UNIT 2
COMMUNICATION PROCESS
“ There are hundreds of languages in the world and a smile speaks all of
them”
2.1 Introduction
Work requires communication. People communicate to plan products and services, hire,
train, and motivate workers; coordinate manufacturing and delivery; persuade customers
to buy and bill them for sale. For many businesses, and in nonprofit, community, and
government organizations, the “product” is information or service. Information and
services are created and delivered by communication. In every organization,
communication is the way people get their points across, get work done, and get
recognized for their contributions. In this unit both verbal and nonverbal aspects of oral
communication are explored. To make this learning meaningful and relevant to
managers, communication is discussed in the context of interpersonal, listening,
interviewing and presentations – all managerial activities.
2.2 Learning Objectives
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Learn interpersonal dynamics
Explain how to become an effective listener
Improve nonverbal communication skill.
Evaluate successful job interview strategies
Acquire good speaking and oral reporting techniques
2.3 INTER PERSONAL COMMUNICATION
Definition of Interpersonal Communication
Interpersonal communication is the process that we use to communicate our ideas,
thoughts, and feelings to another person. Our interpersonal communication skills are
learned behaviours that can be improved through knowledge, practice, feedback, and
reflection.
Intrateam communication
Intrateam communication is a process through which team members communicate with
one another. It is made up of the communication strategies and styles of each member of
the team. Like interpersonal communication skills, a team can improve its intrateam
communication skills through knowledge, practice, feedback, and reflection.
2.3.1 Principles of Interpersonal Communication
These principles underlie the workings in real life of interpersonal communication. They
are basic to communication. Which can not be ignored.
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Interpersonal communication is inescapable
The very attempt not to communicate communicates something. Not only through words,
but also through tone of voice gesture, posture, facial expression, etc., we constantly
communicate to those around us. Through these channels, we constantly receive
communication from others. Even when we sleep, we communicate. Remember a basic
principle of communication in general: people are not mind readers. Another way to put
this is: people judge you by your behaviour, not your intent.
Interpersonal communication is irreversible
You can't really take back something once it has been said. The effect must inevitably
remain. Despite the instructions from a judge to a jury to "disregard that last statement
the witness made," the lawyer knows that it can't help but make an impression on the
jury. A Russian proverb says, "Once a word goes out of your mouth, you can never
swallow it again."
Interpersonal communication is complicated
No form of communication is simple. Because of the number of variables involved, even
simple requests are extremely complex. Theorists note that whenever we communicate
there are really at least six "people" involved:
1) who you think you are; 2) who you think the other person is; 3) who you think the
other person thinks you are; 4) who the other person thinks /she is; 5) who the other
person thinks you are; and 6) who the other person thinks you think s/he is.
Words (symbols) do not have inherent meaning; we simply use them in certain ways, and
no two people use the same word exactly alike.
Interpersonal communication is contextual
In other words, communication does not happen in isolation. There is:
Psychological context, which is who you are and what you bring to the interaction. Your
needs, desires, values, personality, etc., all form the psychological context. ("You" here
refers to both participants in the interaction.)
Relational context, which concerns your reactions to the other person--the "mix."
Situational context deals with the psycho-social "where" you are communicating. An
interaction that takes place in a classroom will be very different from one that takes place
in a playground.
Environmental context deals with the physical "where" you are communicating.
Furniture, location, noise level, temperature, season, time of day, all are examples of
factors in the environmental context.
Cultural context includes all the learned behaviours and rules that affect the interaction.
If you come from a culture (foreign or within your own country) where it is considered
rude to make long, direct eye contact, you will out of politeness avoid eye contact. If the
other person comes from a culture where long, direct eye contact signals trustworthiness,
then we have in the cultural context a basis for misunderstanding.
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2.3.2 Functions of Interpersonal Communication
Interpersonal communication is important because of the functions it achieves. Whenever
we engage in communication with another person, we seek to gain information about
them. We also give off information through a wide variety of verbal and nonverbal cues.
Gaining Information
One reason we engage in interpersonal communication is that we can gain knowledge
about another individual. Social Penetration Theory says that we attempt to gain
information about others so that we can interact with them more effectively. We can
better predict how they will think, feel, and act if we know who they are. We gain this
information passively, by observing them; actively, by having others engage them; or
interactively, by engaging them ourselves. Self-disclosure is often used to get information
from another person.
Building a Context of Understanding
We also engage in interpersonal communication to help us better understand what
someone says in a given context. The words we say can mean very different things
depending on how they are said or in what context. Content Messages refer to the
surface level meaning of a message. Relationship Messages refer to how a message is
said. The two are sent simultaneously, but each affects the meaning assigned to the
communication. Interpersonal communication helps us understand each other better.
Establishing Identity
Another reason we engage in interpersonal communication is to establish an identity. The
roles we play in our relationships help us establish identity. So too does the face, the
public self-image we present to others. Both roles and face are constructed based on how
we interact with others.
Interpersonal Needs
Finally, we engage in interpersonal communication because we need to express and
receive interpersonal needs. William Schutz has identified three such needs: inclusion,
control, and affection.
Inclusion is the need to establish identity with others. Control is the need to exercise
leadership and prove one's abilities. Groups provide outlets for this need. Some
individuals do not want to be a leader. For them, groups provide the necessary control
over aspects of their lives. Affection is the need to develop relationships with people.
Groups are an excellent way to make friends and establish relationships.
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2.3.3 Inter Personal Relationship Models
Researchers have studied relationships to understand how they develop. One of the most
popular models for understanding Relationship Development is Mark Knapp's Relational
Stages Model. Knapp's model works well to describe many types of relationships:
romantic couples, friends, business partners, room-mates, etc. Other models have also
been discussed. For instance, Stephen Duck's Relationship Filtering Model is another
way of looking at how relationships begin. Read about these models and then complete
an interactive activity and short quiz to test your knowledge.
2.3.3.1 Knapp's Relationship Escalation Model
Initiation
This stage is very short, sometimes as short as 10-15 seconds. In this stage, interactants
are concerned with making favorable impressions on each other. They may use standard
greetings or observe each other's appearance or mannerisms.
Experimenting
In the next stage, individuals ask questions of each other in order to gain information
about them and decide if they wish to continue the relationship. "Many relationships
progress no further than this point"
Intensifying
Self-disclosure becomes more common in the intensifying stage. The relationship
becomes less formal, the interactants begin to see each other as individuals, and
statements are made about the level of commitment each has to the relationship.
Integrating
The individuals become a pair in the integrating stage. They begin to do things together
and, importantly, others come to see them as a pair. A shared relational identity starts to
form in this stage.
Bonding
During the bonding stage, a formal, sometimes legal, announcement of the relationship is
made. Examples include a marriage, "best friend" ritual, or business partnership
agreement. Few relationships reach this level.
2.3.3.2 Duck's Relationship Filtering Model
Sociological/Incidental Cues
Duck's model is a set of filters through which we make choices about the level of
relationship we wish to pursue with others. The first filter, sociological/incidental cues,
describes the constraints placed on our meeting people due to where we live or work. In
other words, given our sociological location, there are some people we see a lot of and
others we never meet.
Preinteraction Cues
Information we gain about people before we even interact with them leads us to exclude
or include individuals with whom we wish to have a relationship. For instance, the
appearance of some individuals will cause you to avoid or approach them.
Interaction Cues
As we begin to interact with others, we make judgments about whether to include or
exclude them from possible relationships.
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Cognitive Cues
At the deepest level, we make judgments about people based on their personality and the
degree to which we think it will match ours. As others reach this level, we consider them
"best friends."
2.3.3.2 Self-Disclosure
Self-disclosure is seen as a useful strategy for sharing information with others. By sharing
information, we become more intimate with other people and our interpersonal
relationship is strengthened.
The Johari Window is used in Creating Better Understanding between Individuals and
Groups
The Johari Window is a communication model that can be used to improve understanding
between individuals within a team or in a group setting. Based on disclosure, selfdisclosure and feedback, the Johari Window can also be used to improve a group's
relationship with other groups
Developed by Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham (the word “Johari” comes from Joseph Luft
and Harry Ingham), there are two key ideas behind the tool:
1. That individuals can build trust between themselves by disclosing information about
themselves; and
2. That they can learn about themselves and come to terms with personal issues with the
help of feedback from others.
By explaining the idea of the Mohair Window to your team, you can help team members
understand the value of self- feedback. Done sensitively, this can help people build moretrusting relationships with one another, solve issues and work more effectively as a team.
Explaining the Mohair Window:
The Johari Window model consists of a foursquare grid (think of taking a piece of paper
and dividing it into four parts by drawing one line down the middle of the paper from top
to bottom, and another line through the middle of the paper from side-to-side). This is
shown in the diagram below:
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Using the Johari model, each person is represented by their own four-quadrant, or fourpane, window. Each of these contains and represents personal information - feelings,
motivation - about the person, and shows whether the information is known or not known
by themselves or other people.
The four quadrants are:
Quadrant 1: Open Area
What is known by the person about him/herself and is also known by others.
Quadrant 2: Blind Area, or "Blind Spot"
What is unknown to the person about him/herself but known to the others. This can be
simple information, or can involve deep issues (for example, feelings of inadequacy,
incompetence, unworthiness, rejection) which are difficult for individuals to face directly,
and yet can be seen by others.
Quadrant 3: Hidden or Avoided Area
What the person knows about him/her that others do not
Quadrant 4: Unknown Area
What is unknown by the person about him/herself and is also unknown by others.
The process of enlarging the open quadrant vertically is called self-disclosure, a give and
take process between the person and the people he/she interacts with. As information is
shared, the boundary with the hidden quadrant moves downwards. And as other people
reciprocate, trust tends to build between them.
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The Johari Window in a Team Context
Keep in mind that established team members will have larger open areas than new team
members. New team members start with smaller open areas because no knowledge about
the new team member has been shared yet. The size of the Open Area can be expanded
horizontally into the blind space, by seeking and actively listening to feedback from other
group members.
Group members should strive to assist a team member in expanding his/her Open Area by
offering constructive feedback. The size of the Open Area can also be expanded
vertically downwards into the hidden or avoided space by the sender’s disclosure of
information, feelings, etc about himself/herself to the group and group members.
Also, group members can help a person expand his/her Open Area into the hidden area by
asking the sender about himself/herself. Managers and team leaders play a key role here,
in facilitating feedback and disclosure among group members, and by providing
constructive feedback to individuals about their own blind areas.
Key Points:
In most cases, the aim in groups should be to develop the Open Area for every person.
Working in this area with others usually allows for enhanced individual and team
effectiveness and productivity. The Open Area is the ‘space’ where good
communications and cooperation occur, free from confusion, conflict and
misunderstanding.
Self-disclosure is the process by which people expand the Open Area vertically.
Feedback is the process by which people expand this area horizontally. By encouraging
healthy self-disclosure and sensitive feedback, you can build a stronger and more
effective team.
A useful way of viewing self-disclosure is the Johari window. The Johari window is a
way of showing how much information you know about yourself and how much others
know about you. The window contains four panes, as shown below.
Known to self
Unknown to self
Known to others
Open Pane
known to self and others
Blind Pane
blind to self, seen by others
Hidden Pane
Unknown Pane
Unknown to others
open to self, hidden from
unknown to self and others
others
The Blind Pane includes information that others can see in you, but you cannot see in
your self. You might think you are a poor leader, but others think you exhibit strong
leadership skills. The Hidden Pane contains information you wish to keep private, such
as dreams or ambitions. The Unknown Pane includes everything that you and others do
not know about yourself. You may have hidden talents, for example, that you have not
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explored. Through self-disclosure, we open and close panes so that we may become more
intimate with others.
Functions of Self-Disclosure
Self-disclosure performs several functions. It is a way of gaining information about
another person. We will be able to predict the thoughts and actions of people we know.
Self-disclosure is one way to learn about how another person thinks and feels. Once if
one person engages in self-disclosure, it is implied that the other person will also disclose
personal information. This is known as the norm of reciprocity. Mutual disclosure
deepens trust in the relationships and helps both people understand each other more. You
also come to feel better about yourself and your relationship when the other person
accepts what you tell them.
Risks of Self-Disclosure
While there are several advantages to self-disclosure, there are also risks. One risk is that
the person will not respond favorably to the information. Self-disclosure does not
automatically lead to favorable impressions. Another risk is that the other person will
gain power in the relationship because of the information he possess. Finally, too much
self-disclosure or self-disclosure that comes too early in a relationship can damage the
relationship. Thus, while self-disclosure is useful, it can also be damaging to a
relationship.
Relational Patterns
As relationships progress, patterns of interactions takes shape that we may not recognize.
This section describes some of these patterns. Complete the interactive activity at the end
of the unit and then take a quiz to test your knowledge.
Rigid Role Relations
There are two basic types of behaviors in relationships: dominance and submissiveness.
Dominance is often referred to as one-up, while submissiveness, one-down. In some
relationships, the two are complementary--one individual is one-up, the other one-down-and the relationship is rewarding. Other relationships are symmetrical, where both parties
are one-up and both are one down. Problems can result when individuals feel trapped by
their role as the dominant or submissive member of the relationship. Flexibility can help
both partners enjoy the relationship.
Disconfirmations
Whenever we communicate with someone else, we open ourselves up for rejection. The
other individual can accept what we say or reject what we say. Researcher Evelyn
Sieburg has identified seven "disconfirming" responses that reject the other individual.
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Impervious: Failing to acknowledge the other person.
Interrupting: Cutting the other's message short.
Irrelevant: Giving a response that is unrelated to what the other has said.
Tangential: Briefly responding to the other's message.
Impersonal: Responding by using formal, jargon-laden language.
Incoherent: Responding with a rambling, difficult to understand message.
Incongruous: Giving contradictory verbal and nonverbal messages.
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Spirals
A third type of relational pattern is ‘spiral’. In a spiral, one partner's behavior intensifies
that of the other". Spirals can be progressive, in which one partner's behavior leads to
increasing levels of satisfaction for the other. Spirals can also be regressive, where one
partner's communication leads to increasing dissatisfaction. Stopping regressive spirals
from getting out of control depends on the open communication between the two
individuals.
Dependencies and Counter dependencies
A final type of relational pattern is dependencies and counter dependencies. In a
dependency relationship, one individual sees himself or herself relying on another person
for something. Soon, he or she agrees with whatever the other says or does. In a counter
dependency, one individual sees himself or herself as not being dependent on the other.
Thus, he or she disagrees with the other quite frequently.
2.3.4 Interpersonal Conflict
Conflict is a part of almost every interpersonal relationship. Managing conflict, then, is
important if the relationship is to be long lasting and rewarding. Learn how to manage
conflict in your relationships and then complete the activity.
Definition of Conflict
Conflict has been defined as "an expressed struggle between at least two interdependent
parties who perceive incompatible goals, scarce resources, and interference from the
other party in achieving their goals". Important concepts in this definition include
"expressed struggle," which means the two sides must communicate about the problem
for there to be conflict. Another important idea is that conflict often involves perceptions.
The two sides may only perceive that their goals, resources, and interference are
incompatible with each other's.
Common Problems in Conflict Management
Researchers have identified several problems that typically arise in conflict situations22.
First, the parties will simply avoid the conflict. This can be damaging, because it can lead
to greater problems in the future. It is usually best that the individuals discuss their
differences. Second, individuals involved in conflict may blame the other individual.
Often, individuals go beyond the specific behavior in question and blame the character of
the person. When people use words such as, "He's such a slob," they are trying to blame
the behavior of the others. A final problem that is often encountered in conflict
management is adopting a win-lose mentality. Focusing on each individual's
goals/outcomes will help to avoid using a win-lose strategy.
Defensive climate
The climate in which conflict is managed is important. Dyads says that one should avoid
a defensive climate, which is characterized by these qualities:
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Evaluation: judging and criticizing other group members.
Control: imposing the will of one group member on the others.
Strategy: using hidden agendas.
Neutrality: demonstrating indifference and lack of commitment.
Superiority: expressing dominance.
Certainty: being rigid in one's willingness to listen to others.
Supportive Climate
Instead, individuals should foster a supportive climate, marked by these traits:
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Description: presenting ideas or opinions.
Problem orientation: focusing attention on the task.
Spontaneity: communicating openly and honestly.
Empathy: understanding another person's thoughts.
Equality: asking for opinions.
Provisionalism: expressing a willingness to listen other the ideas of others.
A few final tips can help insure that conflict is successfully managed:
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Conflict can be constructive. Recognize that a conflict can strengthen your
relationships.
Be Prepared. Plan how you will communicate about conflict in order to create a
supportive climate.
Be Involved. Do not withdraw from the conflict or avoid conflict situations.
Withhold Quick Retorts. Be careful about what you say and how you say it.
Review. Summarize what you have discussed and make plans to continue the
discussion if time permits go for immediate resolution
Building Positive Relationships
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Use descriptive language
Focus on solving problems, not controlling others.
Be open, Don’t try to deceive
Show empathy
Don’t put on an air of superiority
Listening with an open mind
Praise sincerely
Offer constructive criticism
To conclude, in Today’s business world good interpersonal skills are essential for
success. No individual, no matter how brilliant or talented, can hope to make it to the
more coveted posts and stay there if he cannot work harmoniously with a group of
people. Not only individual success, even the success of the organization as a whole
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depends to great extent on whether the workforce has the necessary interpersonal skills to
establish a positive work environment.
2.3 .a Let us check your understanding
1. ------------- is a process through which team members communicate with one another.
2. ----------------- is the process through which we use to communicate our ideas,
thoughts, and feelings to another person.
3. Whenever we communicate there are at least -------- "people" involved.
4. Individuals who ask questions of the other in order to gain information about them is
called ------------ stage
5. Based on -----------and --------------- the Johari Window can be used to improve a
group's relationship with other groups.
6. In Johari model, each person is represented by his/her own --------------- window.
7. One partner's behavior intensifies that of the other". is called ----------8. --------------- has been defined as "an expressed struggle between at least two
interdependent parties who perceive incompatible goals, scarce resources, and
interference from the other party in achieving their goals.
9. A defensive climate, is characterized by these qualities: ---------- -------- ---------10. A Supportive climate, is characterized by these qualities: ---------- -------- ---
`
11.Does the Johari Window represent a visual picture of how comfortable you are with
asking for and encouraging self disclosure?
12.Is it wise to tell everything?
13.What are the questions you should ask yourself before disclosing personal
information?
14. How does perception affect your relational messages?
2.4 NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION
Nonverbal communication plays a central role in human behavior and it is important to
recognize that communication frequently involves more than a verbal message. Effective
communication requires that we understand the role of nonverbal behavior as one
dimension of communication competence.
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What is non-verbal communication?
Definition (CBC): “nonverbal communication involves those nonverbal stimuli in a
communication setting that are generated by both the source [speaker] and his or her use
of the environment and that have potential message value for the source or receiver
[listener] (Samovar et al). Basically it is sending and receiving messages in a variety of
ways without the use of verbal codes (words). It is both intentional and unintentional.
Most speakers / listeners are not conscious of this. It includes — but is not limited to:
 touch
 glance
 eye contact (gaze)
 volume
 vocal nuance
 proximity
 gestures
 facial expression ? pause (silence)
 intonation
 dress
 posture
 smell
 word choice and syntax
 sounds (paralanguage)
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Broadly speaking, there are two basic categories of non-verbal language:
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Non verbal messages produced by the body;
Nonverbal messages produced by the broad setting (time, space, silence)
Note the implications of the proverb: “Actions speak louder than words.” In essence, this
underscores the importance of non-verbal communication. Non-verbal communication is
especially significant in intercultural situations. Probably non-verbal differences account
for typical difficulties in communicating.
Why is non-verbal communication important?
Basically, it is one of the key aspects of communication (and especially important in a
high-context culture). It has multiple functions:
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Used to repeat the verbal message (e.g. point in a direction while stating
directions.
Often used to accent a verbal message. (e.g. verbal tone indicates the actual
meaning of the specific words).
Often complement the verbal message but also may contradict. E.g.: a nod
reinforces a positive message (among Americans); a “wink” may contradict a
stated positive message.
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Regulate interactions (non-verbal cues covey when the other person should speak
or not speak).
May substitute for the verbal message (especially if it is blocked by noise,
interruption, etc) — i.e. gestures (finger to lips to indicate need for quiet), facial
expressions (i.e. a nod instead of a yes).
2.4.1 Cultural Differences in Non-verbal Communication
General Appearance and Dress
All cultures are concerned about how they look and make judgements based on looks and
dress. Americans, for instance, appear almost obsessed with dress and personal
attractiveness. Consider differing cultural standards on what is attractive in dress and on
what constitutes modesty. Note ways how dress is used as a sign of status.
Body Movement
We send information towards a person by our 1) attitude (facing or leaning towards
another), 2) emotional statue (tapping fingers, jiggling coins), and 3) desiring to control
the environment (moving towards or away from a person).
More than 700,000 possible motions are made by us — so impossible to categorize them
all! But just need to be aware that body movement and position is a key ingredient in
sending messages.
Posture
Consider the following actions and note the cultural differences:
 Bowing (not done, criticized, or affected in US; shows rank in Japan)
 Slouching (rude in most Northern European areas)
 Hands in pocket (disrespectful in Turkey)
 Sitting with legs crossed (offensive in Ghana, Turkey)
 Showing soles of feet. (Offensive in Thailand, Saudi Arabia)
 Even in US, there is gender difference on acceptable postures
Gestures
Impossible to catalog them all. But need to recognize: 1) incredible possibility and
variety and 2) that is acceptable in one’s own culture may be offensive in another. In
addition, amount of gesturing varies from culture to culture. Some cultures are animated;
others restrained. Restrained cultures often feel that animated cultures lack manners and
overall restraint. Animated cultures often feel that restrained cultures lack emotion or
interest.
Even simple things like using hands to point and count differ.
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Pointing : US with index finger; Germany with little finger; Japanese with entire hand (in
fact most Asians consider pointing with index finger to be rude)
Counting: Thumb = 1 in Germany, 5 in Japan, middle finger for 1 in Indonesia.
Facial Expressions
While some say that facial expressions are identical, meaning attached to them differs.
Majority opinion is that these do have similar meanings world-wide with respect to
smiling, crying, or showing anger, sorrow, or disgust. However, the intensity varies from
culture to culture. Note the following:
Many Asian cultures suppress facial expression as much as possible.
Many Mediterranean (Latino / Arabic) cultures exaggerate grief or sadness while most
American men hide grief or sorrow.
Some see “animated” expressions as a sign of a lack of control.
Too much smiling is viewed in as a sign of shallowness.
Women smile more than men.
Eye Contact and Gaze
In interpersonal and group communication, we generally are communicating something
by looking or not looking at someone. When eye contact does occur, it may perform one
or more functions.
The eyes can indicate thought processes, or the cognitive function. It is common for
many people to glance away when they are thinking. Eyes can also perform a monitoring
function. From interpersonal to public speaking situations, we can monitor our
communication effectiveness by looking at others and monitoring their feedback. As
mentioned previously in this teaching note, eye contact also helps to regulate the flow of
communication. If a professor asks a question and you did not wish to respond, you
will most likely avoid establishing eye contact; direct eye contact suggests a willingness
to respond. The eyes can also offer insight to emotions and feelings as part of their
expressive function.
In USA, eye contact indicates: degree of attention or interest, influences attitude change
or persuasion, regulates interaction, communicates emotion, defines power and status,
and has a central role in managing impressions of others.
Western cultures — see direct eye to eye contact as positive (advise children to look a
person in the eyes). But within USA, African-Americans use more eye contact when
talking and less when listening with reverse true for Anglo Americans. This is a possible
cause for some sense of unease between races in US.
Arabic cultures make prolonged eye-contact. — believe it shows interest and helps them
understand truthfulness of the other person. (A person who doesn’t reciprocate is seen as
untrustworthy)
Japan, Africa, Latin American, Caribbean — avoid eye contact to show respect.
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Touch
Question: Why do we touch, where do we touch, and what meanings do we assign when
someone else touches us?
Illustration: An African-American male goes into a convenience store recently taken over
by new Korean immigrants. He gives a $20 bill for his purchase to Mrs Cho who is
cashier and waits for his change. He is upset when his change is put down on the counter
in front of him.
What is the problem? Traditional Koreans (and many other Asian countries) don’t touch
strangers., especially between members of the opposite sex. But the African-American
sees this as another example of discrimination (not touching him because he is black).
Basic answer: Touch is culturally determined! But each culture has a clear concept of
what parts of the body one may not touch. Basic message of touch is to affect or control
— protect, support, disapprove (i.e. hug, hit, kick).
USA — handshake is common (even for strangers), hugs, kisses for those of opposite
gender or of family (usually) on an increasingly more intimate basis. Note differences
between African-Americans and Anglos in USA. Most African Americans touch on
greeting but are annoyed if touched on the head (good boy, good girl overtones).
Islamic and Hindu: typically don’t touch with the left hand. To do so is a social insult.
Left hand is for toilet functions. Mannerly in India to break your bread only with your
right hand (sometimes difficult for non-Indians)
Islamic cultures generally don’t approve of any touching between genders (even hand
shakes). But consider such touching (including hand holding, hugs) between same-sex to
be appropriate.
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Smell
USA — fear of offensive natural smells (billion dollar industry to mask objectionable
odors with what is perceived to be pleasant ) — again connected with “attractiveness”
concept.
Many other cultures consider natural body odors as normal (Arabic).
Asian cultures (Filipino, Malay, Indonesian, Thai, Indian) stress frequent bathing — and
often criticize USA of not bathing often enough!
Distance during interaction
The mutual distances people choose during interactions have several goals. Distance
plays a role in signaling the beginning and the end of a conversation. It also signals
something about how intimate and how personal we experience the relationship and the
topic of discussion. The appropriate use of distance between talking partners is regulated
by quite a lot of (unwritten) social rules and cultural norms. When we talk to a senior
person, normally one will maintain some distance than the normal one. But when we are
conveying something to a friend definitely he/she is not bothered about the Distance &
Posture.
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Zones
Edward Hall, an American anthropologist, has divided interpersonal space into four
zones:
· The intimate zone (0 - 45 cm)
· The personal zone (45 - 120 cm)
· The social zone (120 - 360 cm)
· The public zone (360 - 750 cm or more)
Closeness
The physical distance we keep from others and our reaction to how other people approach
us; have a big influence on our discussions and the accompanying connections with these
people. The amount of personal space we appreciate is strongly influenced by our culture.
This also counts for the mutual distance in which we feel confident during a business
meeting.
If somebody comes closer to us than we are used to, invading our personal space, he can
give us an uneasy feeling. We feel inclined to take a step backward to establish the
original personal space with which we are comfortable again. In general, people need a
certain amount of personal space to feel optimally okay. This also indicates our wish to
trace out our personal territory. When we are not at home we sometimes make a kind of
temporary territory - a temporary space which we secure with our personal belongings. In
this way we create a kind of personal air bubble around us. Who enters in there without
being invited can count on a rejecting or angry response.
Paralanguage
Vocal characterizers (laugh, cry, yell, moan, whine, belch, yawn). These send different
messages in different cultures (Japan — giggling indicates embarrassment; India – belch
indicates satisfaction)
Vocal qualifiers (volume, pitch, rhythm, tempo, and tone). Loudness indicates strength
in Arabic cultures and softness indicates weakness; indicates confidence and authority to
the Germans,; indicates impoliteness to the Thais; indicates loss of control to the
Japanese. (Generally, one learns not to “shout” in Asia for nearly any reason!). Gender
based as well: women tend to speak higher and more softly than men.
vocal segregates (un-huh, shh, uh, ooh, mmmh, humm, eh, mah, lah). Segregates indicate
formality, acceptance, assent, uncertainty.
2.4.2 PARALINGUISTICS
Paralinguistic is concerned with factors of how words are spoken, i.e. the paralinguistic
differences can be responsible for , mostly subconscious or stereotyped, confusion. For
example the notion that Americans are talking "too loud" is often interpreted in Europe as
aggressive behaviour or can be seen as a sign of uncultivated or tactless behaviour.
43
Likewise, the British way of speaking quietly might be understood as secretive by
Americans.
The speed of talking equally is different in various cultural settings. For example Finnish
is spoken relatively slowly in comparison to other European languages. This form of
speaking has often resulted in the Finnish as being regarded somewhat 'slow' .
Further importance is given to the amount of silence that is perceived as right during a
conversation. A Japanese proverb says "Those who know do not speak - those who speak
do not know"; for example, US Americans where even a slight silence is often seen as
embarrassing, and hence is filled up with speaking, something often perceived as
hypomanic. Similarly, but different in usage, is the avoidance of silence in Arabic
countries, where word games are played and thoughts repeated to avoid silence.
On the surface, language consists simply of words, linked by grammatical rules to convey
meaning. In fact, there are many other devices that also help indicate and support
meaning. These include:



