Diversity and Sports: The History, The Challenges,
and The Future
Dean’s Leadership Forum On Diversity, March 16, 2009
Widener University School of Law
Sport, Minorities and the Media: Race, Gender and Disability –
Access and Images
A Rocky Path to Racial and Gender Equality in Sports Reporting
Daniel Frankl, Ph.D., Professor
California State University, Los Angeles
During the fall of 1994, in a sport psychology class that I was teaching at
California State University, Los Angeles, the subject came up of how gender
relates to sports in our society. I invited the students to share any personal
experiences that they might have had with the rest of the class. One female
student volunteered a most poignant personal experience. In 1990, my student
was a teammate of the now famous Lisa Leslie on the Morningside High School
Girls Basketball team from Inglewood, California. For my student and most of
the members of her team, the premier moment of their lives as athletes came
when their team won the California State Championship that year.
To celebrate their win, the team crowded into the coach’s family room and
giddily positioned themselves in front of the TV set. As they washed down an
undisclosed number of pizza slices with large sodas, the newly crowned state
champions waited with great anticipation for their moment of glory on the
Channel 7 Action News. As fate would have it, the Morningside boys’ basketball
team that year had been almost, but not quite, as successful as the girls’
basketball team had been, having made it all the way to the state semi-finals,
before bowing out in a game that was aired in its entirety on one of LA’s
broadcast channels. The girls watched on eagerly as the sport anchor narrated a
repeat of highlights from the boys’ losing game. Lastly, at the very end of the
sports news section, the sports anchor congratulated the Morningside High
School Girls Basketball team for winning the state title. To the girls’ dismay, that
was the only mention for their ultimate accomplishment. Not a single clip of the
triumphant game, not even a single still picture of the team.
“We were in total shock” recalled my former student. The room turned
completely silent. The girls looked to each other for reassurance and consolation.
As they sat quietly in disbelief, they struggled unsuccessfully to hold back their
tears. “It was supposed to be the happiest day of our life,” the student recalled.
It became one of lasting disappointment and a pointed reminder of the place of
female athletics in our greater society.
About the same period as my student recounted her story, former
teammate, Lisa Leslie, found herself traveling to Sicilgesso, Italy to continue her
athletic career playing in a women’s professional basketball league. Frustrated
by the lack of opportunities at home Leslie lamented to Entertainment Weekly "I
think we are cheated as a gender…No one knows what happens to all the great
people in our game. It seems like we're written off” (Lisa Leslie, 2009).
On Monday, March 30th, 2009, I posed the following question to my overcrowded sport psychology class of 50 kinesiology majors at Cal State LA: “Who
can name a winner of a women’s college basketball game over the past
2
weekend?” After a long and uneasy moment of silence, one male student track
athlete, raised his hand. On March 28th, at the Haas Pavilion, Berkeley, CA,
Jayne Appel, the Stanford center, led the Cardinals to an 84-66 win over the
Iowa State Cyclones. I then asked if anyone knew who the winners on the men’s
side were and got immediate multiple responses. At least half of the students
raised their hand and were ready to provide an answer.
Corporate Control: Who Decides What News Really Count?
The mass media is comprised of an ever growing variety of mediums that
are used to deliver information to a large audience (Lane, 2007). From antiquity
to modern times power was closely related to one’s access to and control of
information. The power brokers of information are those individuals that decide
what narratives and images should reach the masses. American and
multinational corporations sponsor close to 100% of all sports programming in
their quest to generate revenues and to build consumer loyalty to their brand. It is
not surprising therefore, that the mass media protects the interests of the
powerful and the wealthy by supporting and reinforcing the dominant societal
ideologies (Coakley, 2007).
3
Table 1.
Annual Media Rights Fees for Major Sports in the USA (million of $)*
Sport
NFL
MLB†
NBA
NHL‡
NASCAR
NCAA Men's BB
NCAA All Women’s Events
WNBA
1986
1991
1996
2001
2006
400
183
30
22
3
31
N/A
NA
900
365
219
38
N/A
143
N/A
NA
1100
420
275
77
N/A
216
N/A
NA
2200
417
660
120
412
216
N/A
0
3735
560
767
70
560
550
18.5
???
