensions between its
dimensions and interactions, also throws light on its dynamic and procedural nature implying
special as well as critical moments.
To highlight the dynamic character of the educational relationship in pedagogical tradition we
say that hetero-education and self-education are linked by a relationship of inverse proportion.
2.4. The relevance of the context invites us to remember how the educational relationship is
intertwined with interpersonal, social, contextual communication flows. It is a situated,
contextualised relationship.
Attention not only to the geophysical environment (habitat), but also the social, cultural,
"symbolic" setting is characteristic of the pedagogical tradition.
2.5. The educational relationship comes about through specifically institutionalised situations or
in complex interactions, experiences and social institutions (cf. places and non-places of
formation).
2.6. As for the temporal dimension we can distinguish relatively long-lasting educational
relationships and episodic or periodic ones as well.
3.Constraints and conditions in the educational relationship
The connection of the educational relationship with the world of nature, civilisation, structures
and economic, social, cultural, political and religious institutions is considered to be a limitation
and conditioning factor for the educational process and intervention. These conditions can
become a source of conditioning, impediments, limitations and determining factors that might
become sociological, cultural, economic, political, institutional, technical forms of interference.
But they are also conditions that allow educational relationships to be realised to their fullest.
4. Old and new educational contrasts
Educational contrasts are condensed and reflected in the educational relationship, i.e. the number
of conflicts that in fact or are rightly judged to play a part in the educational relationship. The
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term antinomy (contrast or contradiction), in its literal sense means a contrast of law, between
statements of principle. In logic it indicates mutually incompatible statements.
Many educational contradictions exist at the level of the educational system, for example
between transmission and creativity, ends and means, educational question and answer or
proposal, at the level of procedures or educational intervention, between negative education or
material education (or contents) and formal education (skills and attitudes)
There are some typical ones evident today:, for example a school of knowledge in relation to a
school in the comprehensive training, including education socialisation skills or education,
including community college and business school, etc.
In everyday education there are sometimes great tensions and conflicts stemming from the wider
cultural context today: between the global and the local, identity and difference, work and
leisure, efficiency and spontaneity, reason and emotion, tradition and innovation, etc.
More directly, major formation/education models at international level can be at odds: the
techno-economic model and the humanist solidarity model. One holds up a skills society, the
other interdependence and the need for solidarity.
It means that often educators and their pupils, at all levels, must "make a profession of opposites"
(Pascal), making a both/and of things, where at first sight or in fact they find an either/or.
5. The exaltation of freedom in the modern educational relationship
In the modern and contemporary pedagogical tradition, the contrast between freedom and
authority has been seen as the focal point of the internal dynamics of every relationship and the
educational relationship in particular.
Focus on this problem grew after J.J. Rousseau's Emile and connects with broader phenomena of
a socio-economic and political kind, the affirmation of economic liberalism, liberal bourgeoisie,
the first movements of democracy, the romantic and idealistic climate of the nineteenth century,
highlighting spontaneity, creativity, self-expression and expansion of the spirit, and with the
movements of social liberation, the achievements of civil rights, the struggle for development
and democracy between the peoples and social groups of the twentieth century and the twentyfirst century.
6. The oedipal and symbolic father: the authority and freedom contrast
The collapse of confidence and the generation gap in the late sixties and early seventies, have
shaken the many ideal perspectives that once stood firm.
In the climate of youth protest that went on in the 1970s and 80s, any kind of educational
intervention was seen as undue intrusion in the development of others. The educational
asymmetry came to be understood as imposition and conformist indoctrination. At the microsocial level education reproduced the domination, oppression, alienation dominant at the macrosocial level (cf. the myth of Oedipus, who had to kill his father to become king)
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On the opposite side, growth and development of the new generations was always seen suffered
by adults and elders as an attempt on the existing social order, on adult power (cf. the myth of
Laius who knows that his son Oedipus will kill him to take his throne).
Pedagogy has tried to overcome this antithesis by indicating that beyond the “authoritarian
oedipal father” (symbol of the oppressive educator), there is the “symbolic father”, who in
dialogue and seeking together becomes a freeing factor and allows for recognition of individual
identity. If the first seems to be a rival in growth to freedom, the second was seen as attractive
and able to stimulate processes of identification with freedom and be the real model. Thus there
was a distinction between the authority of the educator (= who has the right and duty to exercise
power so that people can grow) and authoritativeness (= the educator is able to help the pupil
grow and increase his or her own power: “auctoritas”, from “augeo” = “make grow, increase).
This is why in recent years we have seen an emphasis on the figure of the 'Telemachus' child
who – faced with the oppression and evil designs of suitors who wished to deprive Ithaca of its
goods and take over his mother Penelope – goes in search of his father Ulysses; and when he has
found him they fight together to free his mother and the people.
This puts a positive spin on children today who are often left to their own devices, without father
figures or any real attachment to their mother. Here we can speak of the 'Icarus' child, who as the
myth tells us flies without taking heed of his father's advice, or even of the 'Narcissus' child,
who copies his father's and mother's subjectivity and childishness, and lives just for himself.
7. The current issue with relationships.
Not so many moons ago the very understanding of relationships that seemed to be the gain of the
20th century was itself considered to hold a set of problems; its emphasis on inter-subjectivity,
democracy, the need for interpersonal and social dialogue seemed to have overcome the
stalemate of the subjective ego which dominated any sense of otherness. Support from new
information and communications technologies (ICTs) seemed to allow for progress towards the
myth of the transparent society.
7.1. Contextual difficulties
Today we have to live and work in a globalised world, in a knowledge society and the era of
communications.
Social life is no longer homogeneous as it used be even just a few decades ago.
Freedom and democracy seem to be at the mercy of economic interests that are beyond the
intentions and willingness of individuals and social groups. To globalisation, the global market,
an economy focused only on finance, we link the development of biotechnologies and growth in
the neurosciences (which seem to be able to intervene in a revolutionary way on the human
“bios” (cloning, genetic manipulation, stem cells…).
The push for democracy as a global lifestyle not only led to the end of Soviet communism and
the fall of the Berlin Wall, but has also led to the quiet revolution in life style that shifts the
emphasis on the individual in absolute existential originality, to equal opportunities and complete
self-fulfilment.
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At a broader socio-cultural level it is said that western "solid modernity" is in crisis.
In the global village of mass-media and telecommunications via Internet, relationships grow and
are enriched but are also more and more at risk of becoming anonymous and private.
Encounter between peoples encourages inter-cultural enrichment but also conflict of
interpretations, relativism, cultural uprooting or on the other hand fideism, fundamentalism,
terrorism, new kinds of domination and ant-democracy, taking refuge in drugs, alcoholism,
virtual “paradises” and placing trust in “gurus”.
7.2. Relationships with parents “without Oedipus”?
For many youths and adults the relevance of the need for subjective aspirations is resolved
through strong forms of individualism that risk falling into narcissism, closing in on oneself and
even losing oneself entirely, merely following an image like Narcissus' reflection in the water.
The growing possibility of personal autonomy and freedom of thought can lead to an ideal and
ethical subjectivism which reduces the meaning of the objective and of responsibility, of being
faithful to people and the tasks that have been undertaken.
But what can be seriously negative at the level of intergenerational relationships, is the kind of
generalised desire to be Peter Pan (forever young), which adults more than young people seek,
and which puts a block in the way of proper generational relationships. Thus in family life there
is the risk of no longer having differentiated parental roles, an unhealthy flattening out of roles
with regard to the children, and even emphasising maternal roles to the detriment of paternal
ones. It is not only the question of the collapse of the father as a person of authority, but more
seriously the permissiveness and parental protectionism towards the child impeding the child's
ability to have a correct measure of the 'other', and this can last throughout life: in fact the child
can grow up without a sense of reality and be weak and fragile, not strong enough to handle
relationships in the adult social world and organised society.
8. Safety exits
These contextual and inter-relational problems in growing up are an invitation to everyone but
especially adults to look to their own personality and updating in terms of their formation so they
can have some influence on their pupils: cf. the old saying “medice cura te ipsum” (doctor cure
thyself, before starting to look after others). We certainly also need to understand the overall
pedagogical and educational “view” people have (= what idea of the human being do you have
when you educate? What does it mean to be educational fathers and mothers? What kind of
humanity can we or do we intend to “be witness to”?
