Study Guide for Chapter 2 in Fox.
Atoms, etc.
1. What is the major constituent of all living things? Water
2. Water makes up what % of the total body weight for the average adult? 65 – 75%
3. What are the 2 major water compartments? Extracellular (blood and interstitial fluid) and
Intracellular (within cell body)
4. What solutes can you find dissolved in the body waters? Organic molecules (carbon containing
molecules such as carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids) and inorganic molecules
and ions (atoms with a net charge).
5. What is the Universe made up of? The same elements found on earth. The 92 elements except
for dark matter.
6. What is the definition for “mass”? Measure of how much matter there is.
7. How many different kinds of matter occur naturally?_92__ What do we call these different
types? __elements__
8. Define “atoms”. What do atoms consist of? Atoms are the smallest unites of the chemical
elements. The atom consists of a nucleus in the center of the atom. The nucleus contains
protons and neutrons along with electrons that surround the nucleus.
9. What sub-atomic particles can you find in the nucleus? The sub-atomic particles are protons and
neutrons.
10. Where do you find virtually all of an atom’s mass? In the nucleus
11. What is the mass number for: Protons? Neutrons? Electrons? The mass number for protons is 1,
neutrons 1, and electrons 1/1876
12. What does the atomic # (elemental #) tell you about an atom? The atomic number tells the
number of protons in the atom
13. What is the electrical charge on: Protons? Neutrons? Electrons? The electrical charge for a
proton is positive, neutral for a neutron, and negative for an electron.
14. What is the relationship between the # of protons and electrons? The number of protons and
electrons are relatively equal.
15. What is the electron configuration for the first 3 shells (orbits)? 1st - 2 electrons, 2nd – 8
electrons, 3rd – 8 electrons.
16. What are isotopes? Isotopes are a form of an element with the same number of protons but a
different number of neutrons.
17. Define the following terms: molecules, compounds.
 Molecules – 2 or more atoms held together by chemical bonds.
 Compounds – Molecules made up of 2 or more elements
18. The atoms making up a molecule are held together by chemical bonds. Name and describe 4
chemical bonds we will be using.
 Covalent bonds – when atoms share valence electrons
o Nonpolar covalent bonds – when electrons are equally distributed between 2
atoms.
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Polar covalent bonds – when covalent bonds are formed by 2 different atoms, the
electron gets pulled more toward one atom than the other.
 Ionic bonds – when one or more valence electrons from one atom are completely
transferred to a second atom.
 Hydrogen bonds – when a slight positively charged hydrogen atom is attracted to an
electronegative atom. It will have a weak link.
What are ions? Cations? Anions?
 Cations – positively charged ions
 Anions – negatively charged ions
How may bonds will Carbon always make? Oxygen? Hydrogen?
 Carbon will make 4 bonds
 Oxygen will make 2 bonds
 Hydrogen will make 1 bond
In what 2 places might we find “hydrogen bonds” used? In proteins and DNA.
What are “hydration spheres”? Water molecules that surround ions which attract other water
molecules to form around each ion.
Define: Dissolve. Dissociate
 Dissolve –
 Dissociate – when water molecule breaks up 2 ions.
Water itself can dissociate into what 2 ions?__Hydrogen_(H+)_ & __Hydroxyl (OH-)__
What is the definition of an: Acid? Base?
 Acid – Compound when immersed in water will release a H+ ion (proton)
 Base – Compound that absorbs hydrogen ions or release hydroxyls
What scale is used to indicate the H+ concentration? __pH___. This is a __pH__ scale.
Be able to write the 2 different equations for pH.
 pH = log 1/[H+] or pH = -log [H+]
What do “buffers” do? Why are they useful in living organisms?
 Buffers are molecules or compounds that reduce changes in pH. They are useful in living
organisms because they help maintain homeostasis.
What are “acidosis” and “alkalosis”?
 Acidosis – When the arterial blood pH falls below 7.35.
