Human Organization
No specific PLO’s covered. (pg. 194-203)
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Cells are composed of molecules
Tissues are composed of cells of one type cooperating to perform a
function
Organs are composed of various tissues which cooperate to perform a
function.
Organ systems are composed of several organs which perform a given
function.
Consider the 4 main tissue types
1. Epithelial Tissue – tightly packed cells forming a continuous layer usually
to cover an organ or line a body cavity. May carry out secretion,
absorption, excretion or filtration. There are 2 ways to classify:
By the number of layers of cells
a). simple – a single layer
b). stratified – two or more layers
c). pseudostratified – appears layered, but all cells touch
basement membrane
By the cell shapes (see page 195)
a). squamous epithelium – flattened cells. ex. line lungs and
blood vessels
b). cuboidal epithelium – cube shaped cells. ex. line kidney
tubules
c). columnar epithelium – pillar/column shaped cells ex. line the
intestinal tract, uterus.
All epithelial tissue is connected to connective tissue through a basement
membrane (a non-cellular combination of glycoprotein & collagen fibres)
Ciliated epithelial tissue has many cilia on one surface. ex. in the lungs
Glandular epithelial tissue secretes a product of some kind. A gland can
be a single epithelial cell, like the ‘goblet’ cell found in the simple
columnar epithelium lining the digestive tract. A gland can also be many
cells. Exocrine glands secrete into ducts, whereas endocrine glands
secrete into the bloodstream.
2. Connective Tissue – binds organs together, provides support and
protection, fills spaces, produces blood cells, stores fat. Cells of this
tissue are widely separated by a matrix of non-cellular material (collagen
and other fibres). Many tissues are classified as connective:
fibrous tissues – fibroblasts connected by matrix supports epithelium
and many organs. Also form tendons and ligaments.
adipose tissues – store fat
bone tissue – provide support and protection
blood tissue – cells with a fluid matrix
3. Muscular Tissue – all composed of cells called muscle fibres with
filaments used in contraction. There are three types: skeletal, smooth,
and cardiac.
4. Nervous Tissue – nerve cells are referred to as neurons. Found in brain
and spinal cord but also have neurons that extend out to reach other
tissues.
Body Cavities & Body Membranes
The body has two cavities:
1. Ventral cavity which includes
thoracic cavity which includes:
a). pleural cavity
b). pericardial cavity
abdominal cavity
2. Dorsal cavity which includes:
i). cranial cavity
ii). vertebral cavity
The body membrane refers to an epithelial layer overlying a connective
tissue layer. Body membranes line cavities, fill spaces of organs, and tubes
that open to the outside. There are 4 types to consider:
1. Mucous membranes: line tubes of the digestive, respiratory, urinary, and
reproductive systems. All have ‘goblet’ cells that secrete mucous (sticky
protective non-cellular layer).
2. Serous membranes: line the thoracic and abdominal cavities & the organs
they contain. Provide lubrication & support to organs. Examples:
- pleural membrane: lines the pleural cavity and covers the lung
- pericardium: lines the pericardial cavity & covers the heart.
- peritoneum: lines the abdominal cavity & organs. mesentery is
a double layer of peritoneum.
3. Synovial membranes: line joint cavities, secrete synovial fluid into joint
cavities to lubricate.
4. Meninges: (no epithelial layer) found in the dorsal cavity & serve as
protective layer for brain and spinal cord.
The Organ Systems
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Digestive System
Cardiovascular System
Lymphatic System
Immune System
Respiratory System
Urinary System
Skeletal System
Muscular System
Nervous System
Endocrine System
Reproductive System
Homeostasis
The relative constancy of the body’s internal environment. ex. the body’s
temperature remains at 37C whether it’s –10C or 40C outside.
The internal environment does change but it is said to be in a state of
dynamic equilibrium. Changes that are too large cause illness.
All systems contribute to homeostasis to maintain the relative constant
internal environment.
