CHAPTER 2 SYNOPSIS: MAJORITARIAN OR PLURALIST
Domestic terrorist attacks prompted U.S. citizens to seek a quick and sure response to quell the
source of the terrorism as much or more than the foreign terrorist attack discussed in the previous
chapter. The choices or decisions made by a government in reaction to such events will differ from
another government’s. One way to analyze how a country is governed is to consider how many people
are involved in the decision-making process. When the rules are approved by only one person, the
government is called an autocracy. A government in which only a few select people make binding
decisions is an oligarchy. A government that allows many people to participate is a democracy.
Most Americans, if asked, would probably agree that they live in a democracy, because “the people”
govern. This simplistic answer obscures the reality and complexity of democratic government.
Democracy, a word widely used in the world, conveys a variety of meanings and translates into
numerous variations of government.
There are two schools of thought about what constitutes a democracy. The procedural view stresses
the form and process of government, or how the people govern. Procedural democracy emphasizes
the principles of universal participation, political equality, and majority rule. Modern
nations are too large to employ direct (or participatory) democracy, and they must rely on
indirect democracy in the form of representative government. When the people elect
representatives to govern for them, the procedural view of democracy also insists on the principle of
responsiveness, that the government should follow the general thrust of public opinion.
The substantive view concentrates on what a government actually does—that is, the policies the
government makes and the extent to which they fulfill democratic ideals. A substantive theorist would
not recognize a decision that violated those ideals (for example, limiting freedom of religion) as
democratic even if the decision was made in response to majority wishes. Substantive theorists,
however, do not all agree on what exactly are the democratic ideals that a democracy should strive to
upholdthough most would focus on the existence of civil liberties and civil rights but disagree on
social equality. The textbook views democracy in terms of procedures rather than substance.
No nation is small enough to find direct democracy practical, so democratic governments develop
established procedures and organizations to link public opinion to government policy. Elections,
political parties, legislatures, and interest groups are all institutional mechanisms intended to keep
American government responsive to the people.
Encompassed within the procedural view of democracy are two schools of thought. According to the
majoritarian model of democracy, mass participation and majority rule are required procedures
for democratic government. According to the pluralist model, government by the people can be
interpreted to mean government operating through competing interest groups rather than
government by public opinion. Pluralists advocate greater reliance on groups of citizens representing
their interests to government decision makers.
An “undemocratic” approach to understanding American government is the elite model, which
holds that the really important policy decisions are made by a few wealthy and influential individuals.
Although voters appear to control government through elections, the real power is wielded by a small
and select group to suit their own interests rather than those of the mass public. Because it identifies
the ruling coalition as a distinct and durable group, the elite model differs from the pluralist model,
which holds that different “minorities” rule on different issues. Despite the plausibility of the elite
model, research has not supported its main argument—that an identifiable group rules the United
States.
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15
In the world today, many nations struggle with democratization after long histories of authoritarian
governments. The problems these nations face include ethnic and religious rivalries, a lack of
democratic traditions, and political and economic instability during the transition period.
Chapter 2: Majoritarian or Pluralist Democracy?
Of the two models of democracy, the pluralist model, with its openness to competing interest groups,
appears to approximate most closely the type of democracy practiced in the United States. U.S.
democracy does, however, fall short of the classic majoritarian concept of democracy grounded in
universal participation, political equality, and majority rule. The majoritarian model is undercut by
the reality of low citizen participation and political knowledge in the United States.
I.
The theory of democratic government
A. The ancient Greek philosophers classified governments according to the number of citizens
involved in governing.
1. Autocracy: a system of government in which the power to govern is concentrated in
the hands of one individual.
2. Oligarchy: a system of government in which power is concentrated in the hands of a
few people.
3. Democracy: a system of government in which, in theory, the people rule, either
directly or indirectly.
B.
The meaning and SYMBOLISM of democracy
1. Americans believe “the people” should rule.
a) Who are the people? Children, recent immigrants, and illegal aliens are all
excepted.
b) Ideal comes from the Greek: demos = the people, the masses; kratos = power
c) Democracy has traditionally carried with it the fear of mob rule.
d) That is no longer the case: more than 20 percent of the world’s political party
names contain some variation of the word “democracy.”
2. Two major schools of thought about what constitutes democracy
a) Democracy as a form of government (e.g., procedures, such are voting)
b) Democracy as the substance of policies
C.