On the other hand we need to be aware that authority and freedom are for all the partners in the
educational relationship between educators and pupils, but need to be recognised in the
differentiated identities and reasonably and lovingly 'disciplined' within the dynamics of the
educational relationship. So we always need to balance out the “length, breadth and width” of the
educational proposal with respect and its capacity to be received by educators and pupils.
9. Between formation, ethics and code of conduct.
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Being educated in competent relationship which is rich in values and humanity becomes
important for the responsibility of the “educating society” aimed at cooperation, teamwork,
alliance, becoming more human through the freedom to grow, helped by various educational and
formational activities. But we must also see that there are appropriate and functioning
infrastructures, good personal pre-conditions, effective procedures: and amongst these, proper
legal approaches, an agreed upon and correct code of ethics, as for other social roles and
professions.
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Chapter 4.
EDUCATIONAL COMMUNICATION
Education, based as it is on an educational relationship, happens through interacting, intervening,
passing on ideas, values, models of behaviour, offering messages which – through symbolic
exchange – can be learned and internalised by individuals: in so doing growing, forming and
being formed, educating and being educated.
1. Communication and education.
The emphasis on communication is typical of today's world. It is connected with the ideals of a
democratic society aiming at being a society of human rights, dialogue and transparency, as well
as of equity and development. Here it meets up with contemporary education that has the same
ends of human development and making the environment more human.
1.1. In the context of the contemporary emphasis on human communication.
Communication sciences highlight the many and diverse forms of communication:
1) intrapersonal, interpersonal, (group, mass, “cosmic”); 2) direct, indirect (through “media”); 3)
telecommunications (distance communication through land or satellite networks); 4) analogical,
representative or digital (simulated);
5) physical or virtual (almost immersed in the world built by the new technologies of information
and communication: “Second Life”).
From an educational point of view we need to highlight both the inner and the transcendent
dimension in every kind of communication; the various levels of communication: the Platonic
kind called “the dialogue of the soul with itself” to the not always easy intergenerational dialogue
and the even more difficult inter-cultural dialogue.
The “medium” has become important (body, space - time, mass media, new media), but also the
need for an active presence and action of freedom, intelligence, spirit (which bind, interpret,
arrive at meaning), and personal and community involvement.
Also highlighted are the many dimensions with their own peculiar dynamics and functions:
1) The dimension of information encouraging a dynamic of sender/receiver, basically cognitive
in its function, about content; 2)The rational dimension which encourages a dynamic of
interaction, with a principally emotional and affective function; 3) The explorative dimension
which encourages a dynamic of de-situation/re-situation primarily with an heuristic function,
situating oneself; 4) The participative dimension, which encourages a dynamic of
exchange/recognition, with a primarily constructive function, one of identification; 5)The
ludic/ritual dimension which encourages a dynamic of play and rite, with a primarily celebratory
function, one of fusion (with others, with and amongst the group, as a people, with God).
1.2. Messages, relationships and common life in communication.
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In communication the structural aspect, the way signs and channels of transmission are
organised, can only be separated analytically from content, meaning messages produced and
sent.
This intrinsic and reciprocal link between communication structures and content better explains
the nature of the linguistic difference, in some ways unfillable, between generations (the socalled generation gap): it is not only due to the transmissions mechanisms being a blockage, but
also the lack of clarity in content, codes and linguistic forms compared to the needs, demands,
awareness of the new generations.
Communication, besides being in some way constitutive of the ego of those who enter into
communication, is also constitutive of culture. In encounter and communication human beings
not only point to themselves and mutually recognise one another, but together recognise and
form the common heritage of ideas, values, patterns of behaviour and expression that we call
culture. Personal identity and culture show that they are the result of the essential dialogical
nature of human existence. This creates community. J. Dewey had already said that there is more
than “assonance” involved in the words common, communication, community.
1.3. Contribution of the humanities
Other significant contributions from an educational point of view can be indicated. After the
sixties, social psychology and psychotherapy have placed particular attention on context and
relationships of interpersonal and group communication. This was also highlighted by the
reciprocal nature of communication, in the sense that it involves exchanges, costs and benefits.
We speak of a “ transaction” to indicate that we are dealing with something similar to an
“economic” exchange which puts both parties in a socially recognised situation.
The complexity of communication influences is something we are all aware of. However it
remains for us to emphasise that there are reactive approaches, defence mechanisms in
communication (transference, identification, projection, sublimation, etc.)
By highlighting this 'subterranean' psychic level, we can better understand the problems involved
in sending and receiving where communication is concerned.
The humanities have also helped us make more explicit what is in general terms known as
“meta-communication” or more precisely the relational and contextual dimension of
communication itself.
Any communication, beyond being 'news' or content, also communicates the way the
communication should be taken up.
When there is lack of agreement between the two aspects of communication it could be that the
message is being negated by the meta-message, even unintentionally (through non-verbal signs
like gesture, tone, physical stance, and in general any kind of expression proper to analogical
communication). Messages can go out which are different from what was intended by the sender.
Opposite to that is the power of context or the relational aspect which can often be more
persuasive than direct and explicit communication. The pedagogical tradition has always
highlighted the educational power of the environment, the atmosphere, contextual climate, the
situation and in general, forms of indirect communication.
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1.3. Education as communication
As J. Dewey notes, every genuine communication has educational value, for better or for worse,
inasmuch as it allows for expansion and positive (or negative change) in one's life. The
educational intervention is better understood if placed within the ambit of communication and
interpersonal and social relationships. As such it is subject to the rules and the game, the
structures and dynamics that characterise encounter and communication between people, with all
its difficulties, interferences, failures even to the extent of being a real lack of communication,
psychological subjection, personal reification, or other pathological forms, but also with
enrichment, the mental openness of heart that expand personal life in a decisive way, making it a
good and humanly dignified existence.
2. Models of educational communication.
The contributions of the sciences of communication have been a stimulus for contemporary
pedagogy to research techniques, methods and strategies which can modify and qualitatively
improve the educational relationship.
This has helped in seeing the many ways that educational communication can happen
2.1. Traditional models
Until fairly recent times pedagogy substantially relied on three major models:
a) the story/text-centred model;
b) the teacher-centred model;
c) the pedo-centric model.
2.1.1. The story/text-centred model
Education and teaching were based on the recounting of myths, ideas told or passed on in the
family, at school, in community celebration, or in texts, holy books, handbooks approved by the
community for their scientific value.
This type of communication had the advantage of being concrete, direct, experiential, warm and
interesting for its content; it helped educate in historical, social and cultural continuity and was a
strongly marked function helping a sense of identity and participation. It risked being too
conformist, traditional, paying little attention to novelty, diversity, and maybe to future
aspirations or creativity on the part of the listeners.
2.1.2. The teacher-centred model
Here learning is made to depend almost entirely on the teaching and the personal culture of the
teacher who directed learning processes and reduced receivers to being “disciples”, tending to
shape them “to his own image and likeness”
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This had the advantage of being stimulating, essential, reassuring and strongly significant for the
development of identity, personality and the way of thinking of the disciple/pupil. But it ran and
continues to run the risk of creating dependence on the pupil's part and developing
authoritarianism on the teacher's part. It also risks questioning the quality of the message or
culture being offered and paying little attention to stimulating critical thinking. By relying almost
exclusively on the validity and communicative charism of the teacher, it was and is less
transferable or available to others to practise and as a consequence less applicable to education in
a more pluralistic, mass or democratic school system. Perhaps it made sense once, and at a
certain stage, but is not to be extended indefinitely.
2.1.3. The pedo-centric model
This pays attention to and prioritises life, people, the age group, the pupil's activities, group work
etc.
Spontaneous activity or activities arising from the needs of the learning group become the
principle, method and end of education. On the educator's part it risks being too tied (and ends up
limiting itself) to the 'response' that has to be given or allows interests, needs, impulses, or the
learners' desires to control things: it risks lacking in being a real proposal, offering direction,
guiding. It can be less stimulating and too protective, without exposing the students to the reality
their group is experiencing or the adult society they have to live in. The group allows them to
socialise but risks poverty of cultural formation, basing itself more one experience than on the
cultural and social heritage.
