MODULE 1
UNDERSTANDING DEVELOPMENT
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this module, students are expected to be able to.
1. Explain and clarify the basic concepts involved in human development.
2. Enumerate and explain the principles of development and critically assess some
issues in human development.
3. Compare the various theories of development and explain their contribution in
the understanding of the developmental process.
4. Analyze their own experiences and development in the light of the principles,
issues and theories discussed in this module.
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CHAPTER 1
BASIC CONCEPTS, PRINCIPLES AND ISSUES IN
DEVELOPMENT
DEFINING DEVELOPMENT
What is Development?
Development is usually viewed as a process of growth and maturation that an
individual undergoes throughout his/her lifetime. The study of human development is,
above all, the study of change.
Bukatko and Daehler (1998) describes development as encompassing all the physical and
psychological changes a human being undergoes in a lifetime, from the moment of
conception until death.
Regardless of the terms we use to pose these and other questions, we can think of
development as “a progressive series of changes that occur in the predictable pattern as the
result of interactions between biological and environmental factors” (Salkind, 2004).
In looking at development, it is important to consider the following points:
 Development is the result of complex interactions between biological and
environmental influences.
 At no other time of life does change take place at such a rapid pace as in childhood
and adolescence.
 The range and complexity of every young person’s achievements in the first two
decades of life can only be called extraordinary.
Development as a Field of Study
Developmental Psychology is the discipline concerned with the scientific study of
changes in human behaviors and mental activities as they occur over a lifetime.
Developmental psychologists rely on the general principles of scientific research to collect
information about growth and change in children.
An essential ingredient of the scientific process is the construction of a theory, which is a
set of ideas or propositions that helps to organize or explain observable phenomena. These
theories will be described and explored in this module.
The early scientific studies of children, concentrated on specific areas of child
behavior such as speech, emotions, or play interests and activities. This field was called
“child psychology” which centered on the psychological phenomena of the preschool and
school-age child.
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In time, it became apparent that studying different areas of child behavior at different age
levels was not be enough. Thus, interest began to shift, and the name child psychology was
changed to child development which emphasizes that the focus was now on the pattern of
the child’s development rather than certain aspects of development.
PRINCIPLES AND ISSUES IN DEVELOPMENT
Developmental psychologists argue that an accurate picture of the developmental
pattern is fundamental to an understanding of children and adolescents. Likewise, knowledge
of the factors that cause variations in development are essential.
In 1978 , Elizabeth Hurlock outlined ten principles of development. Though certain
modifications were made, to this date, these principles are still the subject of discussion in
understanding the processes and issues on human development. These 10 principles are
outlined below (Hurlock, 1978).
1. Development Involves Changes
2. Early Development is More Critical Than Later Development
3. Development is the Product of Maturation and Learning
4. The Developmental Pattern is Predictable
5. The Developmental Pattern Has Predictable Characteristics
6. There are Individual Differences in Development
7. There are Periods in the Developmental Pattern
8. There are Social Expectations for Every Developmental Period
9. Every Area of Development Has Potential Hazards
10. Happiness Varies at Different Periods in Development
Let us examine each principle of development and see how it can help us in understanding
children and adolescents.
1. Development Involves Changes
From conception to the time of death, the person undergoes a lot of changes. Thus, we
often say that a person grows and develops.
Growth refers to quantitative changes such as increases in size and structure. On the
other hand, development involves both qualitative and quantitative changes. It may be
defined as a “progressive series of orderly, coherent changes” (Hurlock, 1978).
“Progressive” means directional or leading forward, and “coherent” suggests a definite
relationship between the changes taking place and those that precede of follow them.
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For example, as a result of the growth of the brain, the child has a greater capacity for
learning, for remembering, and for reasoning. The child grows mentally as well as
physically.
The goal of developmental changes is self-realization or the achievement of genetic
potentials. Whether the person will reach his full potential depend what obstacles are
encountered and how the person overcomes these obstacles.
2. Early Development is More Critical than Later Development
Histories of maladjusted children from preschool years to high school or college revealed
that most of them were poorly adjusted as young children. In his studies of personality
maladjustment, Sigmund Freud found that personality disorders could be traced to
unfavorable childhood experiences or faulty upbringing. Likewise, Erikson pointed out
in his psychosocial stages of development that what happens in childhood determines
man’s later behavior as an adult. For example, in his babyhood a child learns either to
have “trust or mistrust”, depending on his experiences with people around him.
Most psychologists and educators agree that the preschool years from 2 to 5 years are
very critical because it is the period during which the foundations are laid for the
complex behavioral structures that are built in a child’s lifetime.
3. Development is the Product of Maturation and Learning
Maturation or intrinsic maturing – is the unfolding of characteristics potentially
present in the individual that come from his/her genetic endowment.
Learning is development that comes from exercise and effort, which depends on the
opportunities to learn that is provided by the environment.
Both maturation and learning or