Paralinguistic features such as intonation, emphasis, volume and pace;
Non-verbal norms such as physical distance, touch and eye contact;
Cultural features, for example ways of indicating agreement, of being polite.
When people learn a second language they usually retain certain paralinguistic, cultural
and non-verbal features of their mother tongue. As a result, they may unintentionally
offend or give the wrong impression. These misunderstandings can be difficult to sort out
because their cause is rarely recognized. We assume that people sound how they mean to
sound. Misunderstandings are particularly likely when people are anxious, distressed or
under pressure.
Difficulties can also occur when people speak a different variety of English, for example
Indian English, Caribbean English or West African English. Each of these has its own
particular paralinguistic features - intonation, rhythm, accent and vocabulary - as well as
cultural and non-verbal devices. These often differ from those of British English so, even
though people who speak different varieties of English use the same words, they may
misunderstand each other's intentions or attitudes. British-English speakers also
sometimes assume that other forms of English are inferior and that people who speak
them are stupid or under-educated. In fact, each is a complete and fully developed
language in its own right (d' Ardenne and Mahtani 1989).
'I was simple enough to think that the British people were all the same, all speaking the
same sort of language, the language which I learnt at English school in India. I was
surprised I couldn't understand the English nurse and was even more surprised because
she did not understand English - my English!'
Indian man (Ahmed and Watt 1986)
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Paralinguistic feature
Intonation
To see how paralinguistic features work, try saying this sentence, ‘She says she’s been in
agony for three hours’ in four different ways:




As a straight statement
As a question
Indicating that you don’t believe her
Indicating that you are shocked that this has been allowed to happen
Notice how your intonation, emphasis and volume differed each time, so that although
you used exactly the same words and grammar, you conveyed very different meanings. In
British English, certain paralinguistic features convey the speaker's intentions and
feelings, including politeness, apology, anger, sorrow, anxiety, uncertainty, interest or
lack of it, disagreement, criticism or urgency. People who do not understand the
paralinguistic features of British English may not perceive these messages and may seem
insensitive, rude or stupid. Their own use of paralinguistic features may clash with
British expectations, and they may be wrongly perceived as angry, resentful, uncertain,
excited or uninterested.
Emphasis and pace
British English uses emphasis to signal important or new information, or to contradict:
for example, 'I told her to take it three times a day', 'Mrs Smith is coming on Monday'.
Emphasis also indicates emotions such as anger or excitement. In other languages,
importance may be indicated by speaking faster or more slowly, by adding words or
phrases, by repetition or by lowering the voice (Mares, Henley and Baxter 1985). Again,
there is a good deal of room for mutual misunderstanding.
Linguistic tunes
Each language has its own intonation or tune. In British English it is normal for the voice
to rise and fall in friendly conversation. Changing the tune can also modify the meaning
of a phrase or sentence. A raised tone at the end of a statement can turn it into a question:
'You've done your blood sample?' And raising the tone of the whole sentence is often
associated with intense emotion such as anger, shock or excitement: 'You've won the
Nobel prize!' or 'You've flooded the whole ground floor!' In other languages a raised tone
over the whole sentence may indicate importance or friendliness rather than intense
emotion.
British English and other northern European languages use a relatively limited range of
tunes in normal speech: speakers of other languages and other forms of English may use
a far greater range. To British-English speakers, they may sound excitable and
excessively emotional, even unreliable. To other people, British-English speakers may
sound uninterested, insincere, bored or condescending.
45
Volume
Normal volume varies a good deal in different cultures. Native English speakers speak
with less volume when compared to people from other parts of the world. They often feel
disconcerted or upset by people who raise their voices. They may even feel that the other
person (who is speaking perfectly normally in their own terms) is angry, over-emotional,
threatening, irrational or simply bad mannered.
Structuring conversation
In most European languages it is customary to state the main point in an argument first,
and then to illustrate or expand upon it. In many other languages it is common to set out
the preliminary arguments and illustrations first, working up to the main point as a
conclusion. British-English speakers, used to hearing the main point early on, may
become bored and impatient when listening to a patient or colleague who uses the other
system. They may conclude that he or she has nothing important to say or is stupid and
switch off before the key point is reached (Roberts 1985).
Turn-taking and listening signals
Conversation requires people to take turns. Different languages use different conventions
to indicate when one person has finished and another can begin. For example, person A
may lower their voice and slow down to indicate that it is person B's turn; they may begin
to repeat themselves; or they may pause for person B to begin. Latin Americans generally
take and expect very short pauses; North-American-English speakers take slightly longer
pauses; British-English speakers take still longer ones. Problems arise when people use
different turn-taking signals. Person B may feel that they are never given a chance to talk;
person A may wonder why person B isn't saying anything. They may then label each
other pushy, shy, unco-operative or unfriendly (Tannen 1992).
In British English it is considered normal and polite for only one person to speak at a
time and for people to pause to allow each other to speak. In some cultures talking at the
same time as another person and talking over them ('high-involvement style') is regarded
as friendly and polite, and proof that you are really listening; in Northern Europe it is
generally regarded as aggressive and pushy (Tannen 1991).
In British English it is also important to indicate that you are listening by nodding
occasionally and making encouraging noises. It is also important to make intermittent eye
contact. In some languages people show that they are listening by keeping still and
remaining completely silent. They may also look away. English speakers used to eye
contact and other signals during conversation may feel that they are not being listened to
if these are absent (Lago and Thompson 1996).
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Silence
Silence is tolerated more in some cultures than in others. It also means different things. In
some cultures younger and more junior people use silence to indicate respect and
affection. In some it is normal for people to sit in silence for long periods before they say
anything, or to take long pauses while they are speaking; this indicates that matters are
being taken seriously. In English culture silence is generally most acceptable between
people who are close; in other circumstances it can feel awkward or rude and people may
feel impelled to speak (Lomax 1997
Misunderstandings and blame
The key point about paralinguistic features is that most of us wrongly assume:
 that the cues and features we are used to and their meanings are universal; and
 that they reliably tell us something about a person's behaviour or their personality.
If a person raises their voice and talks faster, for example, we may conclude that they are
angry or hostile. If their voice goes up and down a lot we may conclude that they are
excited or over-reacting, or we may simply be puzzled. If they are silent we may think
they are disapproving, unco-operative, insolent or withdrawn. But such judgements are
unreliable when people speak different first languages or different forms of English
(Tannen 1992). The paralinguistic features of a different language are the most difficult
things to learn. Native speakers are generally unaware of them and rarely explain them to
people who get them wrong, partly because it is often unclear whether a person is using
them intentionally.
2.4.4 ORGANISATIONAL BODY LANGUAGE
Like individuals, organizations too have their own body language. It is said that physical
facilities in a business organization constitute the first step in communicating with the
customers and visitors, As such an organization expresses itself through the following
features :






Design and Layout
Office Arrangements
Space Management
Distance and Locations
Color Statements
Imagery
Each one of these, by design or otherwise, conveys a certain meaning or impression to
every visitor.
47
Design and Layout : The structure of the building, the design of the counters, the layout
of the office, convey a message. People talk about solid and imposing structures,
conservative and modern designs and now a days, eco-friendly buildings. Every business
or profession carries a certain impression and the design or the layout quite often
reinforces it. Whether it is a bank, hospital or a department store, there is a pattern that
becomes evident. For a long time, till recently bank buildings and banking halls in U.K.
and Europe were known for their conservative and imposing structures. Designed to
impress the elite sections of society, in terms of physical appearance, they were more awe
inspiring than inviting. The early banking halls exhibited a certain aloofness and carries a
forbidding atmosphere. The solidity of the structures, so to say, reflected the security of
the funds deposited by the affluent public. The advent of mass banking and retail focus
have, however, brought about a friendly and inviting look to bank branches. Every
business strives to create a certain ambience that conveys a positive message about itself.
Office arrangements : Business have their own offices, outlets, stores, and such other
physical centers where work is done, business is transacted and interactions take place.
Seating arrangements, sign boards and name plates, lighting, access and exit, visitors
lounge are to be decided keeping in view employee comfort and customer convenience.
Under manual environments, office layout and arrangements had to facilitate efficient
paper or file movement. Under computerized conditions, lighting, dust-free environment
and cabling have to receive attention. When employees work at a stretch for long hours, it
is very essential that office arrangements and physical facilities are congenial. Similarly,
as far as the customers are concerned, customer counters, constitute the face of the
business and the people at large judge them by this face. Design, layout and physical
arrangements have to be well planned so that the people concerned perceive them to be
not only operationally convenient, but also pleasant.
Space Management : Business organizations are commercial entities. Governed by the
profit motive, they are always under pressure to optimize their resources and cut costs.
Given in this scenario, space management or efficient utilization of available space
assumes significance. While not wasting space, business organizations should ensure that
their offices and outlets are not cramped for space. Many businesses have front offices
and back offices and these have different specifications. There should be adequate lung
space for the employee and customers. To give a positive message, businesses should
also demonstrate their concern for the people, especially women, children and the elderly
persons, For example, offices frequently visited by senior citizens should as far as
possible, be located on the ground floor, so that they do not have to climb stairs.
Similarly, there should be adequate parking space so that visitors do not have to walk
long distances. Given the spiralling rentals and real estate prices, space management
becomes a challenging task.
Distances and Locations : Distances and locations too assume significance in the
process of communication. Unreasonably long distances between two connected
departments and offices, for example, do not convey a positive message. Other things
remaining the same, lesser the distance more frequent the communicating. Proximity
facilitates effective communications. When the need for communication between any two
48
groups is frequency, as far as possible, they should be located in proximity to each other.
Another noteworthy feature concerns location. The location of an office, a functionary, a
department or unit is also subject to interpretation. There are also perceived and
generally accepted status symbols, An executive floor to house the offices of general
managers or presidents, an executive floor or lift or passage for the chairman or chief
executive and such other location specific messages are also prevalent in certain business
organizations. When a persons is elevated and occupies those offices, the person is seen
to have “arrived”. Distances and locations also convey another message, i.e.,
accessibility. There are offices with an easy access and there are others where the access
is restricted.
Imagery : Business organizations in a highly competitive environment are very particular
about their image -- whether it is positive or negative, friendly or otherwise. There is a
constant effort on the part of businesses to see that a good image is built up and sustained,
Imagery includes pictures. photographs, etc., and refers to the image that one conjures up
at the mention for the name. Imagery is the language that produces pictures in the minds
of people reading or listening. Communication becomes effective when the mention of
the name evokes a favorable picture – friendly, efficient, dependable, etc., Signs,
Symbols , logo, emblem, etc., should help convey the right message.
Colour Statements : Like flowers, it is possible to “say it with others”. Colours too make
their own statements. Different colours communicate different feelings.






WHITE - serene, sober, peaceful
RED - passion
GREEN - growth, brightness
BLUE - competence
GREY - strength
BLACK - dark
And so on.
Colours are seen to convey boldness and aggression, conservatism, tranquility, quiet,
efficiency, loudness and so on. Businesses which are keen on effective communication
ensure that the colors they use for their offices and buildings as well as the colours for
their personal use do not conflict with the other messages brought out. The sign – boards,
interiors, uniforms, ties, stationery, vehicles and such other items which are in the public
eye should be consciously designed to make the right colour statements.
From the above paragraphs, it is evident that there are many ways in which an
organization communicates with its stakeholders and other public. People add up all these
features and form their judgements -- efficient, laid back, friendly, robust, and so on. It
is to be remembered, however, that these interpretations and judgements are constantly
changing. That which was considered flashy and bold yesterday, may not be so today.
Competition, changing lifestyles, advancements in science and technology bring in an
element of dynamism to the process of non – verbal communication. Banks, railway
49
platforms, government offices, supermarkets, petrol stations, theatres and a host of other
businesses take extra care to present themselves as friendly places. Since communication
is goal – oriented, all such efforts are directed at making the right statements.
Nonverbal communication is highly believable and at least as important as verbal
communication. While it is useful to observe nonverbal behaviour, it is important to
remember that:



the context of nonverbal behaviour is relevant
individuals respond differently to different situations
cultural norms affect peoples' reactions to nonverbal cues.
To conclude, the field of nonverbal communications has grown rapidly over the last few
decades, and it has applications in business, media, international relations, education, and
indeed any field which significantly involves interpersonal and group dynamics.
Certainly there is a need for more psychological mindedness in all these realms.
Review Questions
1.What types of non verbal behavior are observed in all cultures?
2.What are the characteristics that apply to verbal and non verbal communication
3. Is non verbal behavior subjective or objective and why?
2.5 EFFECTIVE LISTENING
We were given two ears but only one mouth.
This is because God knew that listening was twice as hard as talking.
What is Listening?
Like most people think, a good communicator is someone who can speak well.
Speaking, however, is just part of the total process of communication. In order for
speakers to get their message across, someone must also be listening.
Listening is the most neglected communication skill. While all of us have had instruction
in reading, writing, and speaking, few have had any formal instruction in listening. This
void in our education is especially interesting in light of research showing that most of us
50
spend seven of every 10 minutes we are awake in some form of communication activity.
Of these seven minutes (or 70 percent of the time we are awake), 10 percent is spent
writing, 15 percent reading, 30 percent talking, and 45 percent listening.
Listening is not an easy task. Everyone does not know how to listen effectively.
Effective listening involves more than just hearing, or the reception of sound. To be a
good listener you must also understand and interpret sound in a meaningful way. A good
deal of thinking must go on in effective listening. When messages are misunderstood, it
is easy to blame the speaker, however, the listener must also share in the responsibility.
The average person misses about 75 percent of what he or she hears.
Listening effectively takes skill, self-motivation, and practice. Effective listening means
concentrating on what the speaker says rather than on how it is said.
After all, lack of attention and respectful listening can be costly - leading to mistakes,
poor service, misaligned goals, wasted time and lack of teamwork.
You can’t sell unless you understand your customer’s problem; you can’t manage unless
you understand your employee’s motivation; and you can’t gain team consensus unless
you understand each team member’s feelings about the issue at hand. In all of these
cases, you must listen to others.
However, listening is less important than how you listen. By listening in a way that
demonstrates understanding and respect, you cause rapport to develop, and that is the true
foundation from which you can sell, manage or influence others.
2.5.1 OBJECTIVES OF LISTENING
We listen for four general objectives of listening: (1) to be entertained, (2) to empathize,
(3) to learn, and (4) to critique. In all cases, we are active listeners. In each case why we
listen differs. We listen to the comedian for enjoyment: we may appreciate what she has
to say. We listen to our friend to understand him, to put ourselves in his place, and to
comfort him. We listen to the lecture to learn: we want to comprehend and retain the
information because we see it is useful to us. We listen to the political speech to judge
and evaluate: we listen critically in order to decide whether or not it is in our best
interests to be persuaded.
Listening can be broken down into five types, depending on the message
of the sender and intent of the receiver. The five types are:
a. Informative: In this type, the listener is primarily concerned with
understanding the message. In order to be more successful, listeners
should hone their vocabulary, concentration, and memorization skills
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b. Relationship: This type of listening refers to the improvement of relationships among
people. It’s the kind of listening where the listener allows the speaker to “vent;” to talk
out a problem or situation. In this type of listening, it’s important to pay attention to the
speaker, and to be supportive: to keep the message in confidence, and to not be
judgmental. It’s also important to glean whether the speaker wants you to suggest a
solution, or simply to listen.
c. Appreciative: This type of listening refers to the listening we do for the pure enjoyment
of it. Each one of us spends much money on cassettes, CDs, and concerts, as well as
much time listening to the radios in our cars, because we enjoy music. Many of us also
enjoy a good comedy act. The message of the song or routine may not be important to us,
but we like the musician, music style, or comic. In this type, listening is a form of
relaxation.
d. Critical Listening: In this type, we listen to form an opinion or make a decision. In
forming an opinion or making a decision based on a message, we pay attention to three
things: the speaker’s credibility, the logic of the argument, and the psychological appeal
of the message. If one of those areas is lacking, we may make the judgement based on
that void
.
e. Discriminative: By this type we don’t mean excluding speakers based on any trait. It
can mean to be able to pick out the electric guitar from the bass in a song, or to filter
words from static on the radio. What we mean by discriminative listening is the ability to
identify and filter verbal and non-verbal cues, to get to the bottom of the message. This
type of listening, as Dr. Kline has said, is the foundation to all other types of listening,
because we can use it to infer both the speakers message and their intentions.
Now that you can define what effective listening is, and are familiar with the different
types of listening, it’s time to discuss different techniques that you can use to improve
you listening skills.
Effective
2.5.2 REASONS FOR LEARNING EFFECTIVE LISTENING
You will avoid Misunderstandings. You will be able to avoid misunderstandings by
becoming an active listener. You will also be able to do things right the first time when
you listen effectively. Problems are solved quicker by being an "active listener".
You Will Get Along Better with Others. Listening actively will show that you
sincerely care. It is a very high compliment when you listen to others, because it gives
the speaker the sense of self worth and confidence.
You Will Learn More About the World. Television, radio, and conversations with
adults and peers aid in your understanding your immediate environment and the world in
general. The more knowledge you gain, the more you will enjoy the things around you.
52
You Will Be More Successful in School and on the Job. Your grades and interest in
school activities will increase as a result of effective listening. These good listening
skills will also affect your future (i.e. getting the job and salary you want all come about
by listening). Many jobs require good listening skills such as telephone operators, nurses,
doctors, auto mechanics, teachers, lawyers, etc.
2.5.3 LISTENING -PROCESS
Listening is a seven stage process of :