2.2. A fourth model: based on linguistics,cybernetics and mass media.
By now it is common to speak of educational communication involving source, signs, messages,
senders, receivers, coding, decoding, noise, feed-back, communication system, and so on (= as in
models of communication, especially mass communication); all coordinated by logical or iconic
constructs which help us interpret and understand the ebb and flow of communication
Cybernetic models undoubtedly allow us to have clear and concise models for interpreting, but
they can easily be incorrectly or unduly used in education, especially if we lose sight of their
schematic and formal or heuristic and hypothetical nature when compared to the real complexity
involved in communication in education.
Using systematic models can go right off course if we forget or pass lightly over the peculiarities
of human communication and the “human system” which can never be regarded as being
equalled by artificial information and communication systems.
The communication models in circulation appear to be too tied to their production origins and
while effective for understanding messages transmitted by mass media or electronic devices, they
are less appropriate for educational communication, inasmuch as they do not succeed in
expressing the real facts either because of errors during the communication flow or for other
effects beyond our control.
2.3. Communication through new digitalised media: a fifth model?
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Derrick De Kerckhove, speaking of communication technologies, describes them as a cognitive
framework. This way these technologies can reveal the understanding man has of himself and his
world. In fact the various media, old and new, are not only tools which facilitate or impede
communication, but each implies its own different way of seeing things, seeing reality, ourselves
and the world. That becomes pretty evident with new media (computer, Internet, cell phones,
robots, techno-lasers, etc).
Given their intrinsic ability to de-territorialise and for direct interaction in real time, they can
encourage access, contact, exchange, dialogue and debate, extend to and connect with the world
anywhere where there is a terminal connected to the Net. Potentially this offers a chance for the
poor to access their cultural heritage, but it often becomes a threat of technological domination.
It can also end up increasing the difference between the haves and the have-nots. Cf. The phrase:
Digital divide.
With the advent of electronic media communications modes were introduced that re-enabled
aspects of interpersonal communication that mass-media had struggled to achieve by telephone,
fax and email.
What's more, with the possibilities of digital technology, the "real" is no longer just something to
conquer and understand or something hard to change, but also a space to shape "virtually" and
amplify, almost "doubling" ourselves through new technologies when we want, using
"simulations" of the real or the beyond, as well as producing another 'world': the digital (=
Second Life).
From an educational point of view the digital opens up undreamed of possibilities for everyday
teaching, both in terms of activities for interaction between students or groups or between
teachers and pupils. At a more general level there are interesting possibilities both in early
education and for continuing education for adults: we see an increase in distance education,
mixing real and distance possibilities. The problem then becomes that of proper use according to
"need": being aware of the particulars of each "medium" and its "virtuality" and likely
"virtualisation", ie its broader potential and use.
3. In the context of limitations and going beyond communication.
Human existence is not only about communication. Daily experience and our experience of
education in particular lets us see first hand the ambivalence, limitations, but also what lies
beyond communication. There exists what is incommunicable, ineffable, mystical, as L.
Wittgenstein tells us.
3.1. Limitations
The limitations are 1) the subjective (personal, cultural, technical) ones of the partners in
communication (producers or those with something to gain from communication); 2) ones that
refer to coding (limited by its“alphabet”), 3) then the various kinds of “literary genres”, the
models employed (each with its advantages and disadvantages, each best adapted to certain kinds
of communication with respect to others); 4) or ones to do with the medium itself (physical,
representation, simulation) and to the degree of “noise” /redundancy/effects of communicating;
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5) and more commonly, those of cultural reference: in and for themselves (time and place) and
specifically the cultural diversity of the partners in communication.
3.2. The beyond
Personal and community experience perceives something profound, something more and beyond
that we do not succeed in communicating or at least that we only partially succeed in doing. This
can refer to:
1) the inner side of individuals (never completely objectifiable, not by themselves, nor by
others); 2) the impulsive and unconscious world and the super-conscious, mystical, never
codifiable, expressible, shareable world; 3) the gap between the ideal and the real, intuition and
cognition, intellectual conceptualisation and verbal and non-verbal expression; 4) transcendence,
what is beyond, the future, never really totally foreseeable, or able to be planned for, thought
about or spoken of.
5) And then there is the mystery of being, of life, of the self, of God (ineffable, hard to speak of
= apophatic, or going beyond something we can hypothesise about)..
3.3. Ways to access this beyond
Communicative practice shows us that at least partial access to areas of the beyond in
communication is possible. An example is the art of rhetoric or even the potential of inclusive/
experiential or allusive, aesthetic languages. The same is true of narrative, subliminal
communication, contemplation, ritual and evocative, existential and vital celebration, invocation
and prayer. But our will and action can overcome communicative inexpressiveness too: in this
way we can communicate (though there is almost always need for explanation, interpretation,
comment).
3.4. Silence and distance, invocation of and openness to the beyond
Experience shows us that as part of this commitment to going beyond, what we commonly
succeed in communicating is also part of human communication: silence and listening, or even
the experience of distance from our partners in communication and therefore a fundamental
experience of loneliness, which is not isolation as such. This experience can give rise to feelings
of poverty and limitation, but also to yearning, trepidation and an expanded and passionate desire
for others, something more, the Absolute: or at least the desire, the longing for fullness of
communication or final and complete communion. It can be an expression of deep human
yearning!
4.At the roots of the ultimate meaning of human communication.
These multiple and different experiences highlight not only the anthropological and ethical
dimensions of communication, but also the ontological and existential dimensions, marked as
they are by an awareness of the radical ambivalence/contingent nature of human activity and
communication in particular. It opens up the radical question par excellence, the metaphysical
question (to quote Heidegger, the "why something rather than nothing?").
41
On the other hand, these things can open human communication up to the beyond, the infinite
Thou of communication (which reminds us somehow of the Thomistic “third way” of saying
that God is “reasonable”, beginning from the contingency of being and arriving at the
absoluteness of The Being; thanks to “virtutes obedientiales”, meaning the radical openness of
human nature to Transcendence).
At the same time these profound experiences of human communication always and today
especially, open up to new possibilities of involvement for growth and for growing “together”.
Third part
HORIZONS AND FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION
There is not Chapter 1 (the educational Knoledge)
Chaper 6 (educational purposes & the life of faith )
& Chapter 3 (Culture & Education
&
Chapter 2
THE EPISTEMOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK OF THE PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION:
BETWEEN PEDAGOGY, SCIENCES OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCES OF
INSTRUCTION/DEVELOPMENT ("FORMAZIONE")
In order to better understand what the philosophy of education is, it is worthwhile to place it in
the larger context of pedagogy and of the sciences of education.
1. Pedagogy
The term "pedagogy" refers to the scientific discipline that relates to education. On a broader
scale, however, it is applied to any reflection, study, research – scientific or not – on and for
education, development, instruction and learning.
1.1. Etymology and historical uses of the term
"Pedagogy" derives from the greek "pais" (child) and "agagos" (guardian, guide), from the
function of the "paidagogos," a slave or freedman charged with accompanying the children to
school or the palestra.
1.2. Non-scientific pedagogy and scientific pedagogy
The educational art is fostered by educational traditions and innovations, introduced throughout
the centuries by great educators or by political interventions for the sake of social instruction.
One can speak of pedagogy as a cultural field (of the humanistic area) and in particular as a
42
scientific field (among the human sciences), even if today it is considered in the realm of the
sciences of organization and of practical theories as well.
2. Antecedents and the genesis of pedagogy as a discipline
Over the course of many centuries, reflection on – and on behalf of – education did not have a
disciplinary organization of its own. It was developed inside the limits of the problem and within
the discourse on man and his actions.
3. The search for disciplinary identity
Rousseau was certainly fundamental: in his pedagogical novel Émile (1762) he proposed a new
education that would not corrupt the original good natural state of man. Going forward from the
Enlightenment, the various human sciences that have established themselves in these last two
centuries have been considered par excellence sciences of emancipation and liberation. Herbart,
during the first half of the 19th century, hoped that the field of pedagogy would reflect more and
more upon its own ideas and that it would cultivate an increasingly independent way of thinking,
to be colonized by no one else. Instead, the dependence of pedagogy on philosophy of varied
denomination has continued, to the point that G. Gentile at the beginning of the 20th century
identified it as a philosophical science.