*Not adjusted to inflation.
†Not including local radio & TV , national radio rights and Internet
‡US rights only for 1996; Canadian and European rights begin in 2006
Will increase to $764 million in 2013
Reproduced from: Coakley (2007, p. 414)
Table 2*.
Women's Varsity Athletics Share of Annual Media Rights
Fees of the Total Fees in Millions of $ for Major Sport in
the USA
Women’s share from overall total in Million $$
18.5 / 6260.5 = 0.002955% <1/3 of 1%
Varsity athletics men’s total as contrasted with overall total $$
550 / 6260.5 = 0.08785% or 8.78%
Varsity athletics women’s as contrasted with men’s total $$
18.5 / 550 = 0.0336% or 3.36%
*Table 2 is based on data presented in Table 1 (Coakley, 2007, p. 414)
4
The above dollar values reflect a supply and demand pattern of a free
market. Yet, is the market really “free” when a few executives at the top get to
define the parameters of “market freedom” without ever having to consider views
other than those representing their own interests? While it is undeniable that
over the past few years the NFL has turned ESPN and Fox into major sports
networks, how much longer is this trend going to last? Is it possible that the major
networks are following the same self-destructive path the failing auto industry
executive took when they chose to bet their future on oversized gas guzzling
trucks? The NFL, MLB, NBA, and other professional sports conglomerates are
shamelessly investing their money in steroid guzzling, womanizing, and
homophobic mega stars. Addressing the recently exposed “bad boys, bad girls”
professional athletes, NPR's Morning Edition commentator and sports writer
Frank Deford pointed out that "We expect politicians to be dirty, and we realize
that rap singers aren't moral paragons, but we want our sports to be clean. What
all of these scandals have shown is that sports is no different from anything else”
(Weiner, 2007).
When asked about the apparent inequality in revenues between men's
and women's sports, Coakley (2007, personal communications) remarked that
"Men's sports have had over 100 years to build themselves as revenue
generating enterprises. Women's sports have had less than 20 years to do so.
Let's give the women another 80 years and see what happens."
5
Sports Media: Masters of Spin
Vincent (2005) posits that the way the media describes a social group and
its members gives important clues to understanding the views and attitudes of
the media toward that group. Thus, he concludes that “The dominant electronic
and print media narratives about elite female and male athletes help to define,
normalize, influence, and reflect mainstream societal beliefs about them.”
In the sports milieu, those who control the sports media get to choose the
sports events to be covered as well as get to decide what stories and images to
focus on (Coakley, 2007). Addressing televised coverage of sports, Magazine
editor Kerry Temple (cited in Coakley, 2007), provided the following observation:
It’s not just a game you’re watching. It’s soap operas, complete with story
lines and plots and plot twists. And good guys and villains, heroes and
underdogs. And all this gets scripted into cliffhanger morality plays… And
you get all caught up in this until you begin to believe it really matters
(1992, p. 29).”
Seventeen years later Temple’s observation rings truer than ever. Yet,
despite a gradual increase in the number and the centrality of women’s “acting”
roles in the sports soap operas, little if any change occurred in the media’s
treatment of minority status female athletes. It may thus seem that as long as
the dominant ideologies about, gender, race, sexual orientation, and disability are
authored by those who cater to the Capitalist corporations there may be little
hope for change.
Gender Inequality by the Rules
Starting in January, 2009, male elite Olympics style boxers were
scheduled to box for three 3-minute rounds, and female elite Olympic style
6
boxers were scheduled to box for four 2-minute rounds. Krysti Rosario, team
manager of the USA’s Women’s Boxing Team, lamented that “There is no
rationale in the changes with the rounds or in the fact that the male elite boxers
are going to box fewer rounds and more minutes. When you look at the total time,
again the men will still be boxing longer.” As it turns out, following the new rules,
elite women and junior boys are scheduled to box the same amount of rounds
and minutes (Rosario, 2009, personal communications).