Hearing
Selecting
Attending
Understanding
Evaluating
Remembering
and responding actively with feedback
This process can be summarized into four steps.
The Four Steps of Listening
Hearing is the first step in the process. At this stage, you simply pay attention to make
sure you have heard the message. If your boss says, "Mohan, I need the CAD drawings
on my desk by Friday noon," and you can repeat the sentence, then you have heard her.
53
The second step is interpretation. Failure to interpret the speaker's words correctly
frequently leads to misunderstanding. People sometimes interpret words differently
because of varying experience, knowledge, vocabulary, culture, background, and
attitudes.
A good speaker uses tone of voice, facial expressions, and mannerisms to help make the
message clear to the listener. For instance, if your boss speaks loudly, frowns, and puts
her hands on her hips, you know she is probably upset and angry. During the third step,
evaluation, you decide what to do with the information you have received. For example,
when listening to a sales pitch, you have two options: you choose either to believe or to
disbelieve the salesperson. The judgments you make in the evaluation stage are a crucial
part of the listening process.
The final step is to respond to what you have heard. This is a verbal or visual response
that lets the speaker know whether you have gotten the message and what your reaction
is. When you tell the salesperson that you want to place an order, you are showing that
you have heard and believe his message.
Critical attributes
The process of effective listening has three critical attributes and these attributes are to:
receive, to attend, and to understand the message being sent.
To receive means to be attuned to the sender - to be ready to listen. Physical deficits such
as deafness often require prosthetic devices to assist. For those with sound hearing, the
process is more mental. You have to want to listen. You must come to the conversation
with few, if any, expectations or judgements over what may be said.
To attend simply means to pay attention to the person and message.
At any given time we are bombarded by messages. We must, therefore, prioritize the
messages sent to us -- paying attention to what we believe is important and discarding the
others. In effective listening, the thing to pay attention to is the person talking to you.
2.5.4. MYTHS ABOUT LISTENING
“Listening looks easy, but it’s not simple. Every head is a world.”
- Cuban proverb
Listening is a natural skill.
No. Good, effective listening requires your conscious effort.
Listening is passive.
Listening is very much an active skill. It requires concentration, focus and effort.
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Interrupting someone you are listening to is bad form.
Abrupt interruptions are not polite, but you should try to clarify things the speaker
says that you don’t understand.
Once you have the general idea, you can stop listening.
Not a good idea. Without listening to the entire message, you may be making
wrong assumptions.
Listening and hearing are the same.
No
2.5.4. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HEARING AND LISTENING.
Although it does take all three observable components-- transmitter, receiver, and
messages--for communication to occur, communication is a receiver-oriented
phenomenon. It is the receiver who inputs cues of from a speaker and makes sense out of
them. But too often we tend to confuse hearing with listening. . Although the two
activities are closely related, they are not synonymous.
Hearing is a passive process; it refers simply to the reception of auditory cues. Sometimes
we are only faintly aware of these cues. For example, many of us study with music
playing softly in the background. We are not consciously aware of the music, although
we notice it if our roommate turns it off. Sometimes we are a bit more conscious of the
message, but at a later time we cannot recall what it was. Most of us have responded to a
parent and then promptly forgotten what we have agreed to do.
Listening, however, is an active process. Not only are the auditory cues received, but they
have also made an impression upon our consciousness. We have processed the message:
thought about it, drawn inferences from it, remembered and recalled it.
There is a real distinction between merely hearing the words and really listening for the
message. When we listen effectively we understand what the person is thinking and/or
feeling from the other person’s own perspective. It is as if we were standing in the other
person’s shoes, seeing through his/her eyes and listening through the person's ears. Our
own viewpoint may be different and we may not necessarily agree with the person, but as
we listen, we understand from the other's perspective. To listen effectively, we must be
actively involved in the communication process, and not just listening passively.
Effective listeners are able to:


value listening as a means of learning and enjoyment
determine their own purpose(s) for listening
55











recognize their responsibility to the speaker and listen without distracting the
speaker
concentrate and not become distracted
send appropriate feedback to the speaker (e.g., restate directions and explanations,
ask questions)
prepare to react or respond to what the speaker says
make connections between their prior knowledge and the information presented
by the speaker
evaluate the speaker's message and motive
try to predict the speaker's purpose and determine the speaker's plan of
organization
identify transitional/signal words and phrases, and follow the sequence of ideas
spoken
observe and interpret the speaker's nonverbal cues (e.g., smiles, frowns, body
movements) and use them to enhance their understanding of the speaker's
message
recognize the speaker's main point(s) or idea(s) and identify the supporting details
and examples
distinguish fact from opinion determine bias, stereotyping, and propaganda
Several other possible benefits occur with active listening:







Sometimes a person just needs to be heard and acknowledged before the person is
willing to consider an alternative or soften his /her position.
It is often easier for a person to listen to and consider the other’s position when
that person knows the other is listening and considering his/her position.
It helps people to spot the flaws in their reasoning when they hear it played back
without criticism.
It also helps identify areas of agreement so the areas of disagreement are put in
perspective and are diminished rather than magnified.
Reflecting back what we hear each other say helps give each a chance to become
aware of the different levels that are going on below the surface. This helps to
bring things into the open where they can be more readily resolved.
If we accurately understand the other person’s view, we can be more effective in
helping the person see the flaws in his/her position.
If we listen we can accurately understand the other’s view, we can also be more
effective in discovering the flaws in our own position.
2.5.5 VERBAL AND NON VERBAL BARRIERS
The most important facet is to understand the message being transmitted. When verbal
messages are sent, both verbal and nonverbal signals are sent.Barri
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Verbal barriers
There are two primary verbal barriers to effective listening:
Words mean different things to different people: Sometimes, what you say may be
misunderstood because the person you are speaking to assigns a different meaning or
value to the words you choose.
Using different words saying the same thing: By the same token, you may hold the
same opinion as the person speaking with you, and not realize it because they are saying
it differently. How many times have you said, “You know, I think were’ trying to say the
same thing?” Stop for a moment, and examine what the other person says to you, perhaps
they are simply using different words than you would choose to get the same idea across.
Non Verbal barriers
n-verbal Barriers
In addition, there are several non-verbal barriers to effective listening, and are as
dangerous as the verbal ones:
Misinterpretation of action: What does it mean when you are speaking with someone
and they look at their watch, and quickly depart? They may either be leaving because
they did lose track of time, or they are sending you a non-verbal signal that they do not
want to listen anymore. How would you interpret someone yawning? It could be that they
did not have a good night’s sleep. Or it could be that they are bored. Pay attention to the
non-verbal signals your audience is giving you, and search for their true meaning.
Misinterpretation of non-action symbols: How people dress, where they live, the car
they drive, and how they carry themselves all communicate messages about who they are.
Dr. Kline gives an example about how one would interpret another’s being late for an
appointment. What do you think would happen if you showed up minutes late for a job
interview? The non-verbal message the interviewer may be receiving is that you are
unreliable? That message surely will contrast with the message you want to send to the
interviewer.
Misinterpretation of the voice: It’s natural for you to want to glean the speaker’s mood
from their voice, but it sometimes can be misleading. Some people naturally speak in a
loud or shrill tone. If you are just meeting someone, or that someone happens to be your
boss, you may believe that they are angry with you when they are really not. In contrast,
others may have a naturally soft voice, or speak in a monotone, so you may not listen to
the urgency in their message. Listen past the voice quality and seek the message.
In order to be an effective listener, you must master the skills of attuning yourself to the
speaker, attending, or pay attention to the message, and finally, you must take steps to
truly understand the message being sent to you.
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2.5.6 ROADBLOCKS TO EFFECTIVE LISTENING
Roadblocks to effective listening can be external or internal. External
roadblocks (e.g., noise, an uncomfortable temperature or seating, or an
inappropriate location) or internal. Try to be aware of external roadblocks
and offset them if possible.
Internal roadblocks include a variety of conditions or reactions within the
speaker or audience, such as:
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Emotional interference.
Defensiveness.
Hearing only facts and not feelings.
Not seeking clarification.
Hearing what is expected instead of what is said.
Stereotyping.
The halo effect (i.e., the tendency for something to be influenced by a
loosely associated factor)
Automatic dismissal (e.g., “We’ve never done it that way before.”)
Resistance to change.
2.5.6 Recognizing Barriers to Listening
Noise: Anything that blocks or distorts the message that a speaker is trying to get across
to the listener is a barrier to the communication process. These barriers can be sounds of
traffic, machinery, a dance band, etc.
Distractions: Anything that turns the attention of the listener is a distraction. It may be
environmental, a radio or television playing, or even the temperature of the room.
Daydreaming: Daydreaming is an internal distraction. This is when your mind wanders
off and you miss most of what the speaker is saying. A speaker articulates about the rate
of 150 words per minute. Listeners can understand at a rate of 380 words per minute.
Listeners can often complete a sentence that a speaker is saying mentally before the
sentence is actually complete.
Close-mindedness: People who refuse to expose themselves to ideas that are different
from their own are basically close-minded. An open-minded person does more listening
than speaking. This person may hold an opinion, but will listen to another's opinion. A
good listener should be open-minded.
Overemphasizing the Source: This is when the listener is only influenced by their
feelings about the speaker or the speaker's reputation, and they don't listen to what is said.
Some people listen only which is very easy for them to understand.
Becoming an Active Listener makes sure you get the most out of your listening
experience. These are things you can do to be an "Active Listener".
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Prepare to Listen: In order to hear and understand everything a speaker has to say, you
must be ready to listen from the beginning. This means arriving early, getting sufficient
rest, or finding out as much about the speaker's topic before you arrive.
Expand Your Vocabulary: Increasing your vocabulary will help you understand better
and benefit more from what you hear. Since words are symbols that a speaker uses to
convey ideas, the listener must be familiar with the vocabulary that the speaker uses in
order to understand what is being conveyed.
Apply the Message to Yourself: As an active listener, you must also apply the speaker's
message to yourself as you listen. Try to look for circumstances that you could use the
information that you're hearing. Ask the following questions when hearing a speech.
Do I believe what the speaker is saying?
How can I put this information to use?
Do I feel differently about this subject than the speaker does?
Pick Out the Central Ideas: Listeners should pick out the key ideas or central ideas. The
main ideas or central ideas are often mentioned at the beginning and near the end of the
speech, thus pay close attention to the introduction and the conclusion of a speech. The
rest of the speech develops these central ideas by giving supporting reasons.
Provide Feedback: Good listeners will always "encourage" the speaker by providing
feedback. They do this by actively responding to what they hear. Smiles, frowns, laughs,
and nodding of heads help the public speaker know the listeners are following what is
being said.
Remember What You Hear: One of the main reasons for learning to be a better listener is
to acquire new information. It is important that you remember what you hear, and this is
done if you have a strong reason to remember it (example: remembering information that
will be on a test).
2.5.6 TEN COMMANDMENTS OF GOOD LISTENING
Communication is the most important skill in life."
-- Stephen Covey, The Seven Habits of Highly Effective People, Simon & Schuster
Listening is a process involving the reception and interpretation of messages spoken by
others. A common misconception about listening is that it is easy. In fact, the opposite is
true. Studies have shown that good listeners show increase in their physical activity when
they are listening to others. Since the effectiveness of communications depends so
heavily on good listening, it is important to develop our listening skills. "The Ten
Commandments of Good Listening" is a good place to start:
1. Stop talking. Obvious, but not easy.
2. Put the speaker at ease. Create a permissive, supportive climate in which the
speaker will feel free to express himself or herself.
3. Show a desire to listen. Act interested and mean it.
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4. Remove distractions. External preoccupation is less likely if nothing external is
present to preoccupy you.
5. Empathize. Try to experience to some degree the feelings the speaker is
experiencing.
6. Be patient. Give the speaker time to finish; don't interrupt.
7. Hold your temper. Don't let your emotions obstruct your thoughts.
8. Go easy on argument and criticism. Suspend judgment.
9. Ask questions. If things are still unclear when a speaker has finished, ask
questions which serve to clarify the intended meanings.
10. Stop talking. In case you missed the first commandment.
(K. Davis, Human Behavior at Work, McGraw Hill, 1972)
Additional listening techniques:
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Preparation. If you know what the topic is ahead of time, learn something about it
so you will not be an ignorant listener. Even some careful thinking will allow you
to listen more accurately when the communication actually begins.
Seek intent. Try to discover the intent of the source; why is he or she saying these
things?
Seek structure. Look for an organizational scheme of the message. If the speaker
is an accomplished one, you won't have to look very hard; it will be obvious. But
if the speaker is less skilled, the responsibility falls on you.
Analyze. Do not accept what you hear at face value; analyze what the speaker is
saying and pay attention to body language.
Focus. Keep the main topic of the message in mind at all times, using it to bring
focus to the information which the speaker supplies.
2. 5. b EXERCISE
Identify some of your bad listening habits and make list of ways you could correct them.
How do you show that you are listening?
What is active listening? Give an example.
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2.6
FEEDBACK
Introduction
Effective feedback is absolutely essential to organizational effectiveness; people
must know where they are and where to go next in terms of expectations and
goals-yours, their own, and the organization.
Feedback taps basic human needs-to improve, to compete, to be accurate; people
want to be competent. Feedback can be reinforcing; if given properly, feedback is
almost always appreciated and motivates people to improve. But for many people,
daily work is like bowling with a curtain placed between them and the pins; they
receive little information. Be aware of the many reasons why people are hesitant
to give feedback; they include fear of causing embarassment, discomfort, fear of
an emotional reaction, and inability to handle the reaction.
It is crucial that we realize how critical feedback can be and overcome our
difficulties; it is very important and can be very rewarding but it requires skill,
understanding, courage, and respect for yourself and others.
THE PURPOSE OF FEEDBACK
For supervisors to improve and make appropriate decisions concerning their behavior and
management practices, they need accurate information about how their employees
currently see them functioning. As in guided missile systems, feedback allows people to
check how "on target" their actions and behaviour are and thus enables them to
modify or correct their actions.
Feedback is communication from others that presents data to a person about what the
others are experiencing and how this is impacting upon them.
Given this feedback, a new awareness is created within the receiver. It is up to the
receiver to decide what he or she learns from the feedback and what he or she chooses to
do with that knowledge.
When giving or receiving feedback, it’s essential to remember that what people are
experiencing does not necessarily make it true that it happened that way. Perceptions
are very important data – but not necessarily reality.
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Characteristics of Effective Feedback
Effective Feedback has most of the following characteristics:
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descriptive (not evaluative)(avoids defensiveness.) By describing one's
own reactions, it leaves the individual fee to use it or not to use it as he
sees fit..
avoid accusations; present data if necessary
describe your own reactions or feelings; describe objective consequences
that have or will occur; focus on behaviour and your own reaction, not on
other individual or his or her attributes
suggest more acceptable alternative; be prepared to discuss additional
alternatives; focus on alternatives
specific rather than general.
focused on behavior not the person. It is important that we refer to what a
person does rather than to what we think he is. Thus we might say that a
person "talked more than anyone else in this meeting" rather than that he
is a "loud-mouth."
It takes into account the needs of both the receiver and giver of feedback.
It should be given to help, not to hurt. We too often give feedback because
it makes us feel better or gives us a psychological advantage.
It is directed toward behavior which the receiver can do something about.
A person gets frustrated when reminded of some shortcoming over which
he has no control.
It is solicited rather than imposed. Feedback is most useful when the
receiver himself has formulated the kind of question which those
observing him can answer or when he actively seeks feedback.
Feedback is useful when well-timed (soon after the behavior-depending,
of course, on the person's readiness to hear it, support available from
others, and so forth). Excellent feedback presented at an inappropriate
time may do more harm than good.
sharing of information, rather than giving advice allows a person to decide
for himself, in accordance with his own goals and needs. When we give
advice we tell him what to do, and to some degree take away his freedom
to do decide for himself.
It involves the amount of information the receiver can use rather than the
amount we would like to give. To overload a person with feedback is to
reduce the possibility that he may be able to use what he receives
effectively. When we give more than can be used, we are more often than
not satisfying some need of our own rather than helping the other person.
It concerns what is said and done, or how, not why. The "why" involves
assumptions regarding motive or intent and this tends to alienate the
person generate resentment, suspicion, and distrust. If we are uncertain of
his motives or intent, this uncertainty itself is feedback, however, and
should be revealed.
It is checked to insure clear communication. One way of doing this is to
have the receiver try to rephrase the feedback. No matter what the intent,
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feedback is often threatening and thus subject to considerable distortion or
misinterpretation.
It is checked to determine degree of agreement from others. Such
"consensual validation" is of value to both the sender and receiver.
It is followed by attention to the consequences of the feedback. The
supervisor needs to become acutely aware of the effects of his feedback.
It is an important step toward authenticity. Constructive feedback opens
the way to a relationship which is built on trust, honesty, and genuine
concern and mutual growth.
Part of the feedback process involves understanding and predicting how the other
person will react. Or in the case of our receiving feedback, we need to understand
ways that we respond to feedback, especially threatening feedback.
People often react negatively to threatening feedback. This reaction can take a
number of forms including:
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selective reception and selective perception
doubting motive of the giver
denying validity of the data
rationalizing
attack the giver of the data
Following the guidelines to effective feedback can go a long way to limit these
kinds of reactions but we need to be conscious of them nonetheless and be ready
to react appropriately.
When we are on the receiving end of feedback we should be careful to avoid these
pitfalls. Try to keep these points in mind.
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try not to be defensive
check on possible misunderstanding ("Let me restate what I am hearing")
gather information from other sources
don't overreact
ask for clarification
2.6.1 GIVING CONSTRUCTIVE FEEDBACK
For feedback to be most useful, it must be presented in such a way that the receiver does
not feel threatened or attacked by the information. Listed below are some guidelines
for giving constructive feedback:
 Direct feedback toward behavior one can do something about, not the person.
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Information about what a person does helps that person make choices about that
behavior. On other hand, assessments about a person’s "personality traits" or
"personal qualities" usually increase their defensiveness. (E.g., “You arrived ten
minutes late” vs. “You’re irresponsible.”)
 Take the needs of the receiver into account first.
Focus the feedback on the value and usefulness it may provide to the receiver rather
than the "release" it provides the giver, i.e., you.
 Make use of “I” Statements to let the receiver know how you perceive, experience
or feel about the behaviour. Avoid “we” or “most people” statements. By saying, “I
get upset when you…,” you help promote a productive dialogue. No one can dispute
that that’s how you feel! Whereas saying “You make me upset” is more likely to lead
to an argument and less communication.
 Focus on what was said and done (actions) rather than why it was said or done
(motives).
Feedback that relates to what, how, when, and where is based on observable events;
while opinions or judgments about the other's motive or intent relates to
interpretations and conclusions drawn from what was observed.
 Make feedback descriptive rather than evaluative and judgmental.
By giving an objective description of what occurred and your reactions to the
situation, you leave the receiver free to use the feedback as he/she sees appropriate.
Being judgmental entails a subjective evaluation of the other based on your personal
values.
 Make feedback specific rather than general and abstract.
Feedback is generally more useful if it can be tied to a specific time, place and action.
It is far more useful to say, “I noticed that you broke in twice while I was speaking
during the meeting” than “You are always interrupting people.” Give examples.
 Share information rather than give advice.
To give advice takes away a person's freedom of choice as well as responsibility for
future actions.
 Be sensitive to timing and selection.
It is important that the giver of feedback be sensitive to both when it is appropriate to
give feedback and how much to give the receiver. The receiver needs to be ready to
hear and deal with the data. Only give an amount a person can use.
 Check whether the receiver understood your feedback.
One way of doing this is to ask the receiver to rephrase the feedback to see if it
corresponds to what the sender had in mind.
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 Request what you’d like them to do differently.
Your request let’s them know exactly what you are asking them to do. They are free
to accept, decline, or counter-propose. You can’t change them, but by asking you
help them see what you think they could do to help the organization.
2.6.2 RECEIVING AND RESPONDING TO FEEDBACK
CONSTRUCTIVELY
 Accept and Manage Your Emotions
Most people tend to react to constructive feedback, especially if it is feedback they
don’t particularly like, with a little surprise or shock, quickly followed by anger and
then rejection or denial. We’re all humans in here! Observe your emotions and give
yourself time to let them move through you. Talk with someone about your feelings,
if that helps you. After denial, we usually shift into acceptance and even
contentment. Don’t try to respond to the feedback giver until your “fight or flight”
response has settled down!
 Reflect on the Feedback
Take time to analyze the feedback and determine what you think it means for you.
 Talk With the Feedback Giver(s)
Talking with the person(s) who gave you feedback is the most important part of the
process. This is because feedback is part of building and maintaining healthy
working relationships. By showing the feedback giver(s) that you care about their
perceptions and needs and that you’re committed to making changes that help them
do their work better, you’ll do a lot to strengthen the trust, respect, and confidence in
your relationship with them.
 Tell the feedback giver(s) that you’d like to discuss their feedback with
them. Set a time and place, and follow through.
 Demonstrate your openness by sharing your feedback results with your
workgroup as well as your interpretation of what the data means to you. This
will help open the lines of communication between you and your workgroup.
 Show them that you are interested in listening to whatever they want to say.
Why managers are often reluctant to provide feedback
As important as feedback is, this critical managerial task remains one of the most
problematic. Many managers would rather have root canal work than provide
feedback to another-especially feedback that might be viewed as critical. Why are
managers so reluctant to provide feedback? The Reasons are many:
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fear of the other person's reaction; people can get very defensive and
emotional when confronted with feedback and many managers are very
fearful of the reaction
the feedback may be based on subjective feeling and the manager may be
unable to give concrete information if the other person questions the basis
for the feedback
the information on which the feedback is based (eg. performance
appraisal) may be a very flawed process and the manager may not totally
trust the information
many managers would prefer being a coach than "playing God."
Other factors get in the way of effective communication or feedback sessions.
Some of these reasons are:
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defensiveness, distorted perceptions, guilt, project, transference,
distortions from the past
misreading of body language, tone
noisy transmission (unreliable messages, inconsistency)
receiver distortion: selective hearing, ignoring non-verbal cues
power struggles
self-fulfilling assupmtions
language-different levels of meaning
managers hesitation to be candid
assumptions-eg. assuming others see situation same as you, has same
feelings as you
distrusted source, erroneous translation, value judgment, state of mind of
two people
Four Responses
Below are four responses to feedback that demonstrate you are listening:
 Paraphrase: After listening carefully to a person, paraphrase or summarize
their ideas in your own words.
 Summarize: Restate in a succinct fashion the information you gathered. This
is used to confirm a shared understanding of what has been said or decided. It
gives a feeling of closure to a conversation.
 Ask Open-ended Questions: Open-ended questions usually begin with words
like: What, Who, Where, When, and How and are difficult to answer with a
simple “yes” or “no” response. E.g., “What do you think about that?” Openended questions indicate your interest in learning more about the issues, ideas,
and reasoning that are important to the feedback giver(s). Avoid asking
“why” type questions that can put a person on the spot, e.g., “Why do you
think that way?”
 Use Silence: Wait for the other person to respond and finish talking. Then
pause rather than respond right away. These pauses are not intended to be
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embarrassing. By not filling the vacuum, you let the other person know you
are listening and are interested in what he/she is saying and that you are
making space for more.
Listen for understanding and information, without thinking about your
response. Avoid countering, judging or evaluating what is being said. “Seek
first to understand, then to be understood” (Stephen R. Covey).
Don’t try to read minds. A lot of our anxiety comes from what we read into
things and not from what people actually say. Your goal is to remain
unaffected by the criticism directed at you so that you can discover what
needs to be done to improve the situation.
Admit ignorance or confusion when you do not understand what is being
said or are somewhat confused. Nothing is gained if you don’t understand
what is being said and do nothing about it. You gain people’s respect by
being “big enough” to admit that you are not quite on top of the conversation.
Avoid getting defensive. If others attack or criticize you or your actions,
calmly acknowledge the possibility that there may be some truth in the
criticism or their point of view. This allows you to receive any criticism
without becoming anxious or defensive. Yet, it still allows you to be the final
judge of what you are going to do next.
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If You Believe You Were In Error, Admit It.
If a problem was caused by you or by something you said or did, admit it and move
on. Don’t get defensive over something that you did or something that did not work
out as you expected. By stating your errors you will be able to recognize and accept
your errors as errors, and once you accept the error, you can move forward, rather
than becoming bogged down in self-criticism. At the same time, don’t be overly
apologetic. Treat it as another learning experience.
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Find Out What Changes On Your Part Would Most Help The Feedback
Giver(s) Be More Effective In Their Work.
Be sure to get clear from the givers exactly what they are asking you to do differently.
If there are several things, ask them which are the most important.
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Consider What Changes You Will Commit To
After you’ve taken in the feedback and become more aware, it’s up to you to choose
what action you will take – if any. You will be more likely to follow through if
 You select only a few changes (up to three)
 You select changes you believe are in the interests of your
 You genuinely want to make them.
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Commit Yourself to Specific Actions by Specific Dates
The most powerful action you can take to strengthen an atmosphere of trust and
confidence in your workgroup is to make your commitment publicly to your
workgroup, and then demonstrate that you have fulfilled it.
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2.6.3 THE JOHARI WINDOW: A MODEL FOR SOLICITING AND
GIVING FEEDBACK
The process of giving and receiving feedback is one of the most important concepts in
training. Through the feedback process, we see ourselves as others see us. Through
feedback, other people also learn how we see them. Feedback gives information to a
person or group either by verbal or nonverbal communication. The information you give
tells others how their behaviour affects you, how you feel, and what you perceive
(feedback and self-disclosure). Feedback is also a reaction by others, usually in terms of
their feelings and perceptions, telling you how your behaviour affects them (receiving
feedback).
A model known as the Johari Window illustrates the process of giving and receiving
feedback. Psychologists Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham developed the window for their
group process program. Look at the model above as a communication window through
which you give and receive information about yourself and others. Look at the four panes
in terms of columns and rows. The two columns represent the self; the two rows represent
the group. Column one contains "things that I know about myself;" column two contains
"things that I do not know about myself." The information in these rows and columns
moves from one pane to another as the level of mutual trust and the exchange of feedback
varies in the group. As a consequence of this movement, the size and shape of the panes
within the window will vary.
The first pane, the "Arena," contains things that I know about myself and about which the
group knows. Characterized by free and open exchanges of information between myself
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and others, this behavior is public and available to everyone. The Arena increases in size
as the level of trust increases between individuals or between an individual and the group.
Individuals share more information, particularly personally relevant information.
The second pane, the "Blind Spot," contains information that I do not know about myself
but of which the group may know. As I begin to participate in the group, I am not aware
of the information I communicate to the group. The people in the group learn this
information from my verbal cues, mannerisms, the way I say things, or the style in which
I relate to others. For instance, I may not know that I always look away from a person
when I talk... or that I always clear my throat just before I say something. The group
learns this from me.
Pane three, the "Facade" or "Hidden Area," contains information that I know about
myself but the group does not know. I keep these things hidden from them. I may fear
that if the group knew my feelings, perceptions, and opinions about the group or the
individuals in the group, they might reject, attack, or hurt me. As a consequence, I
withhold this information. Before taking the risk of telling the group something, I must
know there are supportive elements in our group. I want group members to judge me
positively when I reveal my feelings, thoughts, and reactions. I must reveal something of
myself to find out how members will react. On the other hand, I may keep certain
information to myself so that I can manipulate or control others.
The fourth and last pane, the "Unknown," contains things that neither I nor the group
knows about me. I may never become aware of material buried far below the surface in
my unconscious area. The group and I may learn other material, though, through a
feedback exchange among us. This unknown area represents intrapersonal dynamics,
early childhood memories, latent potentialities, and unrecognized resources. The internal
boundaries of this pane change depending on the amount of feedback sought and
received. Knowing all about myself is extremely unlikely, and the unknown extension in
the model represents the part of me that will always remain unknown (the unconscious in
Freudian terms).
Individual Goals Within a Group
In a small group, each member can work toward an individual goal as well as the group's
goal. For example, let's say that your goal is to decrease the size of your Blind Spot
(window-pane two). In other words, you want to move the vertical line to the right in the
window. The size of the Arena and Facade panes will increase as the size of the Blind
Spot and Unknown panes decreases. The Blind Spot contains information the group
knows about you, but you do not know. The only way you can learn this information is to
seek feedback from the group. If you solicit feedback consistently and remain receptive
to that feedback, the size of your Blind Spot will decrease.
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Suppose you decide to reduce the Facade pane, i.e., move the horizontal line down. This
window contains information you have hidden from the group. You can reduce the size
of this window by telling the group or group members about your perceptions, feelings,
and opinions about things in others and yourself. This feedback tells the group exactly
where you stand; they no longer need to guess about the meaning of your actions. As you
disclose more information about yourself, you decrease the size of your Facade pane.
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The Johari window panes are interdependent. Changing the size to one pane forces the
size of corresponding panes to change also. In the previous examples, when you reduced
the size of the Blind Spot or Facade panes through giving and soliciting feedback, you
increased the size of the Arena pane.
In the process of giving and asking for feedback, you may tend to do much more of one
than the other. This creates an imbalance between giving and asking for feedback. This
imbalance may affect your effectiveness in the group and the group members' reactions to
you. The amount of feedback shared and the ratio of giving versus soliciting feedback
affect the size and shape of the Arena.
Study the four windows below. Each characterizes extreme ratios of soliciting and giving
feedback. Think how a person described in each window might appear to you in a small
group.
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The Ideal Window
The Ideal Window in the first example reflects a high degree of trust in the group or in
any relationship significant to the person. If you are in this window, the size of your
Arena increases because of your increased trust level in the group. The norms developed
by your group for giving and receiving feedback facilitate this kind of exchange. The
large Arena suggests that much of your behavior is open to your group members.
Because of your openness, other group members do not need to interpret (or misinterpret)
or project more personal meanings into your behavior. They understand your actions and
words, and they know you are open to soliciting and giving feedback.
You do not need a large Arena with everyone. Your casual acquaintances may see this
kind of openness as threatening or inappropriate because of the relationship you have
with them. The more open you are in dealing with others, the fewer games you play in
relationships.
The Large Facade Window - The Interviewer
Window number two suggests a person who characteristically participates by asking
questions but not giving information or feedback. If you are in this window, the size of
your Facade relates to the amount of information you provide to others. You may respond
to the group norm to maintain a reasonable level of participation by asking for
information. You intervene by asking questions such as: "What do you think about this?"
"How would you have acted if you were in my shoes?" "How do you feel about what I
just said?" "What is your opinion of the group?" You want to know where other people
stand before you commit yourself. You do not commit yourself to the group, making it
difficult for them to know where you stand on issues. At some point in your group's
history, other members may have confronted you with a statement similar to this one:
"Hey, you are always asking me how I feel about what's going on, but you never tell me
how you feel." This style, characterized as the Interviewer, may eventually evoke
reactions of irritation, distrust, and withholding.
The Blind Spot Window - Bull-in-the-China Shop
Window number three suggests a person who characteristically participates primarily by
giving feedback but soliciting very little. If you are in this window, you tell the group
what you think of them, how you feel about what is going on in the group, and where you
stand on group issues. You may lash out at group members or criticize the group as a
whole and view your actions as being open and above board. For some reason, you either
appear to be insensitive to the feedback you get or do not hear what group members tell
you. Either you may be a poor listener or you may respond to feedback in such a way that
group members are reluctant to continue to give you feedback. Members get angry, cry,
threaten to leave. As a consequence, you do not know how you are coming across to
other people or what impact you have on others. Because you do not correct your actions
when you receive group feedback, you appear out of touch, evasive, or distorted. You
continue to behave ineffectively because of your one-way communication (from you to
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others). Since you are insensitive to the group’s steering function, you do not know what
behaviors to change.
The Unknown Window - The Turtle
The fourth window suggests a person who characteristically participates by observing. If
you are in this window, you do not know much about yourself, nor does the group know
much about you. You may be the silent member in the group who neither gives nor asks
for feedback. The "soliciting" and "giving feedback" arrows are very short. Group
members find it difficult to know where you stand in the group or where they stand with
you. You are the mystery person. You appear to have a shell around you, insulating you
from other group members. If group members confront you about your lack of
participation, you may respond with, "I learn more by listening." While you may find it
painful to participate actively, you will learn considerably more than you would if you
choose to participate passively. Your shell keeps people from getting in and you from
getting out. You will expend a considerable amount of energy maintaining a closed
system because of the pressure which group norms exert on your behavior.
The goal of soliciting feedback and self-disclosure or giving feedback is to move
information from the Blind Spot and the Facade into the Arena, where everyone accesses
it. The process of giving and receiving feedback moves new information from the
Unknown into the Arena. You have an "Aha" experience when you suddenly perceive a
relationship between a here-and-now transaction in the group and a previous event. You
gain insight and inspiration from these experiences.
It takes practice to give nonthreatening feedback. You must develop sensitivity to other
people's needs and be able to put yourself in another person's shoes. Be accepting of
yourself and of others to make your feedback more valuable to others.
2.6. a Let ‘s Check
1. ---------------- model illustrates the process of giving and receiving feedback
2. In Johari model Column one contains "----------------------- about myself “ and two
contains “------------------ about myself."
3. The second pane “------------------," contains information that I do not know about
myself but of which the group may know.
4. The Ideal Window has a high degree of ------------ in the group
5. The four panes in Johari model are -------- -------- ------- ---------.
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2.7 Conducting Effective Interviews
The job interview has been defined as a conversation with a purpose. Job interviews are
used to further evaluate candidates referred for selection. It is normally a one-on-one
meeting between the selecting official and the candidates. A job interview provides a
valuable opportunity for you and the candidate to learn more about each other. Learning
more about candidates will enable you to predict more accurately how each candidate
might perform in the specific position to be filled. Candidates also have a right to learn
about the job for which they are interviewed. You can get the most from the interview by
carefully planning in advance what you want to learn from candidates as well as what
they will need to learn from you.
2.7.1 Planning the Interview
Interviews can be structured in different ways. The structure determines what kind of
planning you ought to put in and what kind of results you can expect.
There are seven critical areas to focus on before meeting with the candidate:
1. What the Job Requires
o Define the job and what qualifications are required.
o Identify the essential duties and responsibilities of the position and any
working conditions that have a significant impact on the performance of
those duties and responsibilities.
o Prepare to discuss the job briefly, in terms that the candidate can readily
understand, remembering that the candidate is also making an employment
decision.
2. Information You Need From the Candidate to Predict His or Her Success in the
Job
o Develop a limited set of specific questions pertaining to the essential
duties and responsibilities of the position to probe for the candidate's
strengths and weaknesses.
3. Outline the Interview Process
o Include the basic elements discussed in the Conducting the Interview
section. This will provide you with a framework for interviewing all
candidates on a consistent basis and ensure that all important areas have
been covered. It will also make it easier for you to observe and assess each
candidate and keep the discussion to the point. This plan can be modified
as the conversation progresses.
o Preparation, combined with a review of the candidate's application and/or
resume, demonstrates that you have looked at the information the
candidate supplied. This can be encouraging to the candidate and can
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4.
5.
6.
7.
assist in establishing rapport. Notify co-workers that you are not to be
interrupted for matters that can wait until after the interview. Your focus
and attention is centered on the interview.
Record and Summarize Observations about Each Candidate
o Develop a form or standardized format to use in the interview.
Schedule Interviews
o Enough time should be scheduled with each candidate to allow for a
relaxed, unhurried interview. Whether or not you have a Personnel Office
to assist you, it is your responsibility to see that all the steps in the
interview process are carried out within a sufficient time period.
o Do not schedule too many interviews for one day.
o Do not take weeks to conduct interviews that can be handled in a few
days.
o Consider the location of the interview site, its accessibility to candidates
with disabilities and the distance a candidate will have to travel. Make
arrangements for a meeting room to conduct the interviews, if needed.
o Consider days of religious observance that might affect a candidate's
availability.
o Arrange for any reasonable accommodations that are requested by
candidates.
o Develop a schedule that does not adversely affect your other office
responsibilities.
o Notify co-workers that you are not to be interrupted for matters that can
wait until after the interview. Your focus and attention is centered on the
interview.
Notify the Candidate
o Typically, the Office of Human Resources telephones the candidate to
invite him or her to an interview. The invitation should include the
following information:
 Title of the position and the salary offered.
 Status of the position (permanent, temporary, etc.).
 Time, location of the interview and directions.
 Name of the interviewer.
 Where the candidate should report.
 Any information required at or prior to the interview, such as a
resume or samples of prior work products.
 Notification that it is your agency's policy to provide reasonable
accommodation to people with disabilities to effectively participate
in the interview process and directions for requesting a reasonable
accommodation, as required by the Americans with Disabilities
Act.
 Procedures for cancellation (if necessary) and rescheduling,
including the telephone number of the contact person.
 Consequences of not responding or failure to appear for the
interview.
Review the Candidate's Application, Resume or Other Related Material
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o
Typically, the Office of Human Resources will:
 Review all candidate materials before the interview.
 Provide blank personal history/interview forms to the candidates
before the interview, if necessary.
 When reviewing personal history forms, it is important to note:
 Vagueness about employment history--i.e., starting and
ending dates, duties and titles.
 Insufficient responses to questions/items.
 Inconsistencies or gaps in employment/education
background.
 Reasons for leaving the previous job (if appropriate).
 Spelling and/or vocabulary errors.
 Incorrect interpretation of instructions.
 When reviewing resumes, look for:
 Work and education experience from which you can
develop evaluative questions.
 What the individual considers important in his/her
background, which may enable you to better understand the
candidate's personality and goals.
 How the candidate may have prepared the resume to show
him or herself in the best possible light.
2.7.2 Conducting the Interview
Approach each interview in a positive frame of mind remembering that, although you are
a prospective employer, you are also a salesperson for your organisation and the job you
want to fill.
As you are evaluating the candidate, the candidate is also evaluating the position and you
as a potential Supervisor. Be cognizant of keeping on schedule; leaving a candidate
waiting for a long time is very rude and discourteous. Remember your behavior during
this interview reflects directly on you and your organisation.
Interviews have three basic stages: an opening, a body and a close. Let us examine each
of these stages in detail.
The Six-Step Interview Plan for Opening
The following is a six-step approach to interviewing that can be modified to fit your own
particular needs and circumstances.
1. Introduction - Introduce yourself and greet the candidate with a handshake and a
friendly smile. The more nervous a candidate is, the more important it is that you
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2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
make an attempt to put him or her at ease. You should offer the candidate a glass
of water before beginning the interview Use "small talk" to break the ice.
Review the Application - Go over the information supplied on the application
and/or resume, and ask the candidate to elaborate on his/her previous job
responsibilities or special projects. The nature, direction and enthusiasm of the
candidate's responses can provide you with valuable insight into the candidate's
communication skills. These responses may also give you an indication about
what the candidate finds interesting or challenging, and how he or she is likely to
fit into the particular job.
Describe the Job - Provide a written job description (or class standard) to the
candidate, and summarize or review the major job responsibilities. Describe the
position in terms of the organization's structure, also mentioning the individuals
he/she will be working with, and a brief description of their positions. You might
find it helpful to work from a checklist of essential job elements, responsibilities
and requirements that you can review with each candidate. The key consideration
is that all candidates are left with basically the same impression of what the job is
and requires.
For example, a certain job might require the employee to travel overnight from
time to time. Some candidates may regard this as a hardship while others see it as
a benefit. You should describe the requirement as precisely as possible in terms of
how often and where the prospective employee is likely to travel. Avoid
describing the requirement in subjective terms such as "extensive" or "occasional"
or "long distance" and so forth. These are subjective assessments, which, in this
case, are best left to the individual to make.
Candidate Self-Assessment - Encourage the candidate to assess him or herself
against the job. In order to obtain as much information as possible regarding the
candidate in relation to the job, encourage responses with open-ended questions
such as, "How do you see yourself in relation to this job?" or "What contributions
do you think you can make to the work of this agency?" Avoid asking a
candidate, "Do you think you can do the job?" Encouraging an open-ended
assessment of this type will also provide you with feedback on how well you have
described the job and its requirements.
Candidate Clarification - Ask the candidate if he or she has any questions about
the job requirements, working conditions, prospective co-workers, supervisors,
subordinates or other considerations. Let the candidate know that you and the
Personnel Office will be available to answer any question that might arise after
the interview.
Closing - Finally, close the interview by explaining what happens next in the
hiring process and thank the candidate for his or her time. If appropriate, explain
that once the hiring decision has been made, job offers may be conditioned on
favorable results of any necessary professional and/or physical examinations or
successful completion of academic requirements.
Avoid stating any type of appointment commitment, even when you are in a
position to guarantee it. Beyond the obvious inherent unfairness to other
candidates yet to be interviewed, reference checks or agency hiring limitations
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may cause you to reverse your decision, thereby creating a difficult or
embarrassing situation and/or leading to litigation. Typically, the Personnel Office
will make the job offer.
If the candidate indicates that he or she has already received another job offer and
will be forced to accept that offer unless you make a decision immediately,
explain to the candidate that you are unable to make a commitment until all the
interviews have been completed. You should inform the candidate when you
expect to be making your final decision.
2.7.3 Body: Controlling the Interview
The Six-Step Interview Plan provides a good framework for conducting effective and
consistent employment interviews. However, in order for it to help you obtain the
information you need to make a sound employment decision, you must have control over
the interview. Establishing and maintaining control of the interview requires effective
listening combined with good questioning techniques.
The key to effective listening is for you to do minimal talking during the interview. After
establishing rapport and describing the job and its requirements to the candidate, let the
candidate do most of the talking.
It is important that you pay attention to the candidate. Do not let your mind wander or
think ahead to the next question instead of listening to what the candidate is saying.
Occasionally, restating a candidate's reply or observation in your own words may be
useful.
As noted previously, it is always a good technique to ask questions that require more than
a simple "yes" or "no" answer. Your questioning should encourage the candidate to
communicate information that will shed light on his or her capability to perform the job
effectively. Phrase some of your questions in terms of "who, what, why, when, where and
how."
Topics to Cover
Attempt to gain knowledge about the candidate's career growth, stability, achievement,
interpersonal skills and interest in the position. Examine the following areas:


Work Experience--Compare the duties and responsibilities, supervision and the
candidate's likes and dislikes of past and present positions with the position you
are seeking to fill. Question the candidate on his or her progress and salary
increases. Also find out the candidate's reasons for leaving a past or current job.
Relevance of Education--A person's educational choices can reveal important
aspects of his or her personality, motivation, character and interests. Key areas
include: subjects studied, academic performance, class offices held, night school
attendance and work experience while in school.
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

Outside Interests--Because a candidate has the freedom to choose leisure
activities, when relevant to the job, outside interests, such as organization and
association memberships, and volunteer work, may be revealing.
Sensitive Topics--There may be situations in which you will have to ask sensitive
questions or probe for more factual information, even though this may make the
candidate uncomfortable.. As long as the topic is job related and within
permissible parameters, do not hesitate to try to find out what you need to know to
make a hiring decision. If the candidate seems upset by this, explain that a fair
evaluation depends on clarification of all issues that have a relationship to the job.
Note Taking
Unobtrusive note taking during the interview is necessary to have a record of the
information gathered that you can refer to later. Inform the candidate at the beginning of
the interview that you will be taking notes so that he or she does not perceive it as a threat
or distraction.
Interviewing Techniques
The following techniques will help you conduct a successful interview:




Pay Attention/Listen - Effective listening cannot be stressed enough. However,
be aware that you may be revealing your immediate impression of the candidate
through your gestures, expressions and actions. Be certain not to let negative
reactions become obvious to the candidate.
Echoing - Echoing can be used to encourage a candidate to elaborate on a topic. It
is useful because you get additional information without asking direct or probing
questions. For instance, the candidate has just said, "I didn't like the work." You
echo with the words "didn't like the work?" and the candidate knows that you
want more information on this matter. The echo technique avoids the appearance
of a cross-examination; it prods the candidate into disclosing more specific
information without making him or her uncomfortable.
Level of Language - Use language appropriate for the position for which you are
interviewing; don't talk above or below a candidate's comprehension level.
Handling "Problem" Candidates - Occasionally, a candidate can present
problems during the interview. Try to keep the candidate on track. For example,
do not let a talkative applicant waste time going off on a tangent. If a candidate
evades an important question, be sure to ask the question again to elicit an
appropriate response. If a candidate becomes nervous and freezes up, try some
"small talk" to put the candidate at ease. Some candidates may be overly prepared
or confident and have rehearsed responses to most of your questions. In this case,
try direct, probing questions to obtain more information from them.
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2.7.4 Closing: Post Interview
The post-interview process should consist, at a minimum, of the five following elements:
1. Record Your Observations - Immediately after each interview, take time to
summarize the observations made during the course of the interview. How well
did the candidate compare with your concept of the ideal person for the job? In
what specific ways did he or she fail to measure up? What were your overall
impressions of the candidate? How would you rate the candidate against each of
the critical job factors?
Note your observations right away, so you can assess each candidate more
objectively against the requirements of the job and not subjectively against the
preceding or succeeding candidates.
2. Narrow the Field - After you have interviewed all the scheduled candidates and
before you make your final hiring decision, narrow the field to those you would
consider hiring for the position. Don't center all consideration around one person
and exclude all others from contention, because if your first choice turns down the
position, you may have trouble remembering the merits of the other candidates.
3. Check References - Begin with your first choice and check the references the
candidate provided. References from former employers may be helpful in finding
out about the candidate's work habits and personal characteristics. Note, however,
that many employers today are hesitant to share too much information about a
former employee. In fact, some employers will provide no information other than
verification that the candidate previously worked for them.
Inform the candidate beforehand that you will be checking references. Ask for at
least two professional references and, if necessary, secure his or her written
consent. This may make it easier for former employers and school officials to
release information. Unless this is the candidate's first job, you should do a
reference check with at least one recent former employer. Check this reference
first.
Be prepared to ask probing questions about the candidate. However, if the
employer tells you that the candidate has had some work-related problems, do not
automatically exclude the candidate from your list of possible hirers. Many good
employees have occasional job difficulties that are not completely of their own
making which resolve themselves once the employees are able to change job
environments. Nonetheless, be concerned about a candidate who has experienced
one employment problem after another.
Following are some general questions you might ask, depending on the
information you are seeking on an individual's past employment:
o How long have you known the candidate? In what relationship/capacity?
o What was the candidate's position? To whom did he or she report?
o What were the candidate's responsibilities? Scope?
o How did the candidate get along with superiors, peers and subordinates?
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o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Describe the candidate's attitudes and other personality factors.
What were some of the candidate's outstanding accomplishments?
How effective was the candidate in terms of quantity and quality of work?
How creative was the candidate? How much initiative did he or she
display? Motivation level? Resourcefulness?
Describe the candidate's leadership ability and responsibility levels.
What were the candidate's strengths? Aptitudes? Weaknesses?
How well does the candidate express him or herself orally? In writing?
Did the candidate meet deadlines?
What was the candidate's salary? Did he or she receive any bonuses?
Why did the candidate leave?
Would you rehire the candidate? (This is probably one of the most
important questions to ask, if it is answered honestly.)
Do you feel that the candidate can work effectively?
Carefully assess each reference given. Be aware of employers who speak too
favorably or use faint praise to avoid giving a negative response about a
candidate. Conflicting references will have to be evaluated in terms of their
relative context.
4. Make The Hiring Decision - Review all the information you have obtained on
the candidates. Consider the following factors in arriving at your final decision:
o Ability to do the work.
o Interest in doing the job.
o Potential for growth.
o Ability to adjust to the job environment.
After careful thought, make the decision to hire or not to hire. A valid selection
occurs when the "merit and fitness" of the candidate are the primary determining
factors in the decision. Inform the Personnel Officer of your choice.
5. Notify Selected Candidate - Follow organisational procedures with respect to
notifying selected candidates. Typically, the Personnel Office notifies the selected
candidate by telephone to ensure that he or she is willing and able to accept
appointment, and follows up with a written confirmation. Generally, such
notification should be made within five business days following the interview and
include the following information:
o Full particulars on the position including title, grade, pay, location of
employment, its nature and duration, starting date, where to report and any
necessary information about living and working conditions.
o Instructions for submitting any documents desired before reporting to
work such as proof of veteran's status, college transcripts, licenses or other
forms.
o Any conditions the selected candidate will be required to fulfill after
reporting to work such as a probationary period or further investigations.
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If a candidate declines the job offer, the Personnel Officer or the interviewer
should secure a written declination from a candidate who refuses an offer of
employment. See the next section for guidance in preparing this document.
6. Notify Unselected Candidates - Good personnel practice, common courtesy is
to inform candidates not selected of your decision and thank them for their
interest. When possible, each candidate should be sent a personal letter. When
large numbers are involved, a form letter may be sent.
After all candidates have been notified, the interview process is concluded.
Documents
Declinations
If a candidate declines a job offer, the Personnel Officer or the interviewer should
document this in the personnel record and indicate the reason. A written statement
including the specific title, location of the position and reason for the declination should
be sent to the candidate to confirm the declination. The candidate should be instructed to
notify the Personnel Officer if any of the information is incorrect.
Selection Memo
The selection memo substantiates the selection decision. It is prepared by the person
responsible for filling the position and is retained in the Personnel Office. The selection
write-up must demonstrate that the selected candidate is the best candidate to perform the
duties of the position in question. The relationship between the candidate's knowledge,
skills and abilities and the duties and responsibilities of the position should be clearly
explained. In preparing the selection memo, incorporate the selection criteria that were
established for the position. Also include information from the application, resume, job
analysis, interview, references and/or any other criteria established during the selection
process.
Documentation to Retain
During the interview process, a large amount of information is typically collected.
Following is a list of items that should be retained:






Application forms and/or resumes for each applicant.
Date, time and place.
Name, address and job title of the interviewer(s).
Questions and responses for each applicant.
Description of the interview format, interview guides, rating scales, etc.
Access to Interview Records.
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2.6.5 Sample Interviewing Questions

















What were/are your last/present job duties?
Could you describe a typical day at your past/present job?
What attracted you to this type of work?
What aspects of the job were challenging?
What aspects of the job gave you the most trouble? Why?
If you had it to do all over again, would you still go into the same kind of work?
Why? Why not?
How do you feel about the progress you made?
Why did you decide to make a change?
What might be the toughest aspects of the job if you were to accept the position?
What will be the most enjoyable aspects? The least enjoyable?
What do you think your greatest contribution to the job will be? Where and how
do you think you would be able to make your greatest contribution?
What do you feel were your most significant accomplishments on the job?
Which of your accomplishments in your past/present position are you most
proud?
What personal accomplishments and attributes make you the proudest?
What are your goals in your present position for the next one, two and three
years?
What would you have liked to accomplish in your present position that you were
not able to? What prevented you from accomplishing these goals?
What made you decide on majoring in that particular field?
Were there any accomplishments you felt particularly proud of at school?
For Recent College Graduates




How did you feel about the college you attended?
To what extent did it live up to your expectations?
What made you decide on majoring in that particular field?
Were there any accomplishments you felt particularly proud of at school?
2.6.6 Check Sheet
Planning the Interview





Know the job.
Identify the information you will need from each candidate.
Outline the interview as you would like it to proceed and consider the following
topics to be covered during the interview:
o work experience
o education
o outside interests
Develop a form or standardized format to use during the interview.
Schedule the interviews.
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

Send written notification to the candidates.
Review candidates' personal history forms/resumes.
Conducting the Interview






Introduce yourself and try to make the candidate feel at ease.
Review the candidate's application/resume with the candidate.
Describe the job/position.
Ask candidate for self-assessment.
Provide clarification for candidate.
Explain to candidate what happens next and then close the interviews.
Post-interview





Record your observations.
Narrow the field to possible candidates you might hire.
Check references of these candidates.
Make the hiring decision.
Notify the selected candidate and then the unselected candidates.
2.7 Strategies to Attend Interviews
Interviews provide an opportunity to turn a job possibility into a job offer. Preparation
will give you the confidence you need to perform well during your interviews.
Interviewing provides you with an opportunity to explain, in your own words, the ways in
which your experiences, knowledge, skills, and aspirations combine to make you a
desirable candidate for a given position and organization. Additionally, the interview
setting allows you to demonstrate your interpersonal skills, professionalism, and personal
style. While most people claim (in resumes and cover letters) to possess interpersonal or
communication skills, interviews provide you with the opportunity to actually
demonstrate such skills. Another benefit of interviewing is the in-depth research you can
perform on an organization as you prepare for and participate in different interviews.
General Purposes of Interviews
While there are many types of interviews, it is safe to say that the general purposes of an
interview are to:
Get to know you on a personal level
Learn more about your qualifications
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Allow for the gathering of information relevant to organizational needs
Provide additional information on the position and organization
Assist the organization in identifying the applicant who should receive a job offer.
The key element to successful interviewing is not your experience, your grades, what
classes you took, your extracurricular activities, or any of the other basic necessities.
Those skills are what got you the interview. The key element to successful interviewing
can be summed up in one word: attitude. If you want to rise above others with better
experience, better grades, or better anything, you will need to work on developing a
highly positive work attitude.
Your attitude determines whether you will be selected or not. There are plenty of
competitors with the ability to do almost any given job-- especially at the entry level. The
way most employers differentiate at the entry level is by candidates' attitudes toward the
job. Your attitude is often what recruiters will remember when settled after reviewing
ten, twenty, or even one hundred candidates--the one who was sincerely willing to put
forth his/her very best effort. If you have the attitude of wanting to do your very best for
the company, of being focused on the company's needs, of putting yourself forth as the
person who will be committed and dedicated to fulfilling their needs, you will likely be
the one chosen.
Job interview strategies that focus only on the interview itself will not get you hired. You
must use strategies that cover the entire process. These activities can be divided into three
phases:
(1) actions you should take before the interview;
(2) actions you should take during the interview; and
(3) actions you should take after the interview.
"One important key to success is self-confidence. One important key to selfconfidence is preparation."
(Arthur Ashe)
Preparation is the vital ingredient of all three phases of the interview process.
What you do BEFORE the interview will have a powerful impact
on how well you perform DURING the interview.
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2.7.1 PRE-INTERVIEW STRATEGY #1: Find work you will love doing.
Know About Yourself
 What kind of work are you seeking? (“I’m flexible” or “whatever relates to my
major” is not specific enough)
 What are your interests, motivations and passions? Don’t discount the things you love
as variables when considering career possibilities. They can sometimes be a key into
finding a truly meaningful career.
 What skills do you like to use and hope to develop further? Remember, just because
you have a skill doesn’t mean you want or need to use it.
 What do you value? Is it money? Work-life balance? Being able to make a
difference? Choose occupations and organizations accordingly.
 In what kind of work environment would you be most comfortable? Spend some time
thinking about the type of workplace you’d enjoy. In an office setting? Outdoors?
Very structured and organized? Constant public contact and interaction? Wearing a
suit every day? These can be very significant in determining your happiness in a
position.
Find out what you are interested in and what occupations match your interests, skills,
desires and even your personality type. You can do this through career aptitude tests,
personality tests, surveys and so forth.
Do You Know What Employers Want?
Many employers say that the vast majority of people they interview cannot adequately
define the skills they have to do the job or articulate how they have demonstrated these
competencies. In general, employers look for evidence of:Communication Skills
(verbal/written) Motivation/Initiative/Drive to Succeed
Teamwork Leadership
Interpersonal Skills/Friendly Academic Credentials/Active Learning
Planning/Organizing Analytical/Problem Solving Skills
Well mannered/Polite Honesty/Integrity/Work Ethic
This is the most important strategy you can implement, because it affects all other jobhunting actions that follow.
PRE-INTERVIEW STRATEGY #2: Research the company.
Most companies have web sites these days. Check them out. Do a search for articles and
news stories about the company.
(1) The company's reputation. Is this a company you'd be proud to name as your
employer?
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(2) The company's benefits. Salary isn't everything, and sometimes you won't know
what it is until you are hired and negotiate an amount. But most companies will tell you
about the other benefits they offer, such as pension plans, vacation and sick leave, health
care programs and so forth.
(3) The company's mission, vision and goals. Find out as much as you can about what
the company does and how it does it. Search the Internet to see if the company has issued
any press releases recently, and read them. Knowledge is power, and in this case, the
more you know about the company, the better off you'll be at the interview. You will
stand out among the candidates -- whoever interviews you will be impressed that you
took the initiative to do this, because most job seekers do not.
PRE-INTERVIEW STRATEGY #3: Study the job description carefully and make
sure your application and/or resume compliments what the company is looking for.
You should not have a generic resume that you submit for all job openings. You want
one that matches your talents and skills to those desired by the company for that job. In
other words, if the job announcement makes it clear that someone with strong accounting
skills is needed, be sure to highlight any accounting or bookkeeping duties you've done in
the past, even if they were a relatively minor aspect of your previous jobs. Don't spend
valuable space on your resume and application on skills they are not interested in.
Instead, emphasize how well you fit their idea of the best-qualified candidate for that job
The competencies employers want in candidates can be developed in various ways and
fall into three general categories:
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Transferable Skills: abilities that are used and needed in a variety of jobs; skills that
transfer from one environment to another. These refer to our ability to effectively
work with people, information (data) and things. Transferable skills may be
developed in the classroom (i.e. research and writing), through extracurricular
activities (i.e. leadership and interpersonal), or a host of other activities.
Adaptive Skills: personality traits, behaviors, attitudes that allow a person to accept
and adjust to the physical, interpersonal and organizational conditions of a job. Many
of these may be innate to some, but they can be developed and honed through
activities, internships, volunteer work, etc.
Job Specific Skills: knowledge and abilities that enable a person to perform specific
tasks associated with a particular job. These skills are frequently developed through
jobs and internships directly related to your career goal. Review the list on the
previous page of competencies employers want. Make your application to
complement what the company is looking for..
.
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PRE-INTERVIEW STRATEGY #4: Prepare for questions that will be asked during
the interview.
By studying the job announcement, you should have a fair idea of what kinds of
questions you will be asked. Some questions are generic in nature and fairly standard for
most interviews, while others are specifically related to the position you hope to fill. Put
yourself in the hiring person's shoes... what would YOU want to know about potential
candidates? What kinds of questions would YOU ask to determine who would be best for
the position and the company?
A list of possible questions and sample answers is provided in different books and
websites. Review this, but develop your own list of potential questions based on the
position, and practice your answers. Also be aware that unexpected questions may be
asked. Don't become flustered if this happens. Just remain calm, take a deep breath, and
think before answering.
PRE-INTERVIEW STRATEGY #5: Prepare questions you will ask during the
interview.
Yes, in addition to ANSWERING questions, you should ASK some. This opportunity
usually comes at the end of the interview, when their final question is, "Do you have any
questions for us?" Of course you do! Most job seekers do NOT have questions, so here's
another opportunity for you to set yourself apart from those other candidates.
Come up with a few of your own questions, based either on the research you've
conducted about the company or specifics about the position for which you are applying.
Even rather generic questions such as, "What do you like best about working here?" are
good. (If is is an interview panel, make sure the person you direct this question to actually
works for the company. Some companies, particularly public agencies, get people from
other agencies to assist with interview panels.)
PRE-INTERVIEW STRATEGY #6: Visit the interview location a day or so before
your interview.
There's nothing more stressful than getting lost and being late for your interview. Before
the interview date, find out exactly where you'll be going, where you will park, and how
long it takes you to get there (consider the time of day and traffic impact). This dry-run
will ensure you'll be there right on time when it counts.
PRE-INTERVIEW STRATEGY #7: Plan what to wear to your interview.
Yes, this seems like common sense. But some people don't think about what they're going
to wear until the morning of the interview. Then they scramble to find something that's
appropriate and clean. Imagine putting on that rarely used suit an hour before your
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interview and discovering that it no longer fits! Plan your outfit in advance, try it on to
make sure it fits well, and get it cleaned and pressed if necessary.
When deciding what to wear, think "conservative business attire." Even if you are
interviewing for a field job in which you'll wear jeans those clothes are not appropriate
for the interview. It's always better to dress "up" than to dress "down." The key is to look
professional.
Here are some preparation tips:(1) Think about your hair in advance and make sure it's as
ready for the interview as your clothes. Do you need a haircut or touch-up on the color?
(2) Do not plan to wear perfume . Having no noticeable scent is better than turning your
interviewer off by wearing too much perfume. It’s safest to wear no scent at all. (3)
Women, if you decide on a dress or skirt, make sure it's not too short. Be conservative,
remember? (4) Same goes for shoes... chose a pair that are stylish, but conservative and
comfortable. Make sure they're clean and/or shined.
PRE-INTERVIEW STRATEGY #8: Plan what to bring to your interview.
At a minimum, bring a few extra copies of your application and/or resume. If you have
letters of recommendation, bring copies of those, as well. If you don't have any letters of
recommendation but have time to obtain some from your past employers or character
references, do so -- even if you have to speed things up by writing them yourself and then
getting permission from your references to sign their name to them. Having letters of
recommendation ready to hand out at the interview will give you another leg up on your
competition, and make you stand out among many applicants.
If appropriate for the position, considering bringing a portfolio with examples of work
you've done. In all likelihood, there won't be time for you to show your work during the
interview. But perhaps you can leave your portfolio and pick it up later, or provide
copies. To summarise
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