The PROCEDURAL view of democracy
1. Procedural democratic theory: a view of democracy as being embodied in a
decision-making process that involves universal participation, political equality,
majority rule, and responsiveness.
2. Three principles derive from answers to three questions about decision making in a
democracy:
a) Who should participate?
(1) All adults
(2) Universal participation: the concept that everyone in a democracy should
participate in governmental decision making.
b) How much should each participant’s vote count?
(1) Equally
(2) Political equality: equality in political decision making: one vote per person,
with all votes counted equally.
c) How many votes are needed to reach a decision?
(1) A majority (50 percent + 1)
(2) Majority rule: the principle that the decision of a group must reflect the
preference of more than half of those participating; a simple majority.
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16
Chapter 2: Majoritarian or Pluralist Democracy?
D.
A COMPLICATION: DIRECT VS. INDIRECT
1. The principles are widely recognized as necessary for democratic decision making.
2. Small societies can meet these requirements with a direct or participatory democracy.
a) PARTICIPATORY DEMOCRACY: a system of government where rank-and-file
citizens rule themselves rather than electing representatives to govern on their
behalf
b) Something close to participatory democracy is practiced in some New England
towns, by neighborhood councils in other cities, and in the Chicago school system.
c) Participatory democracy is generally rejected on the grounds that large, complex
societies need full-time, professional government.
3. Framers of the U.S. Constitution felt direct democracy was undesirable; they created a
representative or indirect democracy
a) REPRESENTATIVE DEMOCRACY: a system of government in which citizens
elect public officials to govern on their behalf.
b) Elected officials are expected to represent the voters’ views and interests—to be
responsive.
c) RESPONSIVENESS: a decision-making principle, necessitated by representative
government, that implies that elected representatives should do what the majority
of people wants.
(1) Issues are generally not straightforward, so legislators cannot simply choose A
or B based on public opinion.
(2) Rather, this means following the general contours of public opinion in
formulating complex pieces of legislation.
4. Four principles of procedural democracy:
a) Universal participation
b) Political equality
c) Majority rule
d) Responsiveness
E.
THE SUBSTANTIVE VIEW OF DEMOCRACY
1. SUBSTANTIVE DEMOCRATIC THEORY: the view that democracy is embodied in
the substance of government policies rather than in the policymaking procedure.
a) There is agreement that government must guarantee civil rights and liberties.
b) The idea that government must guarantee certain social and economic rights is
more controversial.
(1) Disagreement is sharpest regarding whether or not government must promote
social equality to qualify as a democracy.
(2) Americans show less support that jobs and income are a right than do citizens
of other countries.
c) Ideology generally determines which substantive rights are viewed as necessary.
(1) Conservatives tend to have a narrow view of the social and economic rights
guaranteed by government.
(2) Liberals tend to believe that government should guarantee its citizens a
broader spectrum of social and economic rights.
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Chapter 2: Majoritarian or Pluralist Democracy?
F.
17
PROCEDUCRAL DEMOCRACY VS. SUBSTANTIVE DEMOCRACY
1. Substantive democracy does not provide a clear, precise criteria to determine whether a
government is democratic.
2. Procedural democracy does present specific criteria, but adhering to those criteria may
produce unfavorable social policies.
a) Minority rights: the benefits of government that cannot be denied to any citizens
by majority decisions—can be still be compromised using democratic procedures.
b) Methods to protect minority rights
(1) Limiting majority rule (e.g., requiring extraordinary majorities for decisions
on certain subjects
(2) Placing certain issues in the Constitution
3. Compromise between procedural and substantive approaches balances legitimate
minority and majority interests.
II. INSTITUTIONAL MODELS OF DEMOCRACY
A. Nations must achieve democracy through some form of representative government.
1. Electing officials to make decisions is necessary, but does not guarantee democracy.
2. Institutional mechanisms allow public opinion to be translated into government policy.
a) Institutional mechanisms: established procedures and organizations.
b) Institutional mechanisms include elections, political parties, legislatures, and
interest groups.
3. Two basic types of institutional arrangements
a) Institutional arrangements may facilitate responsiveness and focus on majority
rule.
b) Institutional arrangements may compromise responsiveness but allow groups of
citizens to defend their interests in the policymaking process.
c) Difference between the two is in how they interpret “government by the people”—
result is alternative models of democracy
B.