4. The current situation between pedagogy and the sciences of education and instruction
The labor pains of pedagogy as a scientific discipline are ongoing even today. The disciplinary
structure is still under discussion, whether it should be understood as a specific, humanistic
discipline (named “Pedagogy”) or rather a multidisciplinary scientific field (named as a whole
“Sciences of Education”); or should it be understood as a general and synthetic opportunity for
reflection, theories, research, educational technologies and practices; or rather as a scientific
discipline of the organization of knowledge and educational intervention, among the so-called
practical sciences around which the educational specifications of the human sciences are made to
revolve.
4.1 Sciences of education
The expression 'sciences of education' only became popular since the 1960s when pedagogy,
further to being a particular field of research relating to school and teaching, began to be linked
to higher education in a more institutional way or at least as a support to educational activity in
social institutions of an educational nature such as family, parish, groups, social movements,
leadership in the neighbourhood, sport, etc. (and gradually an outlook on continuing education
became clearer). A multi-disciplinary approach to education took hold in the belief that various
more scientific and complementary skills were needed to respond to the ever more complex and
extensive problems of public and private education. This transition from science to the sciences
of education is also linked to the socio-cultural pluralism evident in social, national and
international coexistence.
43
4.2 The pros and cons of the sciences of education
At a certain stage it almost seemed that pedagogy as a discipline would disappear and that the
term would designate merely the scientific field taken over by the sciences of education.
But according to some, the spectacle that the so-called sciences of education offer is instead a
collection of disciplines without too much real unity.
Those who state the need for the educational sciences counter this by saying that it is not a pure
and simple plurality of approaches we are talking about but a multi-disciplinary system that not
only has the same complicated focus and line of scientific development but imposes an
interdisciplinary approach as a fundamental method for the process of scientific and research
production
4.3 Sciences of education and/or pedagogy
The question becomes more complicated in relation to the way we understand science.
Someone who understands science in its broad sense, equivalent to "critical and justified
knowledge", will eventually see a system of disciplines which are:
a) foregrounded: aimed at ascertaining where, how and when education occurs (and this would
include historical and comparative disciplines and others from the human and social sciences
focused on education, formation, learning);
b) theoretical: aimed at asking what education ultimately means (and that would include the
philosophy of education, pedagogical epistemology, theology of education, etc.);
c) methodological: aimed at seeking what to do in and for education (and that would include
general pedagogical method and various particular methods);
d) practical and instrumental: aimed at researching how and with what means to educate (which
would include, for example, educational technologies, computer studies etc..)
Someone who understands science in its strict sense of an empirical, logical, mathematical
discipline, limits the sciences of education to the disciplines that specify the human and social
sciences relating to development, formation and education, meaning for example: biology,
anthropology, psychology, sociology of education, history, etc..
In this case the sciences of education and the others mentioned above: historical and
comparative, theoretical, methodological and practical and instrumental disciplines are seen as
auxiliary or contextual disciplines for pedagogy.
4.4 Sciences of education and sciences of formation
Along these lines we need to add that with the broadening of the idea of formation the idea took
over, especially in Italy, of an epistemological field called the sciences of formation within
which the very sciences of education and/or pedagogy were to be located. Contextually to the
technological, computer-oriented climate today that leads to emphasising life strongly marked
out by the so-called knowledge society - formation, more than referring to the holistic
development of personality, is coming to be seen as being directed almost entirely to acquiring
the skills for a successful professional and social role. This way of conceiving formation is seen
by many as a concern, because it would be exposed to the risk of lowering formation to the level
of the technical and the professional: to the detriment of general cultural formation, formation
44
understood as hopelessly in thrall to functionalism, efficiency, utilitarian ends. In many places
the sciences of formation have supplanted the corresponding institutions of sciences of
education, but include disciplines of linguistic formation/training, sports, business and work
management, disciplines related to leadership and guidance in urban or at least general
neighbourhood contexts, etc.
5. Core problems
Up until now, pedagogy, for the most part, has been almost completely directed to the early
stages of the evolving pattern of life and for this very reason has often been replaced by a more
robust paediatric praxis. Now instead the broadening of formation to extend to all ages of life
and every personal and communal circumstance of life, the multiplication of figures and
institutions concerned with education, also require a pedagogical culture and knowledge seen not
only as pure knowledge of education but also and always as a knowledge for educating, it
requires a theoretical, planned effort and critical evaluation of the practical models which can be
used in interventions and various educational situations. Pedagogy today is being called into
question by profound processes of cultural change, technological innovation and cultural
pluralism. Thus pedagogy today is called on not only to furnish information, ideas, models for
education, but also has to completely rethink education, formation, learning, instruction as a
human and social reality. It is encouraged to be critical and to seek out a new “paideia” (that is, a
new and global educational culture). The prospect is one of a better quality of life and sustainable
development of each and every individual and community, of peoples and entire humankind:
past and future.
*
*
There is not Chapter 3 (= Culture & Education)
45
*
Chapter 4
EDUCATION'S PROBLEM OF MEANING
Education is an intervention aimed at developing and fostering a desirable state in those whom
we shall call 'educands' (the word is not common in English, but it saves space!) The
“pedagogical hypothesis” or "the confidence that it is possible, within the educational process, to
bring about a state for the pupil which is better than the one he or she had when the educational
intervention began."
Others deny this intrinsic validity. Education, beyond the good intentions of the educators,
instead of producing the desired effect often produces negative effects, impeding complete and
healthy development of the personality. In any case the problem remains of putting how we “do”
education together with “acting” on behalf of education. Beyond the aspect of an activity that
has a particular end in mind ( = helping growth and development), educational activity
experiences a demand for significance and meaning. Speaking of the significance of education as
an activity underscores the obligatory comment that educational activity has an intrinsic
relationship with the life (needs, desires, aspirations, values) of the individual and others
involved in this educational relationship.
Highlighting meaning indicates the possibility or otherwise of being part of educational activity
within the overall context of validity for the partners in the educational relationship.
1. The terms: significance, meaning, need for meaning
The two terms (meaning, significance), taken from their traditional fields of linguistics and logic,
have now also become part of communication and ethics. They are often thought of as
synonyms.
Meaning is in reference to the possibility of accepting, having an overall framework of values,
points of view that give significance to an individual's or social group's being and acting. This is
why meaning is one of the fundamental needs of personal, individual, group, collective
existence; along with the need for personal and socio-cultural identity, the need for relationships,
the need to fit in to a community, the need for transcendence, the infinite.
If not satisfied, such needs can lead to more or less serious kinds of discomfort that can slide
towards depression and “implosive behaviour” (disquiet, depression, closure, selfdestructiveness, suicide, both individual and collective); or towards aggression-“explosive
behaviour”(bullying, “gangs”, vandalism, micro-criminality, intolerance, racism, murder, killing
off what is different); or still other kinds of running away from things: estrangement, alienation
(alcoholism, drugs, attraction to fundamentalist causes). It is also true that it can lead to forms of
crisis that encourage research, dialogue, readiness to overcome situations, a shift to renewed
forms of identity, reshaping one's view of things and activity, or at least adapting through
appropriate forms of compensation to situations earlier considered impossible to manage.
46
This is true always and for everyone but especially in teenage and early adulthood years.
2. The problem of meaning today
In today's world, interest in the problems of meaning in life and of how human beings act has
become particularly keen, involving various areas of personal, interpersonal and collective
existence.
Sensitivity to life and human rights has grown, people work more diligently against abuse,
violence and any kind of domination and personal and social alienation. Often however the
proclamation of human rights is contradicted by glaring violations (especially against the
weakest members of the social group: minors, women, the poor, the disadvantaged, those outside
national confines ('extracommunitarians' is the European description). Scientific, technological
development itself, while offering a remarkable contribution to the development of human
communication, nevertheless give rise to views that question “human nature” (for example
through genetic manipulation, cloning, artificial insemination, embryo research, even attempts to
try genetically hybrid forms involving humans and animal species, etc.).
Within this overall framework, and still within the area of education, it is appropriate to ask: does
it make sense to educate? To be educated? To educate ourselves? What kind of sense is there in
this? What is the meaning of it today?
2.1.In the context of crisis and innovation connected with the novelties of recent decades
With a view to responding to why these questions are so strongly felt today, from a theoretical
point of view we can identify a good number of reasons.