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Have directions to the interview and allow plenty of time for travel and parking.
Arrive between 10-15 minutes early.
Bring extra copies of your resume, your reference list, a good quality pen or pencil
and a notepad.
Consider bringing work samples that demonstrate your skills and abilities.
Know the name and title of the person you are meeting.
Research the company and the position; know what qualities the employer requires.
Practice answering questions and have a list of questions to ask the employer.
Be prepared to answer tough questions.
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Job Interviews: Employ These Srategies
Job interviews can be, but only if you are unprepared. If you follow the PREINTERVIEW STRATEGIES, you will be more confident, professional, and less
nervous than the other candidates.
During your job interviews, you will be enthusiastic, likeable, determined, and informed.
These traits are all more important than your job qualifications. Because you know this
and are well prepared, you will blow away your competition!
2.7.3 DURING-INTERVIEW STRATEGY #1: Arrive early.
Job interviews require punctuality; arrive early. Yes, this is a "common sense" strategy
that you should already know. But you'd be amazed at how many candidates show up late
for their interviews! Talk about a negative first impression! Plan to arrive at least 15
minutes prior to your interview time. Use that 15 minutes to relax and mentally prepare.
If something unavoidable happens and you absolutely can't make it on time, call
BEFORE your scheduled time and explain your situation. Be honest, courteous, and
apologetic (even if it wasn't your fault). Then ask for another time.
DURING-INTERVIEW STRATEGY #2: Make your introduction and greeting
memorable.
Job interviews can involve dozens of candidates over the course of several days. You
need to stand out from the others and be remembered! So make your introduction and
greeting more memorable than most. Do this with everyone you are introduced to,
including the receptionist or Human Resources person who meets you prior to the
interview: Smile, make eye contact, and shake hands.
Make your smile genuine, and don't be afraid to show some teeth. You are very happy to
be there, right?
Make eye contact . Continue to make eye contact throughout the interview process. This
is very important, because failing to make eye contact or constantly looking away creates
the impression that you are hiding something or not being honest.
Shake hands "properly." If you have sweaty palms (which is only natural, even if you
ARE well prepared), try to wipe them off before shaking hands. Perhaps you could keep
a handkerchief or tissue in your pocket or purse for this purpose. Then extend your hand
to the person you meet, whether they've extended theirs or not. When you shake hands,
match the strength of your grip to theirs. Don't forget to make eye contact. Release
after a couple of shakes.
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Speak aloud the name of the person you are introduced to. You can add "Nice to meet
you" before or after their name. Everyone likes to hear their own name. Plus saying their
name will show that you are paying attention, and it will help you to remember it.
Job interviews require you to make a powerful, positive first impression. Do this by
smiling, making eye contact, shaking hands and saying their name. Your first impression
will be a lasting one.
DURING-INTERVIEW STRATEGY #3: Use body language that shows you are
enthusiastic, confident, and comfortable with the interview process.
Job interviews can seem like intimidating situations, but as the old saying goes, "Never
let 'em see you sweat." Walk into the room in a manner that exudes confidence and
control. Not timid, but also not rushed. Just like you're walking up to greet a friend.
After the greetings (discussed under Strategy #2), sit when and where they indicate. (I use
the term "they" because many interviews are conducted by a panel of 3-5 people instead
of just one person. But these strategies will apply no matter how many people are
interviewing you.) Sit properly. This means showing good posture, sitting up straight and
looking attentive. Do not slouch or lean way back and clasp your hands behind your head
to indicate how "comfortable" you are! Do sit comfortably (you may be there a while)
and don't sit on the edge of the chair as if you're eager to run away.
Job interviews can involve a panel of people asking you questions. If there is more than
one person asking questions, face that person and make eye contact when you answer
them. But then extend your eye contact to everyone in the room if your answer is longer
than a few seconds. You're speaking to all of them, not just the person who asked the
question.
Remember to smile!
DURING-INTERVIEW STRATEGY #4: Be yourself, but only up to a point.
Let your personality show, but don't overdo it. Match your demeanor to that of the
interviewers. For instance, if they joke around a bit to break the ice, go with it but don't
laugh insincerely. Don't tell any jokes yourself. If you have a sense of humor and you've
deduced that the interviewers do, too, you can use this in some of your answers (to a
certain extent and when appropriate). You want to present yourself as a serious
professional but also someone who easily gets along with others and is a pleasure to work
with. You want to be likeable but never phony.
Also, you want to exude confidence but never arrogance.
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DURING-INTERVIEW STRATEGY #5: Answer questions clearly and confidently.
Because you've prepared in advance and anticipated many of the questions, your answers
should be clear, concise and confident. Do not mumble or speak in a voice too quiet to be
heard. You don't want the interviewer to ask you to speak up or repeat your answer.
Do not ramble. Give enough detail to sufficiently answer the question and then stop
talking.
One of the great advantages of anticipating questions and practicing your answers in
advance is that you can "edit" them before the actual interview. Many companies limit
the interview time to 20 minutes or less. You want your answers to be short, focused and
to the point. If you're not sure you've given enough information, simply ask, "Did I
answer that sufficiently for you, or would you like more details?"
DURING-INTERVIEW STRATEGY #6: After answering their questions, ask some
yourself.
Remember those questions you thought of during your PRE-INTERVIEW
STRATEGIES phase? When the interview starts to wind down and they ask if you have
any questions for them, be sure to speak up. In addition to the questions you thought of in
advance, you might have a few based on how the interview went. If you want
clarification about the job or the hiring process, ask now. Do not ask questions related to
salary, vacation time, etc. Save those for after they offer you the job.
Your last comment should be that you feel you would be a good asset for the company
and you definitely want the job. Don't forget this!
DURING-INTERVIEW STRATEGY #7: Exit gracefully.
When it's clear that the interview is over, hand out copies of your letters of
recommendation (if you haven't already done so) and any other portfolio items. Shake
hands again and thank your interviewers for their time and the opportunity to interview
for the position. If you remember the names, say them as you thank them. Leave the
room (don't forget your purse or brief case!) and breathe a big sigh of relief, knowing that
you did an excellent job!
Job Interview Strategies You Use AFTER the Interview Can Make the Difference!
Job interview strategies don't end when the interview does!
2.7.4 POST-INTERVIEW STRATEGY #1: Immediately send a Thank-You Letter.
Write a thank-you letter as soon as you get home from the interview. You'll use it for
several purposes:
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(1) To re-emphasize that you really want the job. This is assuming, of course, that you
do want the job. If, after the interview, you don't think it's the right job for you, don't
bother sending a thank-you letter.
(2) To provide further explanation of something discussed at the interview. For
example, if there was some discussion of your leadership skills but you forget to mention
a great example from a previous job, put this in your letter.
(3) To say thank you. You really should be thankful. There may have been dozens (or
even hundreds) of applicants for that position. Even though your qualifications are what
got you the interview, be humble and appreciate the opportunity you were given to show
them in person what a wonderful asset to the company you will make!
(4) To take another opportunity to make yourself shine in comparison to the other
candidates. A short thank-you letter can be written in less than 30 minutes, but only a
small percentage of job seekers actually bother doing this. So by sending this letter, you
will create another favorable impression that sets you above the rest.
If you're not sure who to address the letter to, call the Human Resources person who
scheduled your interview. Get the names (and spelling) and mailing address of whoever
conducted the interview.
Your letter can be handwritten, but I'd only recommend this if you have wonderful
handwriting. If in doubt, do it on a computer.
It's better to send it as a regular letter through the mail than to do it by e-mail. People get
so much email these days they may ignore yours. As email becomes more popular, real
letters become rarer, and thus more special. A letter will get their attention when an email
message may not. But send your letter as soon as possible. You want it to arrive before
they've made their final decision.
POST-INTERVIEW STRATEGY #2: Don't be shy about making follow-up calls.
It's often sad but true that many companies take forever to fill a position, and keeping
applicants informed of the process is a low priority for them. They may tell you after the
interview that they'll make a decision within two or three days, and let you know either
way. Hah! Don't count on it! They will call you if you are selected, of course. But the
process may take longer than expected. And if you are not their number-one choice,
they'll take their time in sending out your "notice of non-selection" .
So don't wait -- take action! If the allotted time has passed and you haven't heard
anything, call the company and ask about the status of that job.
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POST-INTERVIEW STRATEGY #3: Don't worry, be happy.
If you've followed the strategies you've learned, the chances are very good that you will
be selected for the position. But should wondering about it keep you up at night? No. The
process is now out of your hands, so worrying about it won't do you any good. There are
only two possible outcomes. Either you got the job and you will be notified in due time;
or you didn't get the job.
Even if you didn't get selected for that particular position, don't consider this as a
"failure" -- it is not. No interview is a failure, or a waste of your time. Each one should be
considered a valuable opportunity to practice and sharpen your interviewing skills.
POST-INTERVIEW STRATEGY #4: Negotiate your salary when you are offered
the job.
Sometimes salaries are set; you take the job, you take the stated salary. But other times
the salary is open to negotiation and the employer has a range to work with, based on
your skills and experience. Most often you will be offered the lowest salary in that range.
But don't be afraid to request a higher starting salary, particularly if your skills and
experience warrant it.
POST-INTERVIEW STRATEGY #5: If you got the job, go celebrate! If you didn't,
don't despair, just start again.
Even during bad economies, there are usually a number of job openings in a wide variety
of fields. If you didn't get hired this time, that just means there's a better job out there
waiting for you.
3.7.4 Job Interview Questions & Answers: Know What to Expect
and What to Say
Although many candidates dread them, job interview questions are wonderful things!
They are your greatest opportunity to prove to the interviewer that you are the best person
for the job!
The key is to give better answers than anyone else. To do this, you must:
(1) Anticipate likely questions;
(2) Develop excellent answers;
(3) Practice!
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Be enthusiastic and confident when responding to questions. Don't rush your answers, but
don't ramble on and on, either. Try to, um, avoid, like, using unnecessary words, right?
And um, repeating yourself or, like, annoying phrases, you know?
A good technique is to write out your answers to the questions you anticipate, then edit
them to make them more concise. Then practice your polished answers out loud, over and
over. If you can have someone help you do a "mock interview," that would be the best
way to do this.
There are basically eight types of questions you may face during the course of an
interview:
1. Credential verification questions
This type of question includes "What was your GPA?" and "How long were you at .
. . " Its purpose is to place objective measurements on features of your background.
2. Experience verification questions
This type of question includes "What did you learn in that class?" and "What were
your responsibilities in that position?" Its purpose is to verify experiential features
of your background.
3. Opinion questions
This type of question includes "What would you do in this situation?" and "What
are your strengths and weaknesses?" Its purpose is to subjectively analyze how you
would respond to a scenario. The reality is that "Tape #143" in your brain kicks in
and plays when you recognize the question and play back the pre-programmed
answer.
4. Dumb questions
This type of question includes "What kind of animal would you like to be?" or
"What do you think flubber is made from?" Its purpose is to get past your preprogrammed answers to find out if you are capable of an original thought. There is
not necessarily a right or wrong answer, since it is used primarily as a test of your
ability to think on your feet.
5. Math questions
This type of question includes "What is 1000 divided by 73?" to "How many ping
pong balls could fit in a Volkswagen?" Its purpose is to evaluate not only your
mental math calculation skills, but also your creative ability in formulating the
mathematical formula for providing an answer (or estimate, as can often be the
case).
6. Case questions
This type of question includes problem-solving questions ranging from: "How
many gas stations are there in the U.S.?" to "What is your estimate of the U.S.
online retail market for books?" Its purpose is to evaluate your problem-solving
abilities and how you would analyze and work through potential case situations.
7. Behavioral questions
This type of question includes "Can you give me a specific example of how you did
that?" or "What were the steps you followed to accomplish that task?" Its purpose is
to anticipate predictable future behaviors based upon past responses.
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8. Competency questions
This type of question includes "Can you give me a specific example of your
leadership skills?" or "Explain a way in which you sought a creative solution to a
problem." Its purpose is to align your past behaviors with specific competencies
which are required for the position.
It is interesting to note that the first four types of interview questions listed have a
predictive validity for on the job success of just 10 percent. And 10 percent predictive
validity is the same level that is generated from a simple resume review. Math questions
increase the predictive validity to 15 percent (since it tests intelligence, commonly a key
competency for most positions) and case questions raise the predictive validity to 25
percent (and slightly higher for consulting positions). Behavioral and competency
interviewing, on the other hand, yield a predictive validity of 55 percent. Still far from
perfect, yet much more reliable for most interviewers. Interestingly, the first four
question types are still the favored approach by most untrained interviewers, simply due
to lack of experience. Behavioral and competency interviewing is gaining greater
acceptance by trained interviewers because past performance is the most reliable
indicator of future results, especially when it is tied to the specific competencies for the
position.
Most questions will relate either to your ability to do the job or to the type of employee
you will be. Here's one that is very commonly used to help the interviewer learn about
both:
"Tell me a little about yourself."
When responding to this request, you should focus on both your personal and
professional values. Always be honest, but talk about your best traits only, especially
those that relate to the position for which you are applying. Highlight experiences and
accomplishments you are most proud of. Here's an example:
"I'm an experienced communications specialist with extensive knowledge of public
information tools and techniques. I've developed comprehensive communication plans
for major public events, written dozens of articles accepted by worldwide publications,
and created specialized educational programs for adults and students. I am always eager
to learn new methods and procedures, and have implemented continuous improvement
techniques in my past positions that saved money and increased productivity. I like
working with people and enjoy group projects, but am also a self-starter who doesn't
mind working on my own. I'm a volunteer with the local chapter of Special Olympics and
enjoy participating in community events. My goals are to complete my Master's Degree
and broaden my experiences with community relations."
Remember to tailor your response to the specific job. By studying the job announcement,
you'll get a good idea of the skills and experience being sought. Work those into your
response.
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Consider this your own personal commercial. If the interview consisted of only this ONE
chance to sell yourself, what would you say?
"What do you feel has been your greatest work-related accomplishment?"
Choose one example from your past that was important to you and helped the company
you worked for. Give specific details about what you did, how you did it, and what the
results were. Try to pick an accomplishment that relates to the position for which you are
applying. Employers like to hear about accomplishments that reduced expenses, raised
revenues, solved problems or enhanced a company's reputation.
"What is your greatest strength?"
This is a great chance to highlight your best skills. Don't pick just one, focus on your top
three or four. Some examples are: leadership skills, team-building skills, and
organizational skills. Determine which strengths would fit best with the position for
which you are applying. For example, if the job announcement stresses the ability to
handle multiple tasks, you could say: "I'm good at organizational skills, prioritization and
time management. But my greatest strength is my ability to effectively handle multiple
projects and deadlines."
"What is your greatest weakness?"
Be careful with this one. Most interview guides will tell you to answer it with a positive
trait disguised as a weakness. For example, "I tend to expect others to work as hard as I
do," or "I'm a bit of a perfectionist." Interviewers have heard these "canned" answers over
and over again. To stand out, be more original and state a true weakness, but then
emphasize what you've done to overcome it. For example: "I've had trouble delegating
duties to others because I felt I could do things better myself. This has sometimes
backfired because I'd end up with more than I could handle and the quality of my work
would suffer. But I've taken courses in time management and learned effective delegation
techniques, and I feel I've overcome this weakness."
IMPORTANT: Be sure the weakness you talk about is NOT a key element of the
position!
"How do you handle stressful situations?"
Give some examples of stressful situations you've dealt with in the past. Tell how you use
time management, problem-solving or decision-making skills to reduce stress. For
example, tell them that making a "to-do" list helps. Site stress-reducing techniques such
as stretching and taking a break. Don't be afaid to admit that you will ask for assistance if
you are feeling overwhelmed.
If it's true, say you actually work better under pressure.
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"What is the toughest problem you've had to face, and how did you overcome it?"
Try to make this about a problem that faced your company and not just you or your
particular work group. The bigger the problem, the better. Give specific examples of the
skills and techniques you used to resolve this problem. Emphasize the successful results.
Be generous in sharing credit if it was a team effort, but be sure to highlight your specific
role.
"Have you ever had to discipline a problem employee? If so, how did you handle
it?"
This is a likely question if the position for which you are applying requires supervisory
duties. Explain how you used problem-solving skills, listening skills, and coaching skills
to help the employee. If those techniques turned the employee around, be sure to say so.
If those techniques failed, tell how you followed the company's policies and what the
end result was.
"Why do you want this position?"
Here's where your research about the company will help you stand out among the other
candidates. Explain how you've always wanted the opportunity to work with a company
that... provides a vital public service, leads the industry in innovative products,
whatever... find something specific about that company that you can tie in with your
answer. Explain how your qualifications and goals complement the company's mission,
vision and values (use specific examples). If you are applying for a position in a company
for which you already work, explain how you'll be able to apply and expand on the
knowledge and experience you've gained from your current position, and will be able to
increase your contributions and value to the company through your new responsibilities.
"Why are you the best person for this job?"
As with all other questions, be confident and enthusiastic when you answer this. Don't try
to say you are the best qualified person, because you don't know the qualifications of the
other applicants. Instead, emphasize several reasons why you should be hired. For
example: "I've got extensive experience in [name the appropriate field] and have the
specific skills you are looking for. I'm a fast learner who adapts quickly to change and
will hit the ground running. I'm dedicated and enthusiastic about helping your company
meet its goals, and will provide top-quality results with minimal oversite. I'm an
outstanding performer who takes pride in my work. You won't have any regrets when you
hire me."
UNEXPECTED QUESTIONS
Interview questions and answers can only be predicted and prepared for to a certain
extent. There are endless variations and no way to know every question in advance. But
that doesn't matter. Because you know there will be unexpected questions, you will not
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cringe or freak out when they pop up, as some applicants will. Instead, you will turn them
into opportunities to shine even more brightly.
No one knows you better than you. Memorize a list of your best features, your best
selling points. Use every opportunity and unexpected question to mention these.
Realize that sometimes what you say isn't as important as how you say it. Be confident,
enthusiastic, and remember to smile often.
QUESTIONS YOU SHOULD ASK
Often the interviewer's last question is, "Do you have any questions for me?" Candidates
who do not have questions show a lack of initiative and give the impression that they
have minimal interest in the position. Stand out from those lazy job seekers by asking
questions!
Have your questions ready in advance. Relate them to the company or its
accomplishments/challenges (your research of the company will show and further
impress the interviewer). Don't ask any question that shows that you have not done your
research about the company.
Do not ask questions related to you, such as "When will I be eligible for my first raise?"
or "How often will I be subjected to a performance review?" Don't bring up money. (You
can do that after you are offered the job.)
In addition to specific questions you develop based on what the company does, here are
some sample generic questions:
What do you enjoy most about working here?
Be sure the person you ask actually works for the company. Some organizations,
especially public agencies, have interview panels in which employees from other
agencies participate.
Is there anything I've mentioned that makes you think I'm not the best candidate
for this job?
If they do mention something that's bothering them about you, such as lack of specific
experience, this gives you a last-ditch effort to change their opinion about you. If you've
thought about your possible weaknesses in advance, you should have a prepared answer
to those weaknesses. For example, "I know I have limited experience in this field, but
what I lack in specific experience I make up for in enthusiasm and desire to excel. I'm a
fast learner and I'll work harder than anyone else to be a top producer on your team."
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When do you expect to make your final decision?
Be sure to ask that! Failure to do so may give the impression that you're not that
interested, and you need to know when to follow up.
2.8 EFFECTIVE ORAL PRESENTATION
We spend most of our lives speaking to one another. It is our natural mode of
communication. However, something strange happens to most people when asked to do
that same activity in front of a group. A whole host of irrational fears raise their ugly
heads. It is an activity many of us would get out of if we could. Increasingly we are
called on at work to make presentations to groups, both large and small, in a variety of
situations. We are very often judged by our performance on these occasions. How well do
we get over our point of view to those to whom we are speaking?
This book is about speaking effectively. The guidelines can be applied in a variety of
speaking situations making presentations, expressing views at meetings, explaining
facts in interviews, briefing the team. The guide concentrates on three main areas:
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preparation
how to put the message over effectively
dealing with nerves.
It will help anyone who is involved in speaking activities to make the experience a
successful and, hopefully, enjoyable one.
2.8.1 PREPARATION
There is a saying that goes 'to fail to prepare is to prepare to fail'. This is probably more
true of speaking to groups than any other activity you may become involved in at work.
But what do you need to prepare and how do you do it? Rudyard Kipling's famous
quote may provide a clue:
'I keep six honest serving-men
(they taught me all [knew)
Their names are What and Why and When
and How and Where and Who’
By working through the six honest serving-men you can cover all aspects of thorough
preparation.
Why, Who, Where and When are looked at in this section.
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WHY: DECIDING THE OBJECTIVE
The very first thing to get clear in your mind is the objective of the speech. There will be
a general objective as well as a specific objective relating to the subject matter.
General objectives will fall into one of the following
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categories:
to persuade or sell
to teach
to stimulate thought
to inform
to entertain
Whatever your general objective is you always need to try and entertain your
audience. This does not mean cracking poor jokes every other sentence. It does, however,
mean that the material must be put over in such a way that it IS interesting and people
Want to listen.
The specific objective will depend on the subject matter entirely.
It is an excellent idea to write down the objective of the speech in one Sentence. This
has various benefits:
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It clears the speaker's mind right at the start
Selection of material can be based on fulfilling the objective
When your notes are complete you can again check that you are meeting your
original aim.
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WHO: RESEARCHING THE AUDIENCE
Anyone who has sat through a speech and wondered if they are in the right room will
know the importance of this question. The audience or groups you are talking to are the
most important people in the whole exercise. What should you know about them?
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How many of them are there?
Why are they there? Are they there of their own free will? Were they sent" to
listen? Are they paying?
What is their present knowledge of the subject of the talk?
Are they likely to have any bias towards or against the subject or speaker?
What are their expectations of the talk and speaker? It is an excellent idea to write
down the objective of the speech in one Sentence. This has various benefits:
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
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It clears the speaker's mind right at the start
Selection of material can be based on fulfilling the objective
When your notes are complete you can again check that you are meeting your
original aim.
All the above points will determine the material used and the approach to the speech. For
example, there is a world of difference between a woman talking to a group of men about
women's equality and a woman talking to women on the same subject. Similarly a
computer expert talking to other computer experts about the latest technology will be able
to use far more technical language than would be possible when talking to a group of
non-experts.
You have a duty to those who listen to you to make sure your speech is pitched at the
right level for them.
Remember you are there to meet the needs of your audience. Good rapport with that
audience is the key to success.
WHERE: PREPARING THE ENVIRONMENT
It is important to consider where the talk is going to take place. There may not always be
a choice of venue but it is vital to make every effort to see it, especially if you have not
spoken there before.
The following points need consideration:
PRACTISING
One's voice can sound disembodied in large echoing rooms. It is better to have tried your
voice out beforehand than to be put off by it when you start to speak with the audience
present. Practicing with the microphone is also important if you have to-use one.
If the room is large it is vital to try out the volume of the voice. Plant someone at the back
of the room and practice to see if they can hear you.
HOW THINGS IN THE ROOM WORK
On a very practical level, it is useful to know where the light switches are and how the
blinds draw If you are using slides or film", find out how the windows open and close or
how the air conditioning works so that you can regulate the temperature if necessary.
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DISTRACTIONS
Become aware of any likely distractions for you and your audience.
A speaker who can see interesting things happening outside the window is likely to
find it harder to concentrate on the audience. Similarly, if you are speaking in front of the
large picture window at Heathrow Airport your audience is likely to become very
interested in Jumbo jets taking off and landing and stop listening to what you have to say.
Other distractions like noise and general interruptions need to be catered for where
possible.
Unfortunately we do not live a perfectly ordered world but minimising distractions as
far as possible is vital.
SEATING
Seating layouts can vary enormously and again there may be no controls over the layout
the following are a few of the many venations possible - there are advantages and
disadvantages to each:
THEATRE STYLE
People sit in rows. Most common with large audiences. Formal atmosphere and eye
contact with the audience more difficult to achieve.
HORSESHOE
Single row of people arranged in a horseshoe shape. Informal and conducive to
participation.
CURVED ROWS
Similar problems as with theatre style but slightly less formal.
CABARET
People sitting in groups around tables. Useful if you want to break the audience into
formal discussion groups.
POINTS TO WATCH:
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People have a great tendency to sit at the back of rooms if given the choice. If
there are more chairs than audience you may find them all sitting in the back
rows. If you anticipate too many chairs rope off the back rows or have someone
directing people to the front as they arrive. Ideally you want the audience as near
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as possible.
Try to make sure the seats are not too comfortable. Low, soft chairs can be sleep
inducing - the last thing you want from the audience.
The environment you have to speak in can either hinder or help. The aim is to
minimize the hindrances and maximize the good points.
WHEN: TIMING
How many times have you heard speakers drone on long after the expected finishing
time? They seemingly do not realise the audience is getting restless. Considering the time
of day and how long you have for your talk is important.
TIME OF DAY
Time of day can affect the audience. After lunch is known as the graveyard session in
training circles. Audiences who have had a few drinks and a good lunch will probably be
feeling like an afternoon nap rather than listening to a speech.
The audience may have already sat through several other speakers. How can you
make Sure they are interested and listen to what you have to say?
HOW LONG HAVE WE GOT - KEEPING TO TIME
Knowing how long you have got and sticking to it is crucial to good talks. This means
practicing to see whether you have the right amount of material. Most people find that if
they practice in their head or to the bathroom mirror the actual speech will take about 25
per cent longer. Using a flip chart or other visual aids will also add considerably to the
time. Bear that in mind. If there is no clock in the room, take your watch off and put it on
a table near you so that you can glance at it occasionally to check your timing.
CONCENTRATION PROBLEMS
People's ability to concentrate hard for long periods is not too good. You need to
anticipate lack of concentration in the audience.
Concentration levels over a two-hour period look something like this;
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When listening to a talk concentration is usually fairly good for the first 20 or so
minutes. For some people, however, it can be as short as five minutes. Thereafter,
maintaining concentration gets harder and harder until they hear the magic words 'in
conclusion'. Concentration improves slightly at that point in anticipation of the end of the
speech.
This means that you need to find ways of maintaining the audience's interest in what
you have to say.
OUR OWN BEST TIME
Individually you may have good and less good times of the day. Some people are better
first thing in the morning; others late in the afternoon. If you find speaking to a group a
nerve-racking experience, it can be wise to try and find a time of day when you feel
physically and mentally able to cope with the task. Again this is not always, possible, but
sometimes can be arranged.
2.8.2 PREPARING THE MATERIAL
Any speech will almost certainly fail unless careful thought is given to the subject matter.
Unstructured, rambling talks tend to be difficult to concentrate upon. Unless the main
points are made very clear for the audience, the message will be forgotten quickly. The
following stages of activity will help you through the preparation of the material and
ensure that your speech is well structured and lively.
STAGE ONE: BRAINSTORMING
It is essential to get all thoughts and ideas on your subject down on paper. A useful
method for doing this is by making pattern notes. This is a highly creative method of
personal brainstorming. For centuries people have organized information in lists in the
belief that the brain naturally arranged material in linear form. However, research has
shown that the brain is constantly analyzing, Interpreting and juggling whole interrelated
networks of thoughts and ideas. Pattern notes enable the brain to relate to information far
more naturally and efficiently, by forming an interrelated pattern rather than a list.
Pattern notes are easy to do.
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Take a plain sheet of paper. Write the objective of your talk at the top, and the
main theme of your talk in the centre of the page in a circle.
Write down all the ideas and thoughts you have on the subject starting from the
circle and branching out along lines of connecting ideas.
Let your mind be as free as possible. Do not restrict your thoughts by deciding
where each point should go in a list. Your ideas should flow easily.
When finished, circle any related ideas and sections and establish your order of
priorities and organization.
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STAGE TWO: STRUCTURING AND
SELECTING
Most people at this stage have a mass of possible ideas and information they could
use - usually far too much material for the time they have for the speech.
It is important to keep the number of main points to a minimum. In a 45-minure
speech you should not try to make more than seven main points. Certainly in a fiveminute speech it is difficult to do justice to more than one or two main points. This may
not seem very many, but if you an: to leave the audience with a very clear picture of what
you have said you cannot expect them to remember masses and masses of points.
You should concentrate on and write the middle of the speech first. Opening and
closing is discussed in Stage four.
Selecting the material you are going to use should be dictated by the following:
 The objective - is some of the information you have irrelevant to the objective of the
speech
 The audience - do they know most of this already?
 How long have I got?
MUST, SHOULD, COULD - sometimes it is possible to select on the basis of what the
audience must, should and could know. For example, where talking to a group about the
organization’s new appraisal system, we must tell them how it will operate and their
involvement in the system. We should tell them why the decision has been made to install
the system. We could tell them why this particular System has been chosen against any
other.
This stage is often the hardest. It is always tempting to tell people everything you
know about a subject especially if it is one you know well. The more you know, the more
disciplined and discriminating you need to be. Be highly selective' to suit your audience.
The structure of a talk should follow the pattern of:
 Tell 'em what you're going to tell 'em.
 Tell 'em.
 Tell 'em what you've told 'em.
Like news bulletins on the television, you need to tell people what you arc going to
cover in your speech. Then expand on each of those points, and finish by summarizing
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what you have said, reiterating the main points again.
The following structure is useful to adopt when presenting a case or trying to
persuade people of your view:
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State the proposition.
Anticipate objections - concede any flaws in the argument. Even if you do not
express them out loud, it is important to consider what they might be and select
your material appropriately.
Prove your case - select your best reasons for your proposition. Do not overload
your talk with lots of reasons. Quality is better than quantity.
Show your practical evidence - build in practical examples of the facts you arc
relying upon. Do not slant the evidence.
End by repeating the proposition.
It makes for much easier listening if you alert your audience to the structure you are
using. This is akin to using headings and paragraphs when writing.
Therefore when you actually deliver your speech it is important to state the linkages 'so let's look now at the second area I want to cover'.
Another device, which works well, is using rhetorical questions i.e. 'Why should we
consider this subject?' or 'Which do we need to think about in implementing this plan?'
Again this provides sign posts to the audience and will generally make your speech easier
to follow.
STAGE THREE: ILLUSTRATING
Whenever you speak to a group of people you are competing with their own vivid
imaginations. When you are listening to people talk, you can easily find yourself drifting
off into your own little world.
Most people have mental images or pictures in their minds. As a speaker you need to
talk in pictures and give them to the audience rather than let them drift off into their own.
This often means simplifying confusing figures into something concrete and real.
Illustrating what you arc saying with real life examples is important too.
STAGE FOUR: OPENING AND CLOSING A TALK
Only when you have completely sorted out the main part of your speech should you think
about opening and closing since the content of the middle will dictate these.
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INTRODUCTION
The introduction can be looked at like this:
I Interest
N Need
T Title
R Ratings
O Objective
INTEREST
Find something to capture the attention of the audience immediately. Preferably not the
usual lines like 'unaccustomed as I am to public speaking'.
NEED
Show the audience why they need to listen to what you have got to say. What is the
relevance to them?
TITLE AND RATINGS
This is the 'Tell 'em what you're going to tell 'em' part. Tell them the subject of your talk
and what you are going to cover.
OBJECTIVE
You may or may not decide to state this explicitly. If you do not, the objective should
shine through to your audience.
CLOSING
The closing section of your talk should be just that. It should be conclusive. It should not
just drift to a halt with words like 'I think that's all I've got to say'. Remember that what
you say last is the last thought you leave with your audience. Therefore, if you want to
stimulate them into some action, you should tell them what to do next. You should
summarise your main points again as part of the 'Tell 'em what you've told 'em' routine.
It is essential to write out your opening and closing sentences in full and incorporate
them into your notes (see Stage Five). The opening sentence will help to get you started
and when you have uttered the closing line you will know you have come to the end,
hence avoiding drifting to a halt.
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STAGE FIVE: NOTES
Notes should be brief and consist of key words.
Speakers who use verbatim notes are really reading out aloud rather than speaking from
within. Also completely written out speeches sound stilted even if learned by heart. This
is because written English and spoken English are not the same.
If you are making a particularly important speech, it is an excellent idea to write the
whole thing out in full, practice, and then reduce it all to keynotes. Not only will you then
be speaking rather” than reading, but you will be able to look at the audience rather than
having to keep your eyes on the page so as not to lose your place.
Notes are best put on cards. There are various good reasons for this:
 they do not shake around as much as sheets of paper If you are nervous
 you do not need a lectern to prop up all the sheaves of
paper, as cards can be
held quite easily
 since they arc smaller, they encourage you to use key words rather than writing
down complete sentences.
Some of the basic rules that follow will help to ensure that what you do put on cards
will be useful.
KEY WORDS
It is essential to use the right words otherwise you may look at the card and wonder what
on earth it was you meant by environment for example.
USE YOUR OWN HANDWRITING
Make your notes in your own handwriting written large. Typewritten notes are invariably
too small to see comfortably. This may mean that you only have two or three key words
on a card. It is 'much better to have several cards than one with everything crammed on.
WRITE TIMINGS ON THE CARDS
As a good check of how fast or slow you are gong, it can be useful to write a note to
yourself at the point when you expect to be halfway through, for example. If you a only
halfway through a 30 minute talk at the 20-minute stage, you will need to speed up or cut
out some of the material.
WRITE MESSAGES TO YOURSELF WITH DIFFERENT COLOURED PENS
For example, if you talk too fast write SLOW DOWN in your notes. If you are not too
good at looking at the audience write LOOK UP/ROUND ROOM and so on. When you
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are up there talking you are probably concentrating 100 per cent on what you are saying.
The sorts of notes can remind you occasionally of other point to remember.
CLIP THE CARDS TOGETHER
If you have more than one card do clip them together. Treasury tags are useful for this
purpose. Whatever you do, number the cards so that even if they become separated you
can get them back together in the proper order quickly.
Finally, practice with cards, especially if you have not used them before.
CHECKLIST 2
Preparing the material
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Brainstorm the subject
Make pattern notes
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Structure and select
Keep the number of main points down to- an appropriate level
Select on the basis of - objective, time, audience, must, should, could
Tell it like the news
tell 'em what you're going to tell 'em
tell 'em
tell 'em what you've told 'em