THE MAJORITARIAN MODEL OF DEMOCRACY
1. Majoritarian model of democracy: the classical theory of democracy in which
government by the people is interpreted as government by the majority of the people.
2. Attempts to approximate the people’s role in direct democracy within the limitations of
representative democracy
a) Popular election of government officials
(1) Fulfills the first three principles of procedural democratic theory: universal
participation, political equality, and majority rule
(2) Threat of electoral defeat is expected to motivate elected officials to be
responsive (fourth principle).
b)
Elections can also be a means for deciding government policies.
(1) Referendum: an election on a policy issue.
(2) Initiative: when a policy question is put on the ballot by citizens circulating
petitions and gathers required minimum number of signatures.
(3) Recall: forcing a special election for an up or down vote on a sitting governor
or state judge.
(4) No provision exists for referenda at the national level, though Americans
strongly favor instituting such a system.
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18
Chapter 2: Majoritarian or Pluralist Democracy?
3.
The majoritarian model assumes that:
a) The people are knowledgeable about government and politics
b) The people want to participate in the political process
c) The people make rational decisions in voting for their elected representatives
d) Critics suggest that Americans do not meet these criteria; but other data suggests
that the public as a whole does have coherent and stable opinions on major policy
questions.
C.
PLURATIST DEMOCRACY
1. The majoritarian model of democracy didn’t fit the reality of American politics.
a) There is widespread ignorance about politics among the American people.
b) Only half the adult population votes in presidential elections.
2. Pluralist model of democracy: an interpretation of democracy in which
government by the people is taken to mean government by the people operating
through competing interest groups.
a) Developed in 1950s as alternative interpretation of democracy that acknowledged
limited participation and knowledge of the real electorate
b) Reflects role of interest groups: an organized group of individuals that seeks to
influence public policy (also called a lobby).
3. Major mechanisms in pluralist democracy
a) Interest groups
b) Decentralized structure of government
(1) Provides ready access to public officials
(2) Is open to hearing groups’ arguments for or against government policies
(3) Gives competing groups alternative points of access for presenting and arguing
claims
4. The U.S. Constitution approaches pluralist ideal by dividing authority among the
branches of government and the multiple power centers that federalism creates.
5. Pluralism in America now
a) Interest groups are thriving, and there are many more citizen interest groups,
which has broadened citizen participation.
b) But declining citizen participation in civic groups is a cause for concern.
D.
MAJORITARIAN VS. PLURALIST MODEL
1. THE MAJORITARIAN MODEL
a) Mass public—not interest groups—controls government actions
b) Citizenry must have some knowledge of government and willingness to participate.
c) Conclusive elections and a centralized structure of government aid majority rule.
d) Cohesive political parties with well-defined programs also allow voters to
distinguish policy alternatives.
2.
THE PLURALIST MODEL
a) Does not demand much knowledge from citizens in general
b) Requires specialized knowledge of government, mainly from groups’ leaders
c) Seeks to limit majority action so interest groups can be heard
d) Relies on strong interest groups and decentralized government structure
e) Many say that pluralism allows minorities to rule.
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Chapter 2: Majoritarian or Pluralist Democracy?
19
E.
ELITE THEORY
1. Elite theory: the view that a small group of people actually make most of the
important government decisions.
2. Differs from pluralist theory: argues that an identifiable and stable minority that shares
certain characteristics—vast wealth and business connections—is the controlling
interest group.
3. Group makes decisions in the interests of corporations and capitalism generally rather
than in the interest of the populace
4. Group also provides top government leaders (e.g., Vice President Cheney)
5. Argues United States is not a democracy but an oligarchy
6. Suggests much of the elite’s power comes from its ability to keep issues off the political
agenda
7. Research on viability of this theory is mixed
a) Some suggests that an identifiable elite does not regularly win on government
issues.
b) Other work shows the predominance of local business elite in certain locations.
8. U.S. democracy is better described by pluralism than by elitism, but all groups are not
equally represented in the political system.
F.
ELITE THEORY VS. PLURALIST THEORY
1. Key difference: durability of ruling minority
2. Pluralism
a) Not majority versus minority
b) Many different interests vying with each other in different policy arenas
c) Sees struggle between competing interests as a good
d) Does not insist that all groups have equal influence on government decisions
e) Weakness: does not address the issue of “nondecisions”
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