Another change in rules in Olympic style boxing was enacted on “the
standing eight count rule.” Male boxers get three standing eight counts in a
round and four in a bout. Female boxers get two standing eight counts in a round
and three in a bout. According to Krysti Rosario, the female version of “the
standing eight count rule” could potentially cause more harm than good. Instead
of "protecting" the female boxer the female version of “the standing eight count
rule” is placing female elite boxers in harms way. Since a female boxer faces
disqualification following two standing eight counts in a round, it is conceivable
that a referee might delay his/her decision to stop the fight. Thus, inadvertently,
the referee may allow the landing of extra punches rather than give the boxer an
additional standing eight count so that she may catch her breath, and/or the
referee may check the boxer’s condition to make sure she can go on fighting
(Rosario, 2009, personal communications).
Media Reporting of Women's Sports
Former tennis pro Anna Kournikova was arguably one of the most
frequently covered female athlete by the sport media. Kournikova had a
7
respectable career record of 186:125 (60% won matches) including five doubles
titles. Despite reaching in 1999 three quarterfinals, three semifinals (Wimbledon
included), and a final (Key Biscayne), as well as, ranking that same year as the
#1 doubles player in the WTA, the most frequent comment about Anna
Kournikova by the media still is that she has "never won a singles title" (Quitney,
2000).
While Anna Kournikova’s athleticism does not appear to have posed a
challenge to male hegemony in sports, the incredible success of the Williams
sisters on the tennis professional tour does seem to pose such a challenge.
Venus Williams and sister Serena Williams face a triple jeopardy scenario that
stems from the cumulative effect on the dominant culture of their gender, race,
and phenomenal success as athletes and business women. Frustrated over the
omission of the Williams sisters from a list of the 10 Most Beautiful Women
posted on the official Web site of the 2009 Australian Open, Jewel Woods wrote:
"After more than a decade of dominance in the world of tennis, the Williams
sisters still have not managed to raise everyone’s consciousness about what it
means to be beautiful" (Woods, 2009).
Woods pondered whether Serena’s interest in fashion and beauty was
derived from the incessant criticism of her weight and the denigration of her
commitment to her profession. Having married a woman who looks like Venus
and Serena, Woods finds the Eurocentric standards of beauty insulting. “…as the
father of a 6-year-old black girl who loves to run, jump, sweat, grimace, grunt and
do all the things that are necessary for her to excel as an athlete, it pains me to
8
think of the choices that will be forced upon her as she gets older because of
these standards” (Woods, 2009).
Institutionalized Silencing of Women of Color in Society and in Sport
In her doctoral dissertation, Bruening (2000) focused on the intersection of
race, gender, and sport as she examined the African American female athletics
experience. The analysis of the data led her to conclude that:
▪ Media limit the opportunities for exposure for African American female athletes.
▪ Administrators, coaches, and male student-athletes play roles in the silencing
and the giving of voice to African American female student-athletes.
▪ African American female student-athletes are most often exposed to biological,
gender, intellectual, and athletic stereotypes.
▪ Family members and teachers/coaches are the most significant socialization
influences on African American female athletes. And,
▪ The most effective strategies for change in the participation of African American
females in sport include positive role modeling and increasing exposure and
access to sport of all types.
The U.S. Court of Appeals advisory to the Federal Communications
Commission (FCC) in 1976 to include race as a factor in the license for
broadcast media ownership application process led to the FCC’s groundbreaking
Statement of Policy on Minority Ownership (Zook, 2007). Despite some initial
gains, by 2006, the Free Press released their report on broadcast television
ownership report titled “Out of the Picture” which found that women of all races
own just 5% of the 1,400 commercial broadcast television stations in America
(Zook, 2007). A second report by the Free Press in 2007, found that women own
6% and minorities own 7.7% of all broadcast radio stations nation wide.