Use illustrations
Simplify difficult or complex information Use real-life examples to illustrate points

Opening and closing
Write opening and closing sentences in full be challenging and capture the
audience in the opening
Be conclusive when you finish
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
Notes
Notes on cards
Use key words
Write timings and messages to yourself on cards
Clip them together

Practice timing
WORDS
The audience will determine the words used. Only use jargon in its rightful place. Be
aware of the problems involved with words.
EXAMPLE:
Use concrete, simple language. Do not talk in abstractions. Do not use five words when
one would do e.g. “in the fullness of time” – i.e. “soon” or “now” would be better. Be
conscious of using positive words. Avoid words like “but”, “try”, “maybe” etc. Avoid
sexist and racist language.
Talk in sentences. Just as you would write in sentences you should try to talk in them
too. A talk which is strung together with ands and buts can be very difficult to follow.
HOW WE SAY IT
The quite large contribution that this makes to your message is important to consider.
Sarcasm, for example, relies almost totally on the way you say the words. ‘You’re
coming home with me tonight’ could be said in a variety of ways, with very different
meanings!
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You contribute to the understanding of the message in a variety of ways:
EXPRESSION
The amount of emphasis places on particular words will focus attention on important
points. You can show how enthusiastic you are by injecting expression into what you are
saying. If you are not enthusiastic about your can hardly expect your audience to be.
PAUSING
Do not be afraid of pausing. You do not have to: through it all like an express train. Give
the audience to take in and digest what you are saying. Certainly after the main points of
your talk.
HAM IT UP
You need to use more expression than usual where talking to a large group. You need to
ham it up quiet considerably to have the same effect as you would with a group of, say,
five. Do not be afraid of this, have to go quite a long way before you are in dang going
over the top.
TONE OF VOICE AND PITCH
There is nothing more tedious than listening to a deliverey in a monotonous tone of voice.
A voice that moves up and down like a piano scale is much most interesting. Try
practicing and listening to your voice to a tape recorder.
SPEAK CLEARLY
Try to make sure that words do not run into one another. If there are tongue twisting
words in your talk, practice them so that they come out perfectly. The exercises on page
43 can help with articulation generally. Be conscious of "bringing your voice forward in
your mouth". Do open your mouth when you speak.
SPEAK OUT NOT UP
Most people give up on a speaker they have to strain to hear. Make sure you are loud
enough for everyone in the room. Breathing properly can help here. Lungs are rather like
an organ. If you do not put enough air into them you get a rather squeaky sound out.
Practice breathing deeply. This can help quell nerves as well, but do not overdo it or you
may pass out!
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BODY LANGUAGE
All those things you do not actually say make a quite outstanding contribution to your
message: the way you stand, the gestures you use, whether you look miserable or happy.
Unfortunately, in the unnatural environment of speaking to a group, nervous mannerisms
can take over: you cannot bear to look at the audience so you stare at your notes or some
point above their heads, you shuffle around or pace up and down. How can you overcome
these problems?
LOOK AT THE AUDIENCE
This may be very hard to do but is essential. You need to look at them to see how they
are reacting. Are they bored? Asleep? Looking interested? Looking at you? You want to
worry when the audience stops looking at you for any length of time. It is usually
indicative of not listening. In small groups you should look at everyone and at eye level,
not above their heads. If people are arranged in a horseshoe shape, you must make sure
you look at the people on the extreme right and left and not just those towards the back.
In a large group the easiest way to maintain eye contact is to draw a large M or W round
the room. This will encompass everyone.
Eye contact is vital in order to maintain audience interest in what you have to say.
SMILE
Again quite hard to do if you are nervous. Even if you are not particularly happy, smiling
can create the illusion that you are. It is also surprising how very often the audience smile
back. Smiling also has the added benefit of axing your vocal chords - It can help to make
your voice sound more interesting.
AVOID CREATING BARRIERS
You need to get as near to your audience as possible. Standing behind a desk or lectern
immediately sets up a barrier. It is always tempting to hide behind something, but is
undesirable.
STAND SQUARE
Find a comfortable stance. The best position is standing with feet slightly apart. Try to
avoid leaning up against furniture, and keep hands out of pockets.
BEWARE OF DISTRACTING MANNERISMS
This does not mean standing rigid. Most of us use our hands to some extent to add
emphasis to what we arc saying and we should not stop doing this. However, waving
your arms around all over the place is likely to distract the audience. Jangling keys and
coins in pockets or wearing clanking jewellery can also distract. The major problem with
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distracting mannerisms II that if the audience hooks on to them, it will concentrate on
them rather than listening to your message.
BE NATURAL
Easier said than done, you may say. However, if you concentrate on getting the message
across and stop worrying about yourself, you will haw more chance of coming over
naturally.
The best way of making sure you have got most of these points right is to practice.
The most effective way is in front of a video camera so that you can see yourself as
others see you. This is not possible for many. Alternatively try practicing in front of the
family or a group of friends and asking them to criticize honestly. Without constructive
feedback on how you come over you cannot hope to iron out any problems, or improve.
2.8.3 DIFFERENT METHODS OF PUTTING THE MESSAGE OVER
There are many ways open to you to vary the way you actually approach your subject. In
longer talks finding some way of involving the audience can be helpful in overcoming the
concentration problem.
The following alternatives may be useful to consider:
AUDIENCE PARTICIPATION
You might be able to split the audience into group, ask them to discuss a particular topic
and then report back to the whole group. This is particularly useful in a training situation.
QUESTION AND ANSWER SESSIONS
It is almost always desirable to invite questions from the audience, but in a structured
way. Question sessions are usually best left until the end of the talk, but if the session is a
long one, breaking up the talk with short question sessions may be useful. How to set up
a question session discussed in the next section.
LECTURING
If you are going to talk to your audience for any length of time without participation from
them, you must break up the talk in other ways, possibly by using visual aids of some sort
(sec page 32). You need to find the best approach bearing in mind the time available and
the objective. When the audience participates it can all take much longer. Keep that in
mind.
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2.8.4 DEALING WITH QUESTIONS
There are good reasons for inviting questions from the audience. The main one is that it
helps to contribute towards the message being understood. If one person asks a question
about some topic that is not clear, it would help everyone else in the audience.
It is important to tell people that there will be an opportunity to ask questions at the end
of the talk. As they listen, questions may occur to them and they can save them up. This
is better than springing the idea on the audience at the end.
Sometimes you may have a chairperson to deal with questions and this can help. The
chairperson will ask for questions from the audience, watch the time, repeat the question
so the audience can all hear it, and if a panel of speakers is involved indicate who should
answer.
If you do not have a chairperson, the following points should be borne in mind:
 Do not expect questions to come immediately after you stop talking. You are asking
the audience to take on a different role. They have been listening up until now and
may need a few moments to think of the questions they want to ask.
 Have a plant in the audience if necessary. That is, have someone primed to ask a
question if they are not forthcoming immediately from the rest of the audience.
 When someone in the audience asks a question, repeat it, so that everyone in the
room knows what is being answered.
 Answer as concisely as you can. Do not go on and on, but do not make it so short
that it does not answer the question.
 If you do not know the answer, say so. Never on any account invent an answer. Ask
the audience if anyone knows the answer or offer to find out.
 Take questions from all over the room. Do not concentrate on a particular group or
person if other people want to ask questions.
 When time is going fast say ‘Just two more questions, please’.
 If a question is not clear, rephrase it, e.g.: ‘Do I understand you to be asking …?’
 If a member of the audience is making a statement rather than asking a question,
say: ‘There is a great deal in what you say. May we have the next question please?’
 If a questioner is hostile, it can be quite useful to ask them to answer the question
themselves, e.g.: ‘What about X?’ The answer could be: ‘Well maybe you’d like to
tell us what you think?’ Whatever you do, try to remain calm and composed.
By following these simple guidelines, question sessions will be productive and will help
considerably in creating understanding of the subject in the audience.
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VISUAL AIDS
There are many different types of visual aids you can use to complement your talk. It is
important to consider using them because:
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
They break the whole thing up, which is extremely useful in longer talks.
They arc visual - a different activity for the audience from passive listening.
They can help illustrate complex information in a simplified way.
What types of visual aids are there?
SLIDES
Either for an overhead projector or a slide projector. Limit the number you use.
FLIP CHART
A board and easel with sheets of paper which can be written on during a talk or prepared
beforehand and referred to during a talk.
MODELS
If you are talking about a piece of-equipment, it is a good idea to have a model of it there
so that people can see and examine it.
FILMS AND VIDEOS
In a training environment, films and videos can often illustrate particular points very
usefully.
Be adventurous with visual aids but do not overdo it. The following points give some
guidelines on their use:
PLAN
Plan the use of visual aids to complement your talk. However, never rely on them
completely. Always be prepared for the worst. If the equipment breaks down you must be
able to talk without the visual aids.
KEEP THEM SIMPLE
On using slides, it is essential to simplify the information you are presenting. Columns of
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figures will not add anything at all, but if the information is turned into a simple graph or
bar chart, the visual impact will be more effective. Do not use too many words on slides.
They should not be 'verbal printouts'.
GIVE TIME
Give time for the audience to look at slides. Do not and show slides at the same time.
When you have to move on from the topic illustrated by the slide, take it off. Do not
leave the audience looking at something that doe> relate to what you arc saying.
LIMIT THE NUMBER
Limit the number of visual aids to be used. Do no use them for the sake of it and do not
use too many different types. For example, stick to a flip chart and overhead projector, or
just use a slide projector. Do not feel compelled to use every aid available ill the same
presentation.
TALK TO THE GROUP
Do not talk to the screen, flip chart or slide. Stay facing the audience. Do not point to the
screen with your arms. If you want to highlight particular points, use a pointer with a
slide projector. With an overhead projector use a pencil or pointer on the projector itself,
not the screen.
MAKE THEM LARGE AND PUNCHY
Keep slides simple and punchy. If using a flipchart, write in large letters using a black
pen. Blue, red and green are quite difficult to see at a distance. Make sure everyone in the
room is going to be able to see your visual aids.
CHECK ANY EQUIPMENT
Check any equipment before you start your talk. Practise so that you are familiar with
how the equipment works. Check the blinds and lights in the room if you need to darken
it. Always be prepared for the worst and have extra bulbs and extension leads available.
Using visual aids can be enormously useful in helping to put over what cannot be said
by words alone. Do beware - if slides are poorly produced they will have exactly the
opposite effect and will confuse the audience.
Be prepared to cope without them; if there is a power-cut, for example!
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2.8.5 DEALING WITH NERVES
A common reaction to being asked to speak to a group is one of sheer terror. It is one of
the top ten human fears' along with spiders and heights. It is worth taking comfort from
the fact. You are not alone.
Do not be fooled, however, into thinking that nerves disappear once you have become
used to speaking to groups. They do not.
There is an old saying that says that the day you have no nerves is the day to stop.
There is a good physiological reason for this. When you arc nervous your adrenalin
flows. Adrenalin is what tones you up to deal with problem situations. What you have to
do is use that adrenalin to help.
The other important fact of life is that however nervous and shaky you may feel
inside, the audience hardly ever notices. People will only notice if you start behaving
unnaturally. Unfortunately; some nervous mannerisms do get recognized by audiences.
You can see shaking hands, for example. You can also see worried expressions.
To a certain extent you all have to find your own way of controlling your nerves.
The following suggestions may be useful, however, as they have certainly worked for
other people.
PREPARE THOROUGHLY
If you have done all you possibly can in preparing your material and researching the
audience, it provides a degree of security. Preparing speeches takes time, so make sure
enough.
BEWARE OF THE SELF-FULFILLING PROPHECY
If you think the audience will react in a hostile way, it is easy to become defensive.
Defensiveness is one of those characteristics that can easily come over in tone of voice
and body language. The audience will then react on that basis and may well become
hostile. This is a trap which many fall into. However, if you think the audience is going to
like what you have to say, they probably will because you will transmit the right
vibrations.
STAND WHERE YOU ARE GOING TO SPEAK
In advance, try to get used to what it feels like standing in the spot you will be speaking
from. For example, if you are sitting in a meeting as part of the group and then come to
the front to give a short presentation, the room will look completely different. This can be
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off putting.
TRY OUT YOUR VOICE
This has already been mentioned, but it is important so that you do not experience that
disembodied feeling when you start.
DISTRACT YOURSELF FOR TEN MINUTES BEFORE YOU BEGIN
For many people it is those last few moments before you start that are the worst. Try
distracting yourself and clear your mind of what is to come. Talk to someone about an
unrelated subject or go to the cloakroom. Breathing deeply or doing a few neck exercises
can also help.
DRINK
No, this is not to encourage you to blot it all out with alcohol! Some people would say
that you should never have a drink before giving a talk. Depending on your capacity ONE
drink may help. Whatever you do, do not overdo it. Alcohol gives a false sense of
security, as many speakers have discovered to their cost.
NECK EXERCISES
A lot of tension can build up in your neck and shoulders when you are worried or
nervous. Try neck rolling. Lean your head right back and gently and slowly roll it right
round in a circle so your chin falls forward on your chest. Bring your head back to the
start position, rolling it upwards the other way.
BREATHE DEEPLY
As we have already seen this can help voice production. Breathing deeply a couple of
times does have a calming effect and can help to control the adrenalin flow.
PREPARE ANSWERS TO ANTICIPATED QUESTIONS
Again, by thinking ahead of what might be asked, you can prepare your answers. This
helps that feeling of security.
DO NOT WORRY ABOUT YOURSELF
The important thing about talking to a group is getting the message over. Worry about the
subject by all mean but concentrate on that and not yourself.
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2.8.6 MAKING SPEECH EFFECTIVE
We hold our listeners' attention more through their feelings than their reason. We convey
our intellectual meaning by the words we use and by their arrangement. We convey our
feelings, that is, our emotional meaning by the way in which we speak. To make our
words effective we need to give our attention to tune, temp emphasis and phrasing.
 Tone : Most speakers of the English language use only two or three tones. The
Welsh and West Highlanders of Scotland, the other hand, use at least an octave
even Speech is more meaningful when we use plain range of tone. Practice
increasing the range.
 Tempo : Speed of speech is measured by the number of spoken words per minute.
Pace is measured by how quickly the Listeners feel the time is passing. Speech is
more interesting to Listeners when the speed is varied. If your average speed is too
slow your listeners become bored and impatient. On the other hand if your average
is too fast your listeners do not have enough to take in what you are saying and once
again lose interest.
 Emphasis : We put meaning into words by placing emphasis at appropriate points.
Emphasize important words and phrases.
 Phrasing : The unit of writing is the single word. The unit of speech is the phrase.
It is in the moments of silence between phrases, however small, that the listener
interprets the meaning. Therefore see that the phrases are separated by pauses so
that the listeners can 'get the picture'.
 Do not worry about speaking up - speak out.
 Try not to think of the mechanics of speech while actually talking to people. Train
yourself to speak more clearly in a definite practice period and so gradually make
the 'artificial' way become the 'natural' way.
 Learn a few passages by heart to practice in spare moments when alone.
Evaluating Feedback
Some members of your test audiences may be inexperienced in giving feedback. Some
suggestions that you might like to share with them prior to their evaluation of your
presentation are as follows:
1. ''Own'' your messages.
State your reactions with ''I'' rather than ''you'' statements that generalize for all
listeners. Audience reactions vary. By owning your own reactions, you allow for the
possibility of different responses. (You might invite other reactions as well). Examples: ''I
appreciated the way you connected your speech to last week's class discussion.'' ''I was
confused when you said.... because....''
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2.Be specific and concrete.
While it might be nice to know that someone liked my introduction, it doesn't tell me
very much. Instead, one could say, for example, ''I liked the concrete illustrations of the
theory X.'' or ''I liked the way you included your own background and interest in the
introduction.''
3. Focus on behaviors, not on personality characteristics and judgments.
For example, say ''I would have liked more eye contact'' rather than ''It's clear you're
really not interested in us since you never look at us.'' Also, limit comments to behaviors
that are changeable. Distracting gestures can be brought under control. Calling attention
to a stutter, for example, is probably not helpful in a public setting.
4. Distinguish between observations, inferences, and judgments.
All of these have some role in evaluation but they are quite different. Observations
have to do with what we see and hear; inferences and conclusions we reach based on
those observations and judgments and/or evaluative response.
Listeners observe differently, and, more important, draw different inferences and
judgments from what they see and hear. Therefore, start by reporting your observations
and then explain what you inferred from them.
Speakers can hear a great deal of feedback on observations. Inferences and judgments
are more ''hearable'' when the observations they are based on are clear observations.
5. Balance positive and negative comments.
Try to emphasize the positive things which the presenter might work on constructively
in the future.
When listening to feedback on your presentation, do not be overtly sensitive to either
the wording or the actual comments; some people may feel uncomfortable giving
criticism and may not phrase their comments well. Try to understand what the test
audience member is trying to say about their understanding of the message you were
trying to transmit. You may be surprised what you felt was a perfectly logical argument
may have been lost on your audience! Ask questions about where the audience felt they
started to lose your message. Determine whether your transitions were effective.
Although your test audience's feedback is invaluable, remember this is your
presentation. Do not be intimidated into using an approach that is uncomfortable for you
or inconsistent with your goals based on feedback from your test audience.
.
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Getting Feedback from the Audience
During your practice sessions, you received feedback from the test audience that you
selected. You may have modified your presentation based on their comments or you may
have decided to concentrate on a new speaking technique during your presentation for
instance, the effective use of pauses. You would like and need feedback on the actual
presentation. You can get two types of feedback on your actual presentation: you can
arrange with someone prior to the presentation to give you feedback, telling them
specifically what you would like them to look for, or you can approach persons from the
audience after your presentation and get imprompt feedback from them. Remember, if
you select someone from the audience who does not know you or your topic well, he may
feel uncomfortable making comments on your presentation. You will have to think
carefully about what it is you would like to know and how you will phrase your questions
to get the information you need.
As a last step, always assess your own performance. You must develop your own
ability to size up your audience, recognize their responses, and modify your speaking
style accordingly.
Review Questions
1. Why is it so important to understand your audience and their needs when
planning an oral presentation?
2. Why is it important to pay special attention to defining your purpose
clearly and learning about your audience’s needs when planning an oral
presentation?
3. What is the first step in organizing a presentation?
4. What should a good opening of your presentation accomplish?
5. The process of producing an effective oral presentation includes just two
steps: writing the presentation and delivering the presentation.
a. True
b. False
6. Writing about a complex topic is usually more difficult than speaking
intelligently about the same topic.
a. True
b. False
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7. You should organize an oral presentation just as you would write a written
message.
a. True
b. False
2.9 WHAT IS A GROUP DISCUSSION
Group discussions are formal, organised discussions conducted with the intention of
evaluating a candidate in a peer group situation. The group may either be asked to discuss
a topic or they might be given a case study. Lately, some institutes have also been coming
up with 'Group Tasks', which involve a cooperative effort from the candidates to achieve
a task.
But why have group discussions at all? After all, what do GDs test that is not tested in the
written exam or during the personal interview? GDs are held because business
management is essentially a group activity; working with groups is perhaps the most
important parameter of success as a manager.
What the panel looks for:
All that one observes in a GD can be categorised into two broad areas: the Content and
the Process. The content is all about the 'matter' (or the 'what') spoken in the GD.
Whereas, the process refers to the 'how', 'when' and 'why' of the GD. Both are equally
important and need adequate attention at all stages.
Communication Skills
The first aspect is one's power of expression. In a group discussion, a candidate has to
talk effectively so that he is able to convince others. For convincing, one has to speak
forcefully and at the same time create an impact by his knowledge of the subject. A
candidate who is successful in holding the attention of the audience creates a positive
impact.
It is necessary that you should be precise and clear. As a rule evaluators do not look for
the wordage produced. Your knowledge on a given subject, your precision and clarity of
thought are the things that are evaluated. Irrelevant talks lead you nowhere. You should
speak as much as necessary, neither more nor less. Group discussions are not debating
stages.
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Ability to listen is also what evaluators judge. They look for your ability to react on what
other participants say. Hence, it is necessary that you listen carefully to others and then
react or proceed to add some more points. Your behavior in the group is also put to test to
judge whether you are a loner or can work in a group.
You should be able to convey your thoughts satisfactorily and convincingly before a
group of people. Confidence and level headedness in doing so is necessary. These add
value to your presentation. without any nervousness.
Knowledge and Ideas regarding a given subject
Knowledge of the subject under discussion and clarity of ideas are important. Knowledge
comes from consistent reading on various topics ranging from science and technology to
politics. In-depth knowledge makes one confident and enthusiastic and this in turn, makes
one sound convincing and confident.
Logical reasoning
It includes understanding the topic, generating quality arguments, analysis and a
progressive approach to a justifiable conclusion. This is one of the necessary attributes to
be seen in an influential participant. Such people convey an impression of being open
minded and logic driven rather than opinionated.
Leadership and Coordinating Capabilities
The basic aim of a group discussion is to judge a candidate's leadership qualities. The
examiner withdraws and becomes a silent spectator once the discussion starts. A
candidate should display tactfulness, skill, understanding and knowledge on varied
topics, enterprise, forcefulness and other leadership qualities to motivate and influence
other candidates who may be almost equally competent.
Behavioural and personality skills
This includes certain attributes like rapport-building, team membership, participation,
patience, assertion and accommodation, amenability, leadership, etc.
Exchange of Thoughts
A group discussion is an exchange of thoughts and ideas among members of a group.
These discussions are held for selecting personnel in organisations where there is a high
level of competition. The number of participants in a group can vary between 8 and 15.
Mostly a topic or a situation is given to group members who have to discuss it within 10
to 20 minutes.
The purpose is to get an idea about candidates in a short time and make assessments
about their skills, which normally cannot be evaluated in an interview. These skills may
be team membership, leadership skills, listening and articulation skills.
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A note is made of your contributions to the discussion, comprehension of the main idea,
the rapport you strike, patience, assertion, accommodation, amenability, etc. Body
language and eye contact too are important points which are to be considered. .
2.9.2 Addressing the Group as a Whole
In a group discussion it is not necessary to address anyone by name. Even otherwise you
may not know everyone's names. It better to address the group as a whole.
Address the person farthest from you. If he can hear you everyone else too can. Needless
to add, as for the interview, attend the group discussion in formal dress. The language
used should also be formal, not the language used in normal conversations. For instance,
words and phrases like "yar", "chalta hai", "CP", "I dunno", etc. are out. This is not to say
you should use a high sounding, pedantic language. Avoiding both, just use formal, plain
and simple language. Hinglish, (mixture of Hindi and Englishor English andtamil) should
be discarded.
Confidence and coolness while presenting your viewpoint are of help. See that you do not
keep repeating a point. Do not use more words than necessary. Do not be superfluous.
Try to be specific. Do not exaggerate.
Thorough Preparation
Start making preparations for interview and group discussions right away, without
waiting till the eleventh hour, this is, if and when called for them. Then the time left may
not be adequate. It is important to concentrate on subject knowledge and general
awareness. Hence, the prime need for thorough preparation. Remember, the competition
is very tough.
It may so happen that you are called for interviews and group discussions from three or
four organizations but are not selected by any. The reason obviously lies in your not
being well-prepared.
In a group discussion you may be given a topic and asked to express your views on it. Or
in a case study GD, students have to read a case study and suggest ways of tackling the
problem. For this you should have a good general knowledge, need to be abreast with
current affairs, should regularly read newspapers and magazines. Your group behaviour
and communication skills are on test, i.e. how you convince the others and how clearly
you are able to express your points of view. You should be articulative, generate
ideas, not sound boring, should allow others to speak, and adopt a stand on a given
subject. During the course of the GD this stand can even be changed, giving the
impression that you are open to accommodate others' viewpoints.
Additional marks may be given for starting or concluding the discussion.
Points to Remember
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Knowledge is strength. A candidate with good reading habits has more chances of
success. In other words, sound knowledge on different topics like politics,
finance, economy, science and technology is helpful.
Power to convince effectively is another quality that makes you stand out
among others.
Clarity in speech and expression is yet another essential quality.
If you are not sure about the topic of discussion, it is better not to initiate. Lack
of knowledge or wrong approach creates a bad impression. Instead, you might
adopt the wait and watch attitude. Listen attentively to others, may be you would
be able to come up with a point or two later.
A GD is a formal occasion where slang is avoided.
A GD is not a debating stage. Participants should confine themselves to
expressing their viewpoints. In the second part of the discussion candidates can
exercise their choice in agreeing, disagreeing or remaining neutral.
Language use should be simple, direct and straight forward.
Don't interrupt a speaker when the session is on. Try to score by increasing your
size, not by cutting others short.
Maintain rapport with fellow participants. Eye contact plays a major role. Nonverbal gestures, such as listening intently or nodding while appreciating
someone's viewpoint speak of you positively.
Communicate with each and every candidate present. While speaking don't keep
looking at a single member. Address the entire group in such a way that everyone
feels you are speaking to him or her.
2.9.3 Strategies for a successful GD
Sailing through Group Discussions successfully is an art. Here are some strategies that
will take you a long way in winning the day.
BE NATURAL: The best mantra is 'to be your natural self'. Do not manufacture artificial
responses. See a GD or an interview as just an extension of any other routine situation
you encounter. This will induce spontaneity in your responses and will save you the
unnecessary "What should I do if . . .?" problem.
MUST SPEAK: The first principle of participating in a GD is that you must speak.
For any GD, take a piece of paper and a pen with you and use them unless specifically
asked by the evaluators not do so. Before you start speaking, think of the major issues in
the topic in the first two minutes. Jot down points on the paper or mentally work out the
framework for analysis. Start speaking only when you have understood and analysed the
topic. If another participant has started the discussion even before you have read and
understood the topic, you could try to ask the person to wait while you finish. It may,
however, be better to continue with your analysis, while listening to what is being said,
and to speak only when you are ready.
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If you do not understand the topic, then either ask the group what the topic means and
accept that your ignorance will be obvious to all or else wait. May be the meaning will
become clear after a few minutes of the discussion, when someone else discusses it.
Avoid speaking in turn as it leads to an unnatural discussion. A GD involves a freeflowing exchange of ideas among participants. Even though there will definitely be chaos
in most competitive GDs, as all participants will be keen to be heard, any suggestion of
order, such as speaking, in turn, is unacceptable.
We have never seen a strategy of speaking turn by turn succeed in the hundreds of GDs
we have evaluated so far. Also there have been no instances of anyone being selected
after suggesting that participants speak turn by turn.
OPENING AND CLOSING A DISCUSSION: Opening a discussion is a high risk —
high return strategy. In most GDs, the opening speaker is the person who is likely to get
the maximum uninterrupted air time. The reason is simple — most other participants will
still be trying to understand the basic issues in the topic, or are too nervous to speak and
are waiting for someone else to start. Therefore, the evaluators get the best chance to
observe the opening speakers. Now this is a double-edged sword. If the opening speaker
talks sense, he will get credit because he opened the discussion and took the group in the
right direction.
If, on the other hand, the first speaker's start lacks substance, he will attract the undivided
attention of the evaluators to his shortcomings. He will be marked as a person who speaks
without thinking and merely for the sake of speaking. Also, he may be marked as
someone who leads the group in the wrong direction and does not make a positive
contribution to the group.
So remember, speaking first can make or mar your GD performance depending on how
you handle it. Speak first only if you have enough sensible things to say. Otherwise, keep
yourself silent and let someone else start.
Try and summarise the discussion at the end. In the summary, do not merely restate your
point of view, also accommodate dissenting viewpoints. If the group did not reach a
consensus, say so in your summary, but remember, do not force a consensus. Forcing a
consensus could end up working against you.
ENTERING A DISCUSION: Identify the way to enter the discussion. In a loud GD
where there are three or four aggressive participants, and where a number of people tend
to speak at the same time, it becomes difficult for others to get a chance to speak. This is
the most frequent problem encountered by participants. There is no foolproof solution to
this problem. And such a situation is pretty much likely to prevail during the actual GD
that you participate in. However, it is crucial that you speak. How can you do this?
Some guidelines on interjecting in a loud GD: You will have to decide which one is
appropriate.
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Enter the troughs: Every GD has its highs and lows. There are times when the noise level
is high and times when it is low. You could wait for the lows and time your interjection
then. However, in some GDs, if one waits for lows, he/she would never get a chance to
speak.
Enter after a person has made his point: The success of an interjection depends not only
on assertiveness but also on the receptiveness of others. If you interject when someone
else has just begun speaking, before he has made his point, it is unlikely that he will let
you have your way. On the other hand, if you wait till he has made some of his points, he
will be more amenable to letting you speak. But don't wait too long!
Enter with a supportive statement: A useful way of starting your interjection is by
supporting a point that has just been made. People will let you speak if they think you
agree with them or if you praise them. Try starting by saying something like, "I agree
with that point and I would like to add . . ."
Alternatively, praise the person who had just spoken by saying, "I think that is a very
important point . . . ". In all probability, he will let you speak.
Group dynamics
A GD, as I mentioned earlier, is a formal peer group situation and tests your behaviour as
well as your influence on the group. Formal language and mutual respect are obvious
requirements. In addition to the above, you need -
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Willingness to listen and discuss various points of view. In fact, you must not take
strong views at the beginning, and try to analyse the pros and cons of a situation.
Learn to disagree politely, if required. In fact, it is far better to put forward your
point of view (when it conflicts with someone else) without specifically saying 'I
disagree' or 'You're wrong.'
Show appreciation for good points made by others. You can make a positive
contribution by agreeing to and expanding an argument made by someone else.
Size the opportunity to make a summary towards the end, better still, a part
summary -- "Okay, so we have discussed x, y, z points. We agree on these and we
are discussing these..." Partial agreement or part consensus is a sign of the group's
progress. Complete agreement is nearly impossible in the timeframe allotted.
2.9.4 Types of GDs
Topic-based