Digestive System
PLO I3 (216, 217)
Swallowing
 When a ‘bolus’ of food has been chewed and mixed with saliva, it is
pushed towards the back of the mouth by the tongue. This is done
voluntarily.
 The rest of swallowing is a reflex action.
- The soft palate closes off the nasopharynx (the portion of the
pharynx that allows passage of air to the nose).
- The trachea moves up so that the epiglottis covers the glottis (the
opening to the larynx and trachea)
- The pharynx pushes the food into the only opening – the esophagus.
- Breathing is not possible during swallowing. If epiglottis is not closed
properly and food enters the larynx/trachea, then coughing will occur.
Air can move through some of the pipes at 480 km/h. Coughing is
forced expiration against a closed glottis.
Peristalsis
 The esophagus is normally collapsed, but opens when the bolus of food
is pushed into it after swallowing.
 Food moves through the esophagus by a rhythmic contraction of
circular and longitudinal muscle in the wall of the esophagus. This is
called peristalsis.
 The circular muscle becomes stretched by the bolus and when
stretched a nerve impulse is sent “upstream” to contract the circular
and longitudinal muscle above the bolus causing the food to move
“downstream”
 Peristalsis occurs throughout the length of the intestinal tract.
 Peristalsis in the esophagus moves food quite quickly through the
tube, whereas peristalsis in the stomach produces more of a churning
effect.
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In the small intestine, peristalsis occurs more slowly and allows time
for chemical digestion to occur and absorption to take place.
In the large intestine, peristalsis occurs slowly as well allowing water
and vitamin absorption to occur.
Finally in the descending colon and the rectum, peristalsis can be quick
during defecation. Peristalsis itself is not under voluntary control,
however the sphincter at the anus is which makes defecation
voluntary.
Digestive System
PLO I2, I4 (217-225)
Salivary Glands – source of salivary amylase
 there are three pairs of glands: one on the side of the face in front of
and below the ears, one pair is beneath the tongue, and the last pair is
beneath the floor of the oral cavity.
 Saliva which is neutral in pH contains mostly water, but also amylase that
begins the digestion of starch
Gastric (stomach) Glands – source of pepsinogen
 The stomach wall has deep folds (disappear when stomach full - 1 litre)
 stomach wall is lined with columnar epithelium with many gastric pits
 Pits have gastric glands at their base where gastric juice is produced
 Gastric juice consists of mucous, HCl and pepsinogen (precursor to
pepsin)
 HCl itself does not do any digestion, only breaks down connective tissue
of meat and activates pepsin by reducing pH in stomach to 2.
 pepsin (a protease) breaks down protein to peptides (NOT to AMINO
ACIDS)
 The mucous (made by goblet cells) protects the stomach wall from the
harsh acidic environment. Otherwise ulcers form.
 Very little absorption occurs in the stomach. Only alcohol.
Pancreas
 Pancrease is two glands in one. Endocrine and exocrine. Consider
exocrine here.
 Pancreatic juice is made by the alpha cells of the pancreas. It contains
sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) and digestive (hydrolytic) enzymes
including trypsinogen, lipase, amylase, and a nuclease.
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Pancreatic juice travels through a duct that empties into the duodenum
slightly downstream from the pyloric sphincter.
The NaHCO3 neutralizes the acidic chyme from the stomach and it also
allows optimal functioning of the enzymes listed above. They work best
in a slightly basic environment.
Trypsinogen is converted into trypsin (a protease) in the duodenum; it
breaks down proteins into short peptides (short sequences of aa’s).
These are not absorbed.
Lipase digests triglycerides (fat) to glycerol and fatty acids. These
molecules can pass into the epithelial cells where they are reassembled as
lipoprotein droplets. Then they enter the ‘lacteal’ and eventually enter
the bloodstream for distribution to all the body’s cells.
Pancreatic amylase continues what salivary amylase began in the mouth –
starch hydrolysis to maltose. Maltose can not be absorbed.
There is a nuclease in pancreatic juice that hydrolyzes ingested DNA and
RNA to nucleotides.