According to Zook (2007), the above statistic means that an average radio
listener has the choice of 16 white male-owned stations or one woman owned
and two minority owned radio station.
“It’s not about biology. It’s about programmers who share the experiences
of their audiences. It’s about…culture, and the ethics of the whole industry”
(Gloria Steinem, Founder of GreenStone Media, cited in Zook, 2007).
9
The Case of Marion Jones
Addressing track star’s Marion Jones public humiliation, pain, regrets, and
time to be served in prison, Dave Zirin (2007) was one of a small minority that
have also sharply criticized the sports media and corporate America.
“Fault also lies with a system that both elevates and debases sporting
superstars, turning them into something not quite human. Star athletes have
become corporations with legs: branded with logos and slogans, and supporting
an entire apparatus of advisers and hangers-on. Jones became a one-woman
multinational corporation after her 2000 Olympic triumph: the feet of Nike, the
face of Oakley Sunglasses, the wrist of TAG Heuer watches. All the riches and
glory hinged on her ability to shine in Sydney” (Zirin, 2007).
With razor sharp analysis, Zirin (2007) concludes that “Marion Jones
should not spend one minute in prison for lying to the feds, and that's not just
because President Bush and Scooter Libby have given us precedent to believe
that such punishments might be ‘unduly harsh.’ She was lying to protect Marion
Jones, Inc. She was lying to protect Ueberroth's Olympic ideal, which in the
twenty-first century has become little more than a frenzy of greed and graft in
pursuit of gold. Marion Jones should be granted amnesty on the grounds that
the entire system sets athletes up for failure. As fans and followers of sport, it's
time to drop the Pollyanna act and the hero worship. It's time to stop demanding
the super human and start letting the guardians of sport know that anyone who
benefits from an athlete's rise to the top should also accompany their fall from
grace” (Zirin, 2007).
10
Title IX and the Media
Over the past few years I have asked my undergraduate and graduate
sport sociology students to react to Michael W. Lynch’s article “Title IX's Pyrrhic
Victory: How the quest for ‘gender equity’ is killing men's athletic programs
(Lynch, 2001).” I have also asked my students to look for and read “other”
articles on the topic and I suggested that they look up views presented at the
Women’s Sports Foundation website. The vast majority of the reactions I get
mirror the views presented in the Lynch article. Most students express frustration
and even disgust with the “outrageous injustice that men’s athletics has had to
endure following the passage of Title IX.” Most of my male and female students
conclude that indeed compliance with Title IX negatively affects men's and boys'
sports.
Embedded in an article that on the surface seems balanced and fair, Mr.
Lynch builds his argument on omissions, distortions and some very “fuzzy math.”
For example, he argues that “… as of 1998-99, there are more male college
athletes (211,273 men vs. 148,803 women, according to the NCAA), even
though there are more female teams (8,374 women's vs. 8,004 men's). In other
words, women have more chances to play sports, but they don't take advantage
of them as often.” Apparently, Mr. Lynch chose to deliberately ignore the first
statistic (211,273 men vs. 148,803 women), and was quick to conclude that
women “have more chances” based on the second statistic (8,374 women's vs.
8,004 men's teams). The discrepancy between the total number of athletes and
the total number of teams is easily explained by the fact that hundreds of men’s
11
football teams provide 88 full-ride scholarships, a feature that has no parallel in
women’s programs. Thus, when adjusted for team size, men would have had the
equivalent of over 1,000 additional teams as compared to women’s programs.
Addressing the question of Title IX and gender parity, Dr. Jay Coakley
responded to one of my graduate student in the following way (Coakley, 2007):
“When men were receiving 98% of all school funding for sports in the early 1970s,
it was not possible to give women the same opportunities that men had unless
they increased funding or reallocated existing funds. In most cases they
increased funding, reorganized to cut costs, and reallocated funds so that cutting
sports was not necessary. However, in some cases the athletics directors
decided to maintain or increase funding for football and men’s basketball; this
forced them to cut programs and they usually chose to cut men’s teams that
were expensive and had high liability costs. Interestingly, when big football
schools were forced to cut the number of scholarships from 120 down to 88, it
spread football talent around to more schools and today we have more parity in
college football and more men have opportunities to play rather than sit on the
bench at Oklahoma, Nebraska, and Notre Dame. Now they let those young men
play on South Florida and Rutgers and many other school teams. They are
among the benefactors of Title IX even though they don’t know it.”