Following on from globalisation, new information technologies, robotics, biotechnologies,
multiculturalism, the economic ambivalences of the market reduced only to finance, weaknesses
and difficulties have been shown to exist in the scenario of modern western culture.
The range of novelty and instances of change and innovation that globalisation induces in the
world's vital system and in individuals, influences values,attitudes, value frameworks , models
of behaviour in general and models of interaction in particular.
2.2.Existential divergences in globalised “liquid modernity”
A more accurate analysis shows how we come to have some existential divergences pulling
individuals and social relationships in two directions.
We can identify six:
1) Between financial and political power and common life.
2) Between “places” (= traditional life and education agencies like home, school, parish) and
“non-places” (spontaneous groups, amusement systems, new social communications media…).
3) Between time and space, structures and processes, continuity and change: innovation has
accelerated so much that everything becomes very short-lived, we lose any sense of historical
continuity, consolidated structures and procedures are weakened (= liquid society);
4) Between virtual and physical reality;
5) Between perennial and fashionable virtues, tradition and everyday novelty;
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6) Between impulse and intention, emotions and rationality.
2.3. Four critical points
Many people find great difficulty in giving life profound meaning. Symptomatic of this are
narcissism, the desire to posses and consume, sex dissociated from genuineness, anxiety and fear,
inability to hope in something, widespread unhappiness and depression.
These tendencies indicated above can encourage life approaches that are unfavourable to a
meaningful life and risk becoming stumbling blocks for education which is meant to promote
meaning. We can indicate 4 critical points:
1) The growing ethical subjectivism and ideal = self, where well-being and personal self become
the measure of all: objective truth, the other, ourselves, institutions, the common good lose
meaning;
2) Ideas and relationships are seen only from an interpersonal, intergenerational, horizontal
perspective: without depth and inwardness without purpose and values that can provide
direction;
3) Emphasis on doing more than on being; on skills rather than inner capacities, ability to reflect,
contemplate;
4) What can be seriously negative is the fact that a kind of ideology of adolescence persists in
adult culture, a generalised "youthfulness" sought more by adults than young people. This
ideology upholds freshness of life, spontaneity, constant novelty, freedom, the absence of rules,
instability, self-reference, absolute self-centeredness, wanting to experience everything, but also
the affects choices and responsibilities. It is harmful in itself because it does not allow what is
good in every age to shine out and because young people may not find significant models of
adult life in their parents, teachers, the adult world.
3. Ways of seeking meaning
These contextual and personal difficulties could seem insurmountable and inescapable. Perhaps
one way out is possible if one operates on different levels and in a way that converges on the
world of personal subjectivity and on historical and technological objectivity.
Meaning is certainly captured more directly and intensely through experience, living and feeling
that what is humanly worthy is a concrete response what is needed and felt as a deep need. It is
for this that reflection and theoretical reasoning can be helpful.
Here we can glimpse a number of directions and ways forward for seeking meaning, and which
will also be the conditions for so doing:
1. rationality on a human scale, at an epistemological level
2. a comprehensive idea of freedom at an anthropological level
3. an idea of value understood broadly as “more than human”, at an axiological level
4. an ethics of commitment to value – the good, at an ethical level.
3.1. Rationality on a human scale
3.1.1. Reason, reasonableness, intelligence of faith in dialogue
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Between a merely scientific or technological rationality and a fundamentalist faith or subjective
impulsiveness, we can trace the possibility of reason made to man's measure which dialogues
with a faith that seeks intelligence in the common search for the most valuable, though limited,
truths.
It is particularly helpful to seize on the dimension of the possible and the virtual in contrast to
what just exists or is in fact; the dimension of difference that articulate real complexity,
overcoming
The blockage of factual necessity and the mental blockage which makes it so hard to act. At the
level of personal consideration what is other and different, if they are, or can be thought of as
obstacle or enemy, they can also be or be considered as neighbour and friend: and that way
overcome intolerance and getting lost in the impersonality of anonymity
3.1.2. Thinking “ glocally”
Increasing globalisation today encourages us not to close ourselves within our own metal and
cultural shell. Intercultural dialogue has become an imperative for human existence today, called
as we are to live in the “global village”.
Globalisation encourages us to think and live, “simultaneously”: locally, nationally,
internationally, globally, as well as humanly.
The dream is to seek an idea something like “glocally” or “eco-globally”, something that seems
to hold together the worldwide, empathetic with the local and particular, without falling into
fundamentalism, racism, nationalism, imperialism, localism (i.e. opposed to universalism
without culture, traditions, religions… etc.).
Perhaps the current experience of globalisation allows one to think of the world in an
'ecumenical' and 'catholic' way, without losing anything of one's actual historical or local identity.
Put schematically, we need to join the two “c”s and “d”s together: the “c” of common sharing,
and practical convergence in protecting and promoting such principles and ideals; the “d” of
differentiation of justifications and motivations, and dialectic/ debate in the search for the 'more'
of truth and value that surpasses us all.
3.1.3. Existential truth
The risk today is that we easily become fundamentalists, almost as if we had the whole and
complete truth in our pocket, as if it was our private possession in opposition to relativists and
sceptics.
'Reality' is not just a datum of fact. It is also the immense amount of potential and virtuality of
“more than being”, of what is beyond and future, of intentions and the willingness to plan, for
better or for worse.
So also the intellect is not only reason, but involves many ways of coming to know human
beings, not only individuals but also communities and collectives: from traditional wisdom to
creative imagination.
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Truth does not only lie in fact or logic or formal correctness. It is seen as a quality of personal
and interpersonal existence, when we try to adjust vision, thought, interpretation and reality,
otherness, between ourselves and others while we are immersed in historical processes but
nevertheless open to the other, the future, transcendence. This way more than being an act, truth
is a process of approaching someone or something, transparency between ourselves and others,
the world, history, the future, God.
This is possible because, as St Thomas said, man can become “quodammodo omnia” (be
cognitively and spiritually everything).
3.2. A comprehensive notion of freedom
Another way to seek meaning is one that leads to a comprehensive idea of freedom which is not
absolute or fatalistic or casually passive.
It involves aspects of need and casualness but also of intelligence and intentional willingness. It
is what distinguishes the human (= the result of intelligence and will) from what is simply of the
human (= what is done mechanically, in disorderly fashion, involuntarily).
It is freedom from constrictions, blocks, impediments; it is freedom of (thought, word, action…),
freedom in (contexts, situations, processes that are going on); it is freedom for (values, ideals,
beloved people..): St Augustine called the first 3 “libertas minor” and the other 4 “libertas
maior”.
Our freedom is always freedom-with; it is an act but also a process, part of history and open to a
future; it is a process of subjective emancipation and popular liberation.
Perhaps today more than in the past, new frontiers are opening up for the understanding and
practice of freedom. In first place the discovery of the “personal”, interrelationships, the
possibilities of communication, allow us to overcome the narrow idea of freedom understood
unilaterally as human autonomy, a law unto itself, which finds its norms for acting within
oneself, and allows us instead to be open to the other, to give ourselves to the people and things
we love, etc.
3.3. The search for meaning and value
There is another way to explore and open the way to finding meaning amongst our current
difficulties and it is the one relating to the concept of value. Talking about values is difficult for
several reasons. Values are not detached from hopes, joys, expectations, human desires,
historical circumstances and processes in life. Often in current language what we indicate as a
value should more properly be called “historical concretisations of value”, or typical ideals of a
particular culture and time, of a society, i.e. the determinations or categories of the values of a
particular culture or civilisation, or even the principles of value, that is the transcendent aspect of
the value abstractly considered. The place of value is the interactive and historical relationship
between subject and object or other parties; between people and things, between individuality
and environment, between past, present and future, between the subjective and objective world;
between natural and cultural heritage; between the factual and the possible, between the
immanent and the transcendent. We see this when in this relationship there is something more
50
than human: we note then that more than speaking person and values we should say there is
value in the person: and more than educating people to values we should be educating people to
be valuable/valid.
It avoids the risk of a fixed perspective, as happens when we speak about “meaning”.
3.4. The search for meaning and responsible commitment (for educational values)
The fourth way to explore and open the gates to the search for meaning: is through commitment.
Meaning is often gained through doing, wanting something, getting involved in making it
happen, building up life, truth, beauty, love, justice, unity; fostering freedom and humanity,
personally and together, struggling so that in can be seen or glimpsed on the horizon as a value.