Small Intestine
 Intestinal juice made by glands in the duodenal wall consists of maltase,
peptidases and nucleosidases. These enzymes work in the basic
environment created by the presence of pancreatic juice in the
duodenum.
 Peptidases finish the work of pepsin and trypsin. Peptidases break
peptides down into their separate amino acids which can then move into
the cells of the villi by facilitated diffusion. The aa’s are then carried
away in the bloodstream.
 Maltase is an enzyme that finishes the work of amylase. Recall, starch is
broken down to maltose by salivary and pancreatic amylase. Maltase then
breaks maltose down into two glucose molecules which can move through
epithelial cells of the villi by facilitated diffusion.
 Nucleosidases finish the work of the nucleases produced by the
pancreas; they break nucleotides into a sugar, phosphate, and base.
Liver
 The liver is a multifunctional organ. It’s role in digestion however is
simple. The liver produces bile.
 Bile moves through a duct to the gall bladder where it is stored. From
the gall bladder, bile moves through the bile duct and joins the
pancreatic duct before it enters the duodenum.
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Bile is an emulsifier of fats. It contains bile salts that break fat up into
droplets thereby increasing the surface area of the fat. This allows
lipase from the pancrease to break the fats down more effectively.
Digestive System
PLO I2, I4 (218 – 224)
Digestive
Enzyme
Salivary
amylase
Pancreatic
amylase
Pepsin
Trypsin
Lipase
Peptidase
Maltase
Nuclease
Glandular source
Reaction promoted
Digestive System
PLO I5 (402, 403)
PLO I10 ( 220)
Endocrine function of Pancreas
(See diagram on pg. 402)
 Usually the pancreas is shown as a long cream coloured organ that lies
transversely underneath and behind the stomach. It is beside the
duodenum of the small intestine.
 Recall: alpha cells produce pancreatic juice for the pancreas exocrine
function
 The beta cells (islets of langerhans) produce the hormones glucagon
and insulin
Insulin
 After a meal, because of absorption of nutrients, the blood is slightly
rich in nutrients. A slight increase in glucose concentration is
detected by the ‘islet cells’ and they are stimulated to produce and
secrete insulin (into the blood – endocrine function)
 Insulin circulates throughout the body. All cells are targeted,
however liver, muscle, and adipose cells are major targets for insulin.
 Liver and muscle cells detect insulin in the blood with a membrane
protein receptor and then allow glucose to enter from the blood and
inside they convert it to glycogen.
 Adipose cells take in glucose and immediately break it down to
glycerol, and make triglycerides out of it.
Glucagon (NOT a PLO)
 Between meals, when glucose in the blood is low, ‘islet cells’ secrete
glucagon.
 Glucagon targets liver and adipose cells.
 In the liver, glucagon stimulates the breakdown of glycogen and
release of glucose AND promotes the use of fat and protein as an
energy source.
 In adipose cells, glucagon stimulates the breakdown of fat to
glycerol and fatty acids. The liver takes these molecules up for
glucose formation.
The Large Intestine
 Cecum, colon, and rectum.
 Primary function is for the absorption of water, salts, and vitamins.
 Shorter than small intestine
 Cecum is like a dead-end for intestinal contents and leads to
appendix.
 Colon includes ascending, transverse, and descending portions
 Rectum is last 20 cm of the large intestine.
 After absorption of water, salts and vitamins, the feces consists
of water, fibre, and bacteria.
 Bacteria are mainly obligate anaerobes that produce vitamins
(which we absorb) and various gases.
 Escherichia Coli (E. coli) is a facultative anaerobe. E. coli plays a
crucial role of producing vitamin K from undigested material in the
large intestine. On the other hand E. coli comes in pathogenic
strains that produce a powerful endotoxin that causes severe
diarrhea. Antibiotics can cause mass toxin release – causing death.
 Defecation is the elimination of feces through the anus (a
sphincter). Stretching of the rectum causes a nervous reflex.
Stretch receptors send signal to lower spinal cord which relay
signal to relax anus and cause peristalsis of the rectal wall.