Hardin, Simpson, Whiteside, & Garris (2007) performed a content analysis
of Title IX stories in U.S. regional and national newspapers between 2002 and
2005 (a critical time for civil-rights legislation). They report that despite the fact
that most stories avoided “negative framing devices, stories about Title IX
Commission during 2002 and 2003, more often used negative framing that could
perpetuate misunderstanding about the law.” Rather than “blame the victim,” the
authors suggest that journalists should make an effort to better understand the
fiscal structure that is in place in intercollegiate athletics. Title IX should be
reported in ways that contribute to rather than hinder the public discourse.
12
The Challenge All Our Daughters Face
In 1998 I studied the reasons children give for participating in their favorite
youth sports programs. I administered the same questionnaire to the team
moms and dads and asked them to predict what their child’s answers would have
been to the questions (Frankl, 1998). The most striking finding of the study was
one I had not anticipated at all. Out of a list of 18 reasons for participation in
youth sports (e.g., to feel important, for the challenge of competition, to have fun,
to be popular by being a good athlete, for the team spirit, …) “to stay in shape”
and “to get exercise” were the top choices for both girls and their moms. When
reading the girls’ answers to the question “What you liked least about your best
sport?” I was at first amused and then baffled by what appeared as contradictory
statements. More than one third of the girls that chose the item “to stay in shape”
as their top reason for participation on the front page of the questionnaire, wrote
on the back side that what they liked least about their best sport was “exercising,”
“sweating,” and “getting tired.” Apparently, girls felt pressured to choose the
statement “to stay in shape” while they clearly disliked activities that may actually
lead to improved physical fitness. Thus, the freedoms and gains one would
expect all girls to experience in sports are heavily taxed by societal and mass
media pressures on girls to look and act a certain way.
The Harsh Reality of the Real World
Unfortunately, so far, the lesson that general media and sport media
personalities seem to have learned is that blatantly irresponsible, and despicable
behaviors amount to very bad business. Amid increasing outrage over calling
13
the Rutgers women's basketball team "nappy-headed hos" on the air, shock jock
Don Imus, described by his colleagues as “one of the nation's most prominent
broadcasters” was fired by CBS on Thursday, April 12, 2007. Following years of
racist, sexist and homophobic comments that resulted in no consequential
disciplinary action by the networks, the comment that took Imus down came
during the 35th anniversary of Title IX (Wooten, 2007).
A Ray of Hope
On October 3, 2008, while on a trip to UC Berkeley for “Homecoming
Weekend” festivities (where my son Avi is a freshman in Computer Science) I got
fascinated by the title of a lecture by Berkeley faculty Dr. Kellie McElhaney,
Executive Director, Center for Responsible Business -- “Corporate Responsibility:
A Powerful Business Strategy.” The description read: “Global business leaders
are finally recognizing the power of integrating social responsibility with their
corporate business strategy – because it’s just good business.” As part of her
presentation, Dr. McElhaney played a Youtube video that sends a powerful
message by the individuals portrayed and by their identity
(http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J4euUdCLuZo).
The most striking fact about the youtube Dove video, is the way it came to
be. Dove executives resisted the suggestion to use regular individuals in their
advertising campaigns. Instead, they insisted on using professional models to
represent the company’s face. The producers of the “Girl Beauty” (Dove) video
decided to film the daughters of the Dove executives and surprise them at a ad
testing session. It is only after this exercise that the “Girls’ self-esteem program
14
was born. This venture can, and should be replicated using a group of media
executives’ daughter athletes. As the Dove experiment proved, this strategy is a
very powerful one.