 Alkalosis – When the arterial blood pH increases above 7.45.
What are “organic molecules”? What is a “hydrocarbon”? Is it active or inactive chemically?
 Organic molecules are those molecules that contain the atoms carbon and hydrogen.
 A hydrocarbon is a chain of carbon molecules bound to hydrogen molecules.
 They are relatively inactive (pg. 32)
What can be added to hydrocarbons to make them more useful in biology?
 Functional groups such as ketons, alcohols , and organic acids can be added to
hydrocarbons to make them more useful.
Classes of organic molecules can be named according to the type of “functional group it has. Be
able to not only name, but draw the structures of the 6 functional groups shown in Fig. 2.10
 Carbonyl (CO)
 Hydroxyl (OH)
 Sulfhydryl (SH)
 Amino (NH2)
 Carboxyl (COOH)
 Phosphate (H2PO4)
33. Also, be able to draw and discuss the molecules shown in Figures 2.11 and 2.12
 Ketone
 Organic acid
 Aldehyde
 Alcohol
 Lactic acid
 Lactate
34. What are stereoisomeres? What do D- & L- mean? What kind of amino acids can we use? What
kind of sugars?
 Stereoisomeres – Two molecules that have the same atoms arranged in exactly the
same sequence but differ with respect to the spatial orientation of a key functional
group.
 The D- means (dextro) the functional group is oriented to the right and the L- (levo)
means the functional group is oriented to the left.
 We can use L- amino acids
 We can use D- sugars
Carbohydrates and Lipids
35. What are the 4 “macromolecules” we find in biology?
 Starches, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids
36. Macromolecules are__polymer_____s made up of many__monomer____s.
37. Why the name “carbohydrate”? What is its general formula?
 Because it contains carbon (carbo), hydrogen & oxygen (H2O)
 CX(H2O)X
38. The polymer for carbohydrates is called__polysaccharides__, which is made up of
many_monosacchari___s.
39. What are: Monosaccharides? Disaccharides? Polysaccharides?
 Monosaccharides – Simple sugars
 Disaccharides – Double sugar / 2 monosaccharides covalently bonded
 Polysaccharides – numerous monosaccharides joined together
40. What is the suffix for sugars? What are: Trioses? Pentoses? Hexoses?
 The suffix for sugars is “ose”
 Trioses – 3 sugars
 Pentoses – 5 sugars
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 Hexoses – 6 sugars
What are the names of the 3 most common hexoses?
 Glucose, Galactose, and Fructose
What are the names of the 3 most common disaccharides? What is each made of?
 Sucrose = Glucose + Fructose
 Lactose = Glucose + Galactose
 Maltose = Glucose + Glucose
What is “glycogen”?
 Glycogen – “animal starch”; consists of glucose but more highly branched that plant
starch.
What chemical process is used to join 2 monomoers together to form a larger molecule?
 Dehydration Synthesis
What chemical process is used to separate the molecule into its monomers?
 Hydrolysis
What is the name of the 2 most common chemical reactions found in biology?
 Dehydration Synthesis & Hydrolosis
Be able to explain each of these.
 Dehydration Synthesis – a hydrogen atom is removed from one monosachcaride &
hydroxl group from another. As the two form a bond, H2O is produced, allowing the two
monosaccharides to join & form a larger molecule.
 Hydrolosis – when a water molecule joins with 2 broken monasaccharides to complete
their structure.
What kind of “linkage” occurs between sugars in a straight chain? At a branch?
 Straight sugars: 1-4 link
 Branched sugars: 1-6 link
What is the major property of a lipid? What causes a lipid to have this property?
 They are all insoluable in polar solvents (H2O). lipids are hydrophobic (made up of
hydrocarbon chains are non-polar.
There are actually 4 molecules joined together to form a “triglyceride” what are they?
 1 molecule of glycerol & 3 fatty acids
Be able to draw the structure, as I told you on the board, of a triglyceride.