Among the values that demand commitment, realisation are formative/educational values first of
all, those to do with growth and development of each and every human being: we can identify
them in values of content (= growth, development, human quality of life, promotion of personal
and community existence, freedom, community-mindedness…), formal and procedural values (=
gradualness, adequacy, pertinence, validity, significance; specificity, wholeness, integration;
sense of discipline; efficiency and productivity; communicativeness and relationships;
reciprocity and identity…) and ethical, relational values which are part of education (= listening,
acceptance, respect, appreciation, support, guidance, correlation, stimulation, love,
professionalism, ability to manage things, authenticity, reasonableness, wisdom,…)
4. An educational perspective: the idea of continuing education
Education is one possible way to meaning. It is significant because it can be positively related to
fostering growth and reinforcing personality.
With the emergence of lifelong learning – already spoken of in the introduction – we open the
possibility of shifting learning opportunities beyond the early period of growth. It is also an
invitation to overcome a culture-centric and socio-centric view of education and growth, by
focusing on an all-rounded and liberating education. It is, as said earlier, Lifelong education,
Lifewide education, Ongoing education.
The current shift in emphasis from teaching to learning, has us speaking at international levels of
“the right of everyone to learning for life” (UNESCO, 2000). The commitment to education is
found in seeking and reaching good and effective statements for improving educational activity.
It is an intellectual and ethical commitment which is certainly not easy, but nor is it foolishness
or just taking refuge in utopia: it is based on and gives confidence to humanity as we find it in
human history, in every adult, young person or child.
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Capter 5
EDUCATIONAL RESPONSIBILITY
Our own existence and that of others, in the world and in history, as a datum, a fact and both a
gift and a possibility that stimulate and require to be acted upon and therefore requires
dedication. This way existence becomes a task, or as we say in religious language, a “vocation”
to exist in a certain way with a “mission” to carry out on behalf of others, and everyone.
At this level we see the “responsive” nature of the human condition, which is called on to take a
stance and get involved with regards to oneself, relationships with others, the world, history,
humanity past, present and future.
1. Difficulties experienced in social responsibility
This task is not an easy one for anyone today; not only because the means, support, services,
personnel, money are lacking but also for theoretical, ideal, value-based reasons.
1.1.Experiences or value frameworks in crisis or change or which are completely new
The conceptual coordinates of value that guide the life of modern western man have been
profoundly up-ended and shaken. We hear reports of bad conscience, hypocrisy, selfishness,
superficiality, rhetorical abstraction, or a high degree of secularism, false autonomy and
ostentatiousness, self-centredness, as opposed to religious experiences and life of faith.
1.2. Ethics: between obligation and happiness
As always, ethics oscillates between the ego's deep desire for happiness, and this involves action
and the obligation to exist in a certain way, to act in conformity with a set of norms. We can
easily enough understand how the long tradition of official agencies for public ethics have
stressed the norms aspect.
Today these positions are marked by profound uncertainty either that one can achieve a happy
life or can succeed in living in a just and good way.
Political ideologies but also religious guidance do not seem to be able to satisfy most people's
desires. The autonomy of life and will seem to be impeded by new forms of domination or
material, economic, procedural, bureaucratic, institutional, political limitations…
2. Conditions for responsibility to be a possibility today.
To try to resolve this set of issues concerning proper human activity, it will be necessary to
clarify some of the conditions that make it possible.
2.1 Search for a comprehensive and integrated notion (and praxis) of human relationships.
Today, in various disciplines in the humanities, it is becoming a more widespread tendency to
regard relationship as a phenomenon which has to do with the original make-up of the human
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being. The ego always begins to develop from within a relationship (personal, community,
world, history…) and it would not be correct to consider it an isolated reality sets up (if we can
put it that way) relationships with the world, others, God…
We certainly must be aware of the vast world of relationships: intra-personal, inter-personal
objects, institutions, cultural and international relations regarding development, our relationship
with time, the world, history, etc.
But we also need to understand and think systematically about each and every kind of
relationship, namely, that every kind of relationship connects us with others and that individual
kinds of relationship cannot be understood unless they are correlated with all other kinds of
relationships.
2.2. Educability: something peculiar to human evolution.
Another aspect to highlight is offered by the concept of “educability”, inasmuch as it begins to
emphasise why we should offer an “educational response”.
By educability we mean the set of evolutionary or essential features of the human being and his
historical existence which allows us to consider him as beneficiary or better, 'subject' rather than
'object' of educational activity.
2.2.1. Being in development
Human life by contrast with other beings shows certain features as part of its make-up that invite
assistance of various kinds to achieve full maturity, structure, continuity in practice.
Biologist, ethnologists and anthropologists note that the human being is like something that
seems to have come into the world too soon, notably incomplete in biological terms,
“precocious”, to the point where the human being needs to remain a rather long time in the
“maternal social womb” which is the family.
Its upbringing requires rather more substantial forms, modes and times compared to other living
beings.
Besides being a being of “premature birth”, the human being seems to be more disadvantaged
than the animals in terms of its native 'baggage' of impulses, instincts, naturally inherited
practical and behavioural skills which would even just biologically ensure individual survival
and survival of the species. Man should be considered as a biologically “lacking” being, with
mostly 'primitive', barely formed organs and biological instruments, and hence is a natively
'inept' being.
2.2.2. Being able to work, learn, build up oneself, build up others, our common historical
existence.
Of course the human being has the capacity for interaction with others and with the environment.
The human being can transform him or herself, others and the environment, by following an
idea, a perspective, a plan, an individual or shared (with a group or society in general)
willingness: we can 'hominise' and 'humanise' the environment.
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In such a context human work acquires its real meaning. Work becomes an expression of this
typical human becoming which stamps a “human order” on things, on nature, on other living
beings (not without destructive or pejorative effects on the human and geophysical environment).
Within the context of human labour, education itself can be seen as a kind of work, that is,
human work particularly for "human transformation" of the virtuality and native capabilities of
the person (in this case too, not without risk of adverse effects). Moreover, the human being is
capable of learning from the outset, in various ways and building himself up, through intelligent
action, symbolic-linguistic ability, participation in the social heritage of culture.
We should note the concept of human learning. It can be understood as the process that leads to
changes, a certain stability of personality [knowledge, attitudes, behaviour] not due to physical
maturation or growth but rather to interaction with the environment (due to the internalisation
of culture and conscious and unconscious revision/reconstruction of experience).
Personal commitment and social formation will support maturation of fundamental human
capacities, and become competent formation, stimulating the acquisition of consolidated personal
skills of responsible freedom, i.e. personal skills of inwardness, critical thinking, effective
commitment, friendship and love, solidarity in human society and ideal, religious transcendence.
The possibility of setbacks, regression, functional fixations is anything but unreal or infrequent,
as the humanities and deep analysis have taught us to notice.
2.2.3. Being “in person”
Man does not exist just as a physical being: compared to other beings, man seems to involve
something that makes him "outstanding" despite the undeniable similarity, continuity,
commonality with animals and things.
It is his corporeality and the world but also thought, awareness and love which somehow and at
least partially or occasionally link him with the time and space he exists within. It is structure,
instincts, impulses, the things that determine him, condition him, institutions, but others things
still: call it freedom, spirituality, rationality or what you will. It is man en masse, the collective
man, the member of society, being-with-others, intersubjectivity; but also his individuality,
inwardness, intimacy, decision and involvement. It is life, history, language, culture, civilisation,
but also intentionality, project and transcendence. It is fragment, part object but also universe,
totality, purpose: in other words, person!
In our concrete and material relationship with others in the world, in friendship and love or
perhaps tension and inter-individual and collective conflict we recognise others as “other selves”
and are recognised by others the same way.
2.3. Human rights, truth and historical measures of value
Human rights are a relevant part of contemporary culture in the new millennium, involving good
and evil. While there are many incongruities, they may account for the aspirations of freedom,
equality, fraternity, justice and peace, people, groups and peoples, i.e. the "Democratic Charter"
which inspires civic life today. Human rights can be seen as the great truth-value of our time, that
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can be share ideally, on which we can converge in practical terms, while differing in our
justification and motivation for this sharing and convergence.