How Can Corporate Responsibility Be Implemented As A Powerful
Business Strategy in Sports?
Educate and hold the media responsible – by the book or by the pocket-book;
what ever works…
Describe women as strong and competent – Just do it!
Provide a multitude of positive role models – Make every effort to hire women,
especially women of color, as coaches, athletics directors, team managers,
sports reporters, sports casters, magazine editors, television station
programmers…
Increase women of color’s exposure and access to sport of all types (e.g.,
badminton, cross-country skiing, downhill skiing, fencing, swimming, rowing,
team handball, table tennis, …)
Create more opportunities for coed programs where boys and girls and men
and women participate as equals in an atmosphere of mutual respect.
Once some or all of the above is accomplished, the process of rewriting the
definition of beauty and grace, as well as, the definition of what is exciting and
what is not, what is worth airing and what is not, will become more inclusive and
fair.
15
References
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stereotypes, socialization, and strategies for change in the sport
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Frankl, D. (1998). Children’s and parents' attitudes toward competitive youth
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9Bw65W2q
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Woods, J. (2007, February, 27). Venus and Serena Williams: Ousted By Racism.
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Additional Suggested Readings
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9(2), 8-16.
Birrell, S., & Theberge, N. (1994). Ideological control of women in sport. In D.M.
Duncan & S.R. Guthrie (Eds.), Women and sport: Interdisciplinary
perspectives (pp. 341-359). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Bishop, R. (2003). Missing in action: Feature coverage of women's sports in
Sports Illustrated. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 27(2), 184-194.
Bruening, J.E. (2004). Coaching difference: A case study of 4 African American
women student-athletes. Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research,
18(2), 242-251.
17
Bruening, J.E., Armstrong, K.L., & Pastore, D.L. (2005). Listening to the voices:
The experiences of African American female student athletes. Research
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Byrd, J., & Utsler, M. (2007, Spring). Is stereotypical coverage of AfricanAmerican athletes as "Dead as Disco?” An analysis of NFL quarterbacks
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Cohen, G. (Ed.). (1993). Women in sport: Issues and controversies. Newbury
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Coleman, G.M. (2000). Time out: Why aren't more Black and Latino female
students participating in intercollegiate sports? Eugene, OR: Microform
Publications, University of Oregon. http://kinpubs.uoregon.edu/
Coventry, B.T. (2004). On the sidelines: Sex and racial segregation in television
sports broadcasting. Sociology of Sport Journal, 21(3), 322-341.
Cummings, E. (1997). Positive images: Media portrayals of African-American and
female athletes. Retrieved March 1, 2009, from SPORTDiscus database.
Cunningham, G. B. (2003). Media coverage of women's sport: A new look at an
old problem. Physical educator, 60(2), 43-49.
Cunningham, G.B., Fink, J.S., & Kenix, L.J. (2008). Choosing an endorser for a
women’s sporting event: The interaction of attractiveness and expertise.
Sex Roles, 58(5-6), 371-378.
Duke, L.L., Goodman, J.R., & Sutherland, J. (2002). Olympic athletes and
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Duncan, M.D. (1990). Sports photographs and sexual difference: Images of
women and men in the 1984 and 1988 Olympic Games. Sociology of
Sport Journal, 7, 22-43.
Duncan, M.C., Messener, M. (1994). Gender stereotyping in televised sports: A
follow-up to the 1989 study. The Amateur Athletic Foundation of Los
Angeles.
18
Frankl, D. (2005). Gender Bias in Sports: Separate and Not Equal. Sports Media:
Column - The New P.E. & Sports Dimension. Retrieved December 20,
2008 from http://www.sports-media.org/newpedimension5.htm
Frankl, D., & Babbitt, D. (1998). Gender bias: A study of high school track & field
athletes’ perceptions of hypothetical male and female head coaches.
Journal of Sport Behavior, 21(4), 396-407.
Frankl, D., & Hansen, K. (1999, March). Gender bias in popular body building
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