Digestive System
PLO I7 (222-223)
Homeostatic Functions of the Liver (Including non-digestive functions)
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Detoxifies blood by removing and metabolizing poisonous substances.
Stores iron and the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K.
Makes plasma proteins, such as albumins and fibrinogen, from amino acids.
Stores glucose as glycogen after a meal, and breaks down glycogen to
glucose to maintain the glucose concentration of blood between eating
periods.
Produces urea after breaking down amino acids.
Removes bilirubin, a breakdown product of hemoglobin from the blood,
and excretes it in the bile, a liver product.
Helps regulate blood cholesterol level, converting some to bile salts.
Produces bile for the emulsification of fats.
Digestive System
PLO I9 (219)
Small Intestinal Structure
 The small intestine has structure similar to the entire digestive tract
with a serosa, two layers of muscle (longitudinal and circular), a
submucosal layer and a mucosal layer.
 The muscle layers are involved in peristalsis along the entire length of
the digestive tract
 Submucosal layer has many nerves and blood vessels that supply the
other layers with nutrients and gases as well as remove absorbed
nutrients and waste gases (CO2).
 The small and large intestine are held in place in the abdomen with the
mesentery (a membrane that appears like a web of tissues holding the
organs in place)
 First 25 cm is the duodenum, followed by the jejunum and the ileum (6
metres in total) before it empties into the large intestine.
 Duct from the gall bladder and the pancreas meet and a common duct
empties into the upper duodenum.
 Inner wall of small intestine is covered in villi (small fingerlike
projections) which substantially increase the surface area of the
absorbing surface.
 Each villus is covered with an epithelial layer. On the lumen side of the
epithelial cells there are many microvilli which again act to increase
surface area of the absorbing surface.
 Within each villus is a vessel of the lymphatic system called the lacteal.
Digested fat enters this vessel and is transported through the lymphatic
system back to the circulatory system.
 Each villus also has a network of capillaries into which amino acids and
sugars enter after absorption.
 The blood supply to the small intestine is heavy at times through the
mesenteric arteries. All blood leaves the small intestine and goes to the
liver through the hepatic portal vein.
Digestive System
Control of Digestive Secretions -- NO PLO (pg. 220)
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All of the digestive juices are secreted in response to stimuli (something
triggers).
The stimulus in each case is ultimately the food itself, however
sometimes there are messenger molecules (hormones) or neural pathways
involved as well.
Neural regulation of digestive secretions
 Consider the ‘Pavlovian’ Response – In this case the salivary glands are
activated to release saliva through a nerve pathway. The sense of smell
signals the brain and the brain sends a nerve impulse to the salivary
glands and the gastric glands to secrete.
 Similarly, nervous/stressed individuals are receiving elevated levels of
stimuli which cause increased neural output to their organs – in the case
of the stomach, increased acid output causes ulcers.
 The stretching of the stomach by food itself causes stretch receptors
to be triggered and these nerves ‘feed back’ to the gastric glands to
increase gastric juice output.
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Hormonal regulation of digestive secretions
When amino acids enter the stomach, they directly cause specialized
cells to release the hormone ‘gastrin’ into the blood. Gastrin travels in
blood slightly ‘upstream’ and stimulates the cells that make pepsinogen
and acid. The acid itself ‘feeds back’ and inhibits gastrin secretion.
Two other hormones made in the upper small intestine (duodenum) are
released into the blood in response to peptides, amino acids, and fatty
acids. They are CCK and Secretin.
- CCK causes contraction of the gall bladder, secretion of pancreatic
juice, and increased bile production at liver.
- Secretin (released in response to acid) stimulates HCO3- production in
the pancreas and decreases gastric gland secretions. ‘Negative
Feedback Mechanism’
Gastric Inhibitory Peptide (GIP) works antagonistically to gastrin. When
fat and glucose reach duodenum, GIP is released to blood and circulates
to stomach where it inhibits gastric gland secretion and to pancreas
where it stimulates insulin secretion.