O
C–O–H
OH – C- C – C – C – C – C – C- C- C
C – O – H = O ^^^^^^^^^^^^
C – O – C = O ^^^^^^^^^^^^
What are fatty acids? How do “saturated fats” differ from “unsaturated fats”?
 They are chain of carbons with one being carboxyl saturated fats have mostly saturated
fatty acids. Unsaturated fats have mostly unsaturated fatty acids.
Read the boxed section on “Fitness” dealing with liquid fats.
 Read it
What are “ketone bodies”?
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 Ketone bodies are derivatives of free fatty acids that are converted by the liver.
Be able to draw the structure of a “phospholipid”.
 See notes
What are “micelles”?
 Micelles are formed when phospholipds are mixed with water. Since phospholipids are
hydrophobic, the hydrophilic parts face the surrounding water molecules.
From what molecule are “steroids” made? (Its “parent” molecule!)
 Steroids are made from cholesterol.
In what gland were “prostaglandins” first discovered? What is its “parent” molecule? In what
tissues will you find prostaglandins? What is the name other textbooks use for them?
 Prostoglandins were first discovered in the male prostate gland. They parent molecule is
arachidonic acid. You will find prostaglandins in blood vessels, fallopian tube, uterus &
lymphatic tissue
Proteins
59. Proteins are polymers of amino acids. The polymeric name for proteins is manomer.
60. This name comes from the fact that the monomers are joind by a bond called a peptide bond.
61. Be able to draw the structure common to all amino acids. What does the R-group mean?
 R stands for Radical/Residue (see notes for structures)
62. What is the “primary” structure? Secondary? Tertiary? Quaternary?
 Primary – Sequence of Amino Acids
 Secondary – Helix (starts to pleat)
 Tertiary – Three dimensional – folding back on itself
63. Which structural level is most important for the function of most proteins?
 Tertiary structure is the most important
64. What does “denaturation” mean? What are the 3 major causes of denaturation?
 It means to make proteins not formal
 Three major causes:
i. Change of temperature
ii. Change of pH
iii. Change salt concentration
65. When we say “proteins are conjugated to other molecules”, what do we mean?
 Proteins in the body are normally found “combined” with other type of molecules
66. What are “glycoproteins”? Lipoproteins?
 Glycoproteins – proteins conjugated with carbohydrate (Ex. Are certain hormones and
some proteins found in the cell membane
 Lipoproteins – proteins conjugated with lipds, found in cell membrane & in the plasma
67. What are some of the roles proteins play in our body?
 Proteins serve a wide variety of functions than any other type of molecule in the body.
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Structure of different tissues (ex. Collagen – fibrous protein)
Keratin – prevents water loss
Enzymes
Antibodies
Receptors in cell membranes for specific regulator molecules (hormones)
Carriers – transport of specific molecules across the membranes.
Nucleic Acids (N.A.)
68. What are the 2 kinds of nucleic acids?
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69. Both kinds are polymers, what is the name of the polymer?
70. What is the polymer made of? (What 3 molecules joined together?)
71. The sugar in nucleic acids is a 5- carbon__________________.
72. There are 2 types of nitrogenous bases which are__________&___________. Which has 2
rings?
73. What is the name of the pentose used in DNA?________________
74. What are the names of the 4 n-bases used in DNA?
75. Which of these are pyrimidines?
76. The DNA is double strands of nucleotides twisted around (coiled) each other. This is also
referred to as being a ____________.
77. Eahc n- base will only pair up (match with) a single n-base on the other strand. This is called
_____________ ________________pairing.
78. The base pairs are ____&_____ and______&_____.
79. How many base pairs comprise the entire human genome? (how long is the genome?)
80. What is the name of the sugar used in RNA?__________
81. What n-base is used in RNA in place of Thymine?_________
82. How many strands of nucleotides are found in RNA?
83. What are the names of the 3 types of RNA?
84. Be able to contrast the 4 differences between DNA and RNA. (The textbook only lists 3)