2.4. Good actions: between an ethics of responsibility and an ethics of consistency
Based on these assumptions of an epistemological and anthropological nature, we can better
understand the multiple and complex bond that unites humans to act within certain horizons,
consistently and coherently and with a sense of responsibility.
2.4.1. The outward and inward nature of ethical action
In general terms we can read the whole of human life, individual and collective, as dynamically
constituted by the effects of voluntary and involuntary, intentional and unintentional decisions which, more or less directly or indirectly, we are implicated in or which we take part in all the
breadth and relational openness that life offers. In this way of understanding things natural
demands rightly become ethical ones and obligation in fact becomes ethical obligation or
“human solidarity” (we would say universal and personal fellowship in Christian terms).
2.4.2. Law and ethics
Law, in its universal and general claim to be "right action" fulfils the function of enlightening
and facilitating decisions and personal commitment. In particular laws function by supporting
right intention or the common willingness to act, by concretely determining the value, and
measuring intentions against real possibilities. Laws and norms help the individual or
communities to discover the common social measure for action, so that individuality is
respected, but also diversity and the 'other' (therefore laws have a “pedagogical”, educational
function on behalf of freedom and the autonomy involved in acting ethically). At the same time
they help us to escape “ethical solipsism” (acting as if we were the only person in the world).
2.4.3. Objective norms and subjective decisions.
Laws and rules express historical measures and social behaviour; they offer individuals the
framework of rights and fundamental duties that, at least in the first instance and in minimal
ways, demarcate the way to go and the sense of there being a common search for personal
authenticity.
Rules and regulations are affected by the context and the historical period in which they are
processed, and therefore have always been fundamentally of a provisional and situational nature,
showing us the limits, what is in constant need of adjustment, or updating or total change when
and to the extent that we are facing radically new circumstances. In each case they require and to
be taken up critically and consciously when we make decisions
3. Moral decision and commitment.
In the cultural context in which we live, moral decision takes courage, inasmuch as it is not
always possible to achieve full and clear transparency for what we want to do or for what we
believe is the purpose of our action. For these reasons, it is quite common to speak of "option" or
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"taking a chance": to indicate that the situation is not transparent when it comes to acting
individually or as a community.
Our contemporary awareness highlights not only the personal aspect but also the community side
of this commitment to moral development. The “moral” issue is increasingly being recognised as
one of the fundamental ones and needing our prior attention in order to coexist in society.
4. Growing together: the international dynamic of growth in humanity
"Right and correct action" finds its concrete and specific place in the educational relationship. It
could be useful in this context to revisit the idea of “generation”, because in addition to throwing
better light on what education is, it helps us see the meaning of moral commitment, highlighting
intrinsic relationships and reciprocity.
4.1. Education as a complement to generation.
Generation firstly indicates process (human, not raw biological process and going well beyond
sexual conception) by which living beings give birth to individuals of the same species. This
takes place in a chain of generation (cf. the parental system in every organised society.
Moreover, in another sense generation means a group of socially recognised people of the same
age, culture, ways of life and behaviour and therefore also refers to the entire group of
individuals who live in a certain historical period. The term is even in use today to define
products in various stages of development or technological research, like computers, which can
be first, second or third generation.
As part of the idea of generation as groups of people of the same age, the term is also used to
indicate a stratification of age groups, from infancy, to childhood, to youth, to adulthood,
seniority, retirement.
As with generation so too procreation of children, so the concept of generation throws light on
the fact that it is "regenerating" the social culture, transmitting culture (like faith) to the next
generation).
In this way education makes sense because there the process of procreation is not complete (not
reducible to the time of conception, but also includes growth in the 'social' womb after the
mother's womb, given what we have already said about the need for formation/education for
what is still only in its beginnings and needing development in the human being. On the other
hand, education is also cultural education both in terms of acquisition of the best of cultural
heritage and development of the ability to create culture.
4.2. Our historical common commitment to growth and development as human beings.
This common understanding helps us escape perspectives that are overly individualistic or
subjective or on the other hand too collective in our way of acting, either in general or with
regard to education and formation in particular.
At a truly educational level, the category of “generation” allows us to see the educational and
formational value of inter-generational encounter and dialogue, despite its question marks
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(generation “gap”) and its particular difficulties today: but also with the resources that are typical
for each age bracket. It helps to think of the commitment to education not in terms of individual
adult teachers or educators, but as a generation, i.e. as a common responsibility and work going
on between one generation and the other: almost a kind of global “co-education” by everyone for
everyone; even going as far as the particular aspect of processes of liberation and development
which is worthy of the human being, and which all organised peoples and societies pursue.
This is a way of understanding the important words of that great pedagogue and educator Paulo
Freire(1921-1997) when he said that “no one person educates any other person. No one educates
himself. People are educated one another by being together through the mediation of the world.”
Understood this way educational activity can be seen as a particular expression of this broad
historical commitment to our growth and development as human beings and as a particular form
of general responsibility for life. Rightly and correctly then we can speak of “educational
responsibility”. Education then is revealed in its deepest sense as proceeding from an ethical,
individual and/or community decision, corresponding to vital needs of growth, personal and of
others, and our common growth in humanity and freedom, "humanising our environment" and
fully "hominising" each and every individual.
5. The educating society and educative community
In view of all this we can see quite clearly the need to be aware of and bring about, as a people
and society at all levels, the category of the “educating society”; and as part of this the
“educative community” in its various forms (family, school, group): understood as the “social
subject” of education for each and every human being. We made reference to this already in the
introduction. By speaking of the educating society we highlight the fact that holistic
development of the human being needs the contribution of every agency of formation. Secondly,
it is indicative of a society with the political will to participate democratically in the management
of formation initiatives and to seek educational coherence between formation institutions,
between them and civil society, the world of production, political life, cultural initiative,
religious aspirations and so on. Thirdly, speaking of an educating society seems to be also saying
that society, together and in its individual members, needs to put itself in a state of being
educated, meaning in a state of constant social, cultural, ethical, political, religious reform, as if
it has to be educated itself so that it can then be able to educate its social body.
The second category, the “educative community” wants to emphasise the fact that education is
not just a personal, interpersonal or group fact but also involves “community individuals”
(educators, those being educated, society around them…), who work together and with
differentiated responsibilities to achieve the purposes of education.
Awareness of this need for community responsibility for education invites us to think of practical
strategies of social and educational alliance (beginning with family, school, social
communication system), of an educational contract (between school and family, teachers, pupils
and parents), of networking (collaboration and shared responsibility, educational work shared out
(between local and government, national and international agencies). In fact in many places we
also speak of the opportunities for specific educative communities, completely and fully
dedicated to education; or at least providing a community character to schooling as an
educational community of learning.
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There is not Chaper 6 (educational purposes & the life of faith )
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APPENDIX: GLOSSARY

Praxis: this term (in Greek, also “praxis”) refers to human activity (group or individual)
and transformation of what is real by following an ideal plan. The accent today is on
“social praxis”, meaning what we do in terms of fairly well-established and traditional
social models, to achieve socially agreed upon ends.

Theory: in the strict sense this refers to a comprehensive and unified view of reality in
general or some aspect of it. The well-known comment of Kant is that practice without
theory is blind and theory without practice is empty. The praxis-theory connection sheds
light on how education is an activity (conscious and intentional behaviour) aimed at
"producing" formation.

Culture: the set of ideas, values models of behaviour, expressive techniques, traditions
and ideal plans typical of an historical group, which functions as 1) understanding of the
group's identity and history; 2) communication with others; 3) humanising the
environment; 4) passing on a way of life to new generations.
In today's situation of complexity, pluralism, globalisation and differentiation we tend to
speak of “cultures” in the plural.
Learning cultural content allows one to: 1) know how to interpret natural and human life,
both individual and collective, 2) broaden experience in terms of horizons and
perspectives and our link with the past, and 3) have a resource we can draw meaning and
values from, and 4) structure, consolidate and give content to the human mind; 5) be
open to the overall formation of our personality.
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
Ideology: today, like yesterday, education has to come to grips with the historical and
cultural product which is ideology. Ideology is a conception of the world and of life
unified around some central value, with the function of collecting and drawing together a
consensus that is also politically effective. After Marx it was seen as something negative:
ideal support for the ruling power. But K. Mannheim also highlighted the role of ideal
political orientation.