Knowledge intensive: Background knowledge of subject is essential for effective
participation here. For example, 'Should India go in for full convertibility of the
rupee.'
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Non-knowledge intensive: Requires structured thinking, but subject knowledge is
not required. For example, 'Women make better managers
Abstract: Requires out of the box thinking, analogy and example-based
discussion. For example: 'Money is sweeter than honey' or 'Blue is better than
red.'
Case studies
A structured discussion of a specific situation, given as a case.
Role plays
Specific case where each participant is allotted a role to play.
Group tasks
Extension of case studies where specific objectives are to be achieved as a group.
Conducting GDs
While there is a great deal of variety in the methodology of conducting a Group
Discussion, let's discuss the methodology commonly used for B-school selections:
Normally 8-10 students are taken as a group, though in some cases, up to 16 people may
be included in a group. Generally 10-15 minutes is given for discussion. For a topicbased GD, two to three minutes of thinking time may be given, though often the group is
told to start right away. For case studies, however, about 15 minutes thinking time is
given.
The evaluation is done by one or two experts, usually professors from the B-school itself,
called moderators. Please remember moderators are experts with a lot of experience and
can be counted upon to observe all the details of a GD, however chaotic it may be.
The candidates may be seated in a circle or rectangular arrangement, with or without a
table. The seating arrangement may be prefixed or there may be free seating.
The discussion may be stopped at the preset time or even earlier. A conclusion or
consensus may be asked for, though that usually does not occur. A written summary or an
oral summary may be asked for at the end of the discussion from each candidate.
How to prepare
Content:

Develop subject knowledge on current affairs, general awareness and business
trends.
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Structure arguments on selected topics, considering both sides to the argument.
Plan for short and lucid points.
Practice
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GD skills cannot be learned from books. Form/ join practice groups.
Get skilled people to observe and give feedback.
Spend a lot of time analysing each GD performance, and plan specific
improvements.
As the term itself suggests, a GD is a discussion, but most students misconstrue it to be a
debate. They akin it to a wrestling match and try to score points over the other
participants. Consequently, you find a 'fish market' situation in most GDs. What is
actually expected in a GD is participation in a systematic way on a particular topic.
The prospect of a GD tends to leave most students petrified. You can get rid of that
feeling of fear by remembering you have experienced group discussions right from
childhood. Remember those heated discussions you had across the dinner table with
family members, friends and relatives? Consciously or unconsciously, they have helped
you learn a thing or two about discussing in a group.
Your parents may have come across as the most heard and respected as they were
much better well informed. Besides, instead of forcing their point of view on you, they
heard you out and presented their points in a logical and methodical manner because they
had the strength of content and courage of conviction.
As a result, you would have often felt the desire to prove that you were right and they
were wrong. A bundle of angst would build within you.
Discard that feeling now. Remember, a GD is a discussion -- and not a debate – among
the members of a group.
Discussion versus debate
Human beings love debates because we like to win and see others lose. A debate is a
perfect situation for expressing intense emotions. A GD, however, calls for a lot more
maturity and logic.
The purpose of a GD, though conducted in a competitive mode, is not to establish you as
a winner and others as losers. Its purpose, as far as you are concerned, is to help
you come across as a person with sound, logical reasoning and the ability to respect the
viewpoint of others.
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A critical difference between a GD and a debate is that, while a debate begins with two
groups' bids to outwit each other, a discussion is evolutionary; this essentially means
participants have the opportunity to refine their views in the course of the discussion.
Thus, every member needs to contribute substantially and add to the existing knowledge
base instead of pulling each other down.
The difference, thus, lies not just in style, but also in the mindset that is required to tackle
the challenges.
Why institutes conduct a GD
How often have you called a friend in office to be told that he is in a meeting? Institutes
conduct a GD because, as a manager, you will be required to attend and conduct
innumerable meetings. A GD is a simulation of what you can expect in a meeting at your
workplace.
Depending on the kind of profile you have and the company you work for, you will
be part of meetings ranging from brand launches and employee performance appraisals to
company financials, etc. For instance, if you have a meeting where senior employees are
working out a strategy to launch a new soap in the market, this is what is expected of you
before and during the meeting.
~ You will go well prepared for the meeting; this means you need to have sufficient
information on the likely points of discussion.
~ During the meeting, you will let everyone have his say. When your turn comes, you
will present your views forcefully and logically.
~ Whenever you disagree with somebody, you will present your points logically and
makes sure everybody understands what you have to say.
~ You will always attack points and not people.
~ You will carefully listen to other people's points and try to refine your own by using
other people's inputs on the subject.
How to gear up for a GD
The most important thing from now on till the time of the 20-minute GD challenge is to
build your knowledge base. You must have done your daily dose of reading -newspapers, magazines, etc -- Analyse issues from various angles.
~ Maintain a positive attitude. Stay motivated and excited about the upcoming challenge.
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The Group Discussion and Personal Interview stage is also the most decisive one; a bad
performance here can undo all the good work you put in CAT. So, continue to stay
focused and competitive.
~ One of the most critical challenges of coming across as a good participant in a
discussion is to have the ability to see things from the other person's viewpoint and
respect it even if you strongly disagree.
Practice makes you perfect
~ As part of your preparation, you must participate in a few mock GDs. Run through
these performances later, identify your areas of strength and areas for improvement and
work on them consciously.
~ Success in a GD also depends on outgrowing old habits like indulging in small
talk with a group of friends. Whenever you have a gathering of sorts, try not to indulge in
loose talk. Focus on discussing a topic of current relevance. Thus, an informal gathering
of friends can be converted into a GD practice session.
After each discussion, you must, as a group, analyse one another individually and suggest
areas for improvement. This way, you will also get exposed to your fellow aspirants'
perspectives and broaden your thought process.
The skills you develop to ace your GD will prove to be an asset even after you begin your
professional career.
2.10 MEETING MANAGEMENT
In any organization, "meetings" are a vital part of the organization of work and the flow
of information. They act as a mechanism for gathering resources from many sources and
pooling them towards a common objective. They are disliked and mocked because they
are usually futile, boring, time-wasting, dull, and inconvenient with nothing for most
people to do except doodle while some opinionated has-been extols the virtues of his/her
last great (misunderstood) idea. Your challenge is to break this mould and to make your
meetings effective. As with every other managed activity, meetings should be planned
beforehand, monitored for effectiveness, and reviewed afterwards for improving their
management.
A meeting is the ultimate form of managed conversation; as a manager, you can organize
the information and structure of the meeting to support the effective communication of
the participants. Some of the ideas below may seem a little too precise for an easy going,
relaxed, semi-informal team atmosphere - but if you manage to gain a reputation for
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holding decisive, effective meetings, then people will value this efficiency and to prepare
professionally so that their contribution will be heard. While meetings are wonderful
tools for generating ideas, expanding on thoughts and managing group activity, this faceto-face contact with team members and colleagues can easily fail without adequate
preparation and leadership.
Preparation
To ensure everyone involved has the opportunity to provide their input preparation has to
begin with

Identify the purpose, or expected outcome of the meeting.

Make sure the right people will be there.

Develop the agenda.

Prepare necessary materials.

Double check the room set up.

Lead the meeting as a facilitator

Agree on ground rules

Practice facilitation skills

Use consensus-building and decision making techniques

Be prepared to handle conflict as it surfaces

Clarify "next steps" and assignments

Reflect on effectiveness of the meeting (evaluation)
Reasons for meeting
People meet for one of, or for a combination of these reasons:

Information exchange (acquiring or disseminating information or both)

Self-awareness or consciousness raising

Learning (topics and skills)

Creative thinking and generating ideas (brainstorming)

Critical thinking (analysis, goal setting, problem solving, decisionmaking)

Accomplishing tasks

Building relationships and commitment
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Agenda
Knowing the purpose of the meeting is a first step in structuring the agenda.
Having a firm idea of where you want to be by the end of of the meeting suggests
what must be covered during the meeting. Do we need to review last year's
budget? Do we want to create a common vision of our organization in the year
2020? If we want consensus on four short-term goals, how can we both inspire
creative thinking and maintain a sense of reality?
Each step in reaching the desired meeting outcome is thought through carefully to
determine the amount of time needed.

Establish how long the meeting is to last

List the agenda items that need to be covered or process steps that need to
occur

Estimate how long each item will take factoring in time for dialogue

Leave about 15 minutes minimum at the end for summary and agreement
on what comes next.
Should you cancel?
As with all conversations, you must first ask: is it worth your time? If the meeting
involves the interchange of views and the communication of the current status of related
projects, then you should be generous with your time. But you should always consider
canceling a meeting which has little tangible value.
How long?
It may seem difficult to predict the length of a discussion - but you must. Discussions
tend to fill the available time which means that if the meeting is open-ended, it will drift
on forever. You should stipulate a time for the end of the meeting so that everyone
knows, and everyone can plan the rest of their day with confidence.
It is wise to make this expectation known to everyone involved well in advance and to
remind them at the beginning of the meeting. There is often a tendency to view meetings
as a little relaxation since no one has to be active throughout. You can redress this view
by stressing the time-scale and thus forcing the pace of the discussion: "this is what we
have to achieve, this is how long we have to get it done".
If some unexpected point arises during the meeting then realize that since it is
unexpected: 1) you might not have the right people present, 2) those may not have the
necessary information, and 3) a little thought might save a lot of discussion. If the new
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discussion looks likely to be more than a few moments, stop it and deal with the agreed
agenda. The new topic should then be dealt with at another "planned" meeting.
Who should attend?
As a general rule, planning can be accomplished by a sub-group within an
organization not everyone has to participate. Ideally, the planning group will be
comprised of at least one person from each unit or each level of organizational
work (i.e., staff, board, volunteer). In addition to representative participation, the
planning group should have someone with authority to make decisions, someone
who has responsibility for carrying out decisions, someone who knows the
milieux backwards and forwards (subject matter expertise), and input from
someone who uses or benefits from the service or product the organization offers.
In addition to diversity of experience, planning teams should encompass diversity
of thinking styles. The world sometimes seems to be sharply divided into two
types of people big picture visionaries, and practical nuts-and-bolts people.
Planning teams require both types. The big picture folks have difficulty reaching
closure and won't be able to convert a vision to an action plan. Developing stepby-step procedures is what the nuts-and-bolts types like doing best.
2.10.2 MEETING MANAGEMENT - CONDUCTING
Whether you actually sit as the Chair or simply lead from the side-lines, as the manager
you must provide the necessary support to coordinate the contributions of the
participants. The degree of control which you exercise over the meeting will vary
throughout; if you get the structure right at the beginning, a meeting can effectively run
itself especially if the participants know each other well. In a team, your role may be
partially undertaken by others; but if not, you must manage.
Maintaining Communication
Your most important tools are:


Clarification - always clarify: the purpose of the meeting, the time allowed, the
rules to be observed (if agreed) by everyone.
Summary - at each stage of the proceedings, you should summarize the current
position and progress: this is what we have achieved/agreed, this is where we
have reached.
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
Focus on stated goals - at each divergence or pause, re-focus the proceedings on
the original goals.
Code of conduct
In any meeting, it is possible to begin the proceedings by establishing a code of conduct,
often by merely stating it and asking for any objections (which will only be accepted if a
demonstrably better system is proposed). Thus if the group contains opinionated windbags, you might all agree at the onset that all contributions should be limited to two
minutes (which focuses the mind admirably). You can then impose this with the full
backing of the whole group.
Matching method to purpose
The (stated) purpose of a meeting may suggest a specific way of conducting the event,
and each section might be conducted differently. For instance, if the purpose is:




to convey information, the meeting might begin with a formal presentation
followed by questions
to seek information, the meeting would start with a short (clear) statement of the
topic/problem and then an open discussion supported by notes on a display, or a
formal brainstorming session
to make a decision, the meeting might review the background and options,
establish the criteria to be applied, agree who should make the decision and how,
and then do it
to ratify/explain decisions, etc etc
As always, once you have paused to ask yourself the questions: what is the purpose of the
meeting and how can it be most effectively achieved; your common sense will then
suggest a working method to expedite the proceedings. You just have to deliberately
pause. Manage the process of the meeting and the meeting will work.
Support
The success of a meeting will often depend upon the confidence with which the
individuals will participate. Thus all ideas should be welcome. No one should be laughed
at or dismissed ("laughed with" is good, "laughed at" is destructive). This means that
even bad ideas should be treated seriously - and at least merit a specific reason for not
being pursued further. Not only is this supportive to the speaker, it could also be that a
good idea has been misunderstood and would be lost if merely rejected. But basically
people should be able to make naive contributions without being made to feel stupid,
otherwise you may never hear the best ideas of all.
Avoid direct criticism of any person. For instance, if someone has not come prepared
then that fault is obvious to all. If you leave the criticism as being simply that implicit in
the peer pressure, then it is diffuse and general; if you explicitly rebuke that person, then
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it is personal and from you (which may raise unnecessary conflict). You should merely
seek an undertaking for the missing preparation to be done: we need to know this before
we can proceed, could you circulate it to us by tomorrow lunch?
2.10.3 Responding to problems
The rest of this section is devoted to ideas of how you might deal with the various
problems associated with the volatile world of meetings. Some are best undertaken by the
designated Chair; but if he/she is ineffective, or if no one has been appointed, you should
feel free to help any meeting to progress. After all, why should you allow your time to be
wasted.
If a participant strays from the agenda item, call him/her back: "we should deal with that
separately, but what do you feel about the issue X?"
If there is confusion, you might ask: "do I understand correctly that ...?"
If the speaker begins to ramble, wait until an inhalation of breath and jump in: "yes I
understand that such and such, does any one disagree?"
If a point is too woolly or too vague ask for greater clarity: "what exactly do you have in
mind?"
If someone interrupts (someone other than a rambler), you should suggest that: "we hear
your contribution after Gretchen has finished."
If people chat, you might either simply state your difficulty in hearing/concentrating on
the real speaker. or ask them a direct question: "what do you think about that point."
If someone gestures disagreement with the speaker (e.g. by a grimace), then make sure
they are brought into the discussion next: "what do you think Gretchen?"
If you do not understand, say so: "I do not understand that, would you explain it a little
more; or do you mean X or Y?"
If there is an error, look for a good point first: "I see how that would work if X Y Z, but
what would happen if A B C?"
If you disagree, be very specific: "I disagree because ..."
CONCLUDING REMARKS
The tower of Babel collapsed because people could no longer communicate; their speech
became so different that no one could understand another. You need to communicate to
coordinate your own work and that of others; without explicit effort your conversation
will lack communication and so your work too will collapse though misunderstanding
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and error. The key is to treat a conversation as you would any other managed activity: by
establishing an aim, planning what to do, and checking afterwards that you have achieved
that aim. Only in this way can you work effectively with others in building through
common effort.
REVIEW QUESTIONS :
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
What are the various types of non-verbal communication ? How can non –
verbal communication be used effectively ?
How is non – verbal communication different from verbal communication ?
What are its strengths and limitations ?
“Face is the index of mind. “Discuss with reference to facial expressions.
Bring out the significance of the statement, “Bodies do not lie”.
Write a short note on any two facets of body language (Face, eyes, voice,
etc.).
Write brief note on importance of feedback in business communication.
List out ant any four barriers to effective communication.
Why is the extemporaneous method of delivery superiorto the other methods
for business presentation?
What are five specific do’s and five specific don’ts tat should remember while
interviewing?
What communication skills are you likely to use in a job interview? Which
will be most important to the recruiter
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