Science: in its proper and common meaning science indicates knowledge based on
empirical control, which is logically reconstructed and expressed mathematically: cf.
physics, chemistry, biology, neuroscience and in some ways the humanities (psychology,
sociology, anthropology, pedagogy, history ...). In the more general sense it means critical
know-how, that is conscious, reasoned and justified knowledge (and therefore philosophy
can be understood in this sense).
Scientific organisation leads us to the term “scientific discipline”. By discipline we mean
rigorously organised knowledge characterised and differentiated by: 1) a material object
(= what is being studied); 2) a formal object (= the point of view from which it is being
studied); 3) the techniques and methods used; 4) the language and literary genre used 5)
the degree of historical development; 6) the anthropological, cosmological and
ontological background; 7) the scientists (their personalities) 8) groups or institutions of
scientific research; 9) the culture which the scientific research is part of 10) the social,
economic and political context.
Also connected with the term science are other terms to do with scientific method:
diachronic, synchronic, systemic, structural, nomothetic (opposite to specialised
disciplines) and idiographic (very specialised study)…
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
Pedagogy: has taken on different meanings throughout history. In general it means any
reflection on education. On a scientific level it is one of the human sciences that studies
education. From the perspective of academic, disciplinary organisation it is seen 1) as a
unified scientific discipline involving organisation of knowledge and educational
intervention, and 2) as a multidisciplinary/interdisciplinary system known as the
"education sciences".

Education sciences: there are two meanings:
1) strict meaning = educational disciplines derived from the humanities (psychology of
ed., sociology of ed., anthropology of ed., history of ed. etc.
2) broader meaning = multidisciplinary/interdisciplinary system in the field of education
which interacts with and brings relevant disciplines together (where, how when does ed.
take place? = history, psychology, sociology, anthropology of ed.); a theoretical and
interpretive discipline (what is it, its essential meaning, the fundamentals of ed. =
philosophy, theology, epistemology of ed.); planning sciences (what do we do in ed.? =
pedagogical method, pedagogy of growth, social pedagogy…); technological and
practical disciplines (with what means, using what strategies, what activities? =
didactics, educational technologies and infotech…).

Truth: not understoof as abstract but as “quality” of personal life and inter-subjective
existence in the world, history, in a culturally distinctive community open to
transcendence. According to this view, truth would come to be seen as a humane way of
approaching the real and being transparent to ourselves, to things, others, the world,
humanity, God. In this search for balance between intellect and reality, it is the richness
of mediation of the senses, intellect, reason, intuition, empathy, emotion, affect, and
personal practice, but also dialogue, gift, revelation of the world, others, God.

Value and values: the term value comes from the business world, where it denotes the
price of something due to use, exchange, labour, raw materials, etc. But the term has
become commonplace in the twentieth century and has become central to the so-called
philosophy of values of the last century.
It is also usually taken to mean: 1) the quality of a person or thing; 2) a person or thing
that is worthy of appreciation, and 3) a dignity and excellence that arises as a kind of
absolute ideal.
In the plural it stands for ideals, ideas which are proposed as humanly worthy in
themselves and humanising in their implementation. Value can be considered in four
ways: a) in and of itself, 2) as valid reality 3) as subjective preference, 4) as historical and
cultural determination of values.
Development: The term is understood to mean a process by which someone or something
pursues its optimal configuration in practice, by expansion, in sequence, through
increment (but often with setbacks, failures, unintended effects...). there is economic,
cultural, scientific, historical, ethical, religious personal development ... (factors of
personal development of most interest to education are: 1) potential and capacity (native
or accrued in life) of the individual [inheritance], 2) tangible and intangible environment
[culture], 3) help (or hindrance) from others [education], 4) dynamic interaction with the
environment over time [experience].
Educability: from the point of view of the student, it means those areas and aspects of
subjective, relational and social existence which require action or appeal to individual
and community support to achieve their optimal or at least adequate development; it
involves times and settings. From the point of view of the educator it indicates what may
be, to varying degrees, the object of education and the field where educational activity
takes place.
Learning: amongst our native capabilities is that of learning, namely triggering processes by
which stable changes take place in personality, not so much due to aging or physical
growth, but rather, and thanks to the interaction with the environment, and due to
internalisation of culture through a work of reconstruction and conscious and
unconscious revision, and through experience.
Formation: comes from the Latin word meaning "form", that is to say, originally it meant the
complete, whole image of a being come to perfection and maturity according to its
species. In the language of education it indicates the activity of bringing to completeness
what is hypothetically amorphous, disorganised, incomplete at the beginning, and
developing its potential and native ability. In formation we learn where we are deficient,
consolidate and structure attitudes and basic skills in life, acquire skills and competencies
to be a person (or a group or a community) which is humanly capable of being conscious,
free, responsible, supportive, knowledgeable and religiously mature.
Education: In specific terms it means individual help and social promotion of growth and
human quality of our own life and other's lives, in a personal and community sense,
focused primarily on personality formation. The etymology is uncertain: either from
"educare" = nurture, bring up (healthy development nourished by cultural transmission)
or from "educere" draw out (with a "socratic" meaning: dialogue leads to improved
awareness, intelligence, culture, personal willingness).
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Person: is intended to refer to the capacity for radical autonomy, freedom, responsibility,
self-transcendence. Our person is a source of rights and attribution of moral, ethical,
social eligibility / liability. It is "being in itself" not reducible to an object by anyone, at
least in an absolute and definitive form. It is openness to others, "being in communion"
meaning communion with self and with the world, with others and with God. It is being
for itself, that is, has dignity of final purpose (although it can be manipulated and reduced
to a means).
Freedom: normally means the typical way of human acting, either individually or
collectively, characterised by the absence of coercion, by awareness and capacity for
rational practical decision-making which leads to decision and commitment to something
worthwhile. It gives shape and completeness to the content of human action, making it
human.
Emancipation: taken from the legal world. In education it highlights the process of
liberation from subjective, structural and institutional constraints, and the acquisition of
personal autonomy. Personal development is seen as a gradual liberation of the individual
from the constraints which limit his or her rational decisions and free acts, in view of the
political struggle against all forms of inhuman domination.
Liberation: Especially with Freire the term came to mean the idea of education not being a
“deposit” or “bank”, but something freeing inasmuch as it helps with dialogue,
overcoming fatalism and mutism, being aware of one's situation and life, helps towards
even undreamed of possibilities to give rise to a process of human development for all
and everyone together, as part of history.
Self-fulfilment: indicates complete self-development and development of potential, seen as
the mature result of a process of human affirmation that allows us to give life the quality
that is envisaged by the deepest hopes and aspirations of most human beings.
Intentional/functional education: the first indicates the series of desired, specific, explicitly
prepared actions and interventions following a certain plan, in order to encourage and
promote the process of formation of the personality of the student. Functional education
denotes all those influences that affect personality development, without a consciously
and deliberately educational plan or purpose to them.
Formal, non-formal, informal education: instead of intentional/functional education today
we commonly speak of formal education (= intentional and organised ed., e.g. school), as
distinct from non-formal (= intentional ed. but not methodologically and systematically
set up, e.g. in the family), and informal education (= occasional, environmental,
contextual, spontaneous ed., thus neither intentional nor organised for educational
purposes ).
Material / formal education: material ed. indicates the critical assumption of culture and its
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contents of truth and value. Formal ed., instead encourages the formation of skills,
attitudes, ability to use tools, techniques, programs (e.g criticsal ed., ed. of reason, will,
character).
Self-education / hetero-education: self-ed. Means taking a stance with respect to self and
deciding to intervene personally in one's own development and personality. Hetero-ed. is
personal development achieved with the help of others. Normally the hetero-ed. precedes
and consequently allows for self-education. So they are in an inverse relationship: the one
decreases while the other grows.
Negative / positive education: by negative we mean "doing nothing", (not negative in the
sense of evil) that would force spontaneous development of individuals and their
relationship with things, while "positive" education means acting specifically (positive =
from the verb 'porre' (to put, to do), not from the adjective which means 'good') for
development: with rewards, punishments and warnings, advice, direction, guidelines.
Directive and non-directive education: Directive ed. highlights the leading role of the
educator in the processes of learning and personal development. In the second case
leadership in learning is entrusted to the pupil him or herself or to the learning group. The
educator is only given the positive role of expert advisor for support, encouragement and
reconciliation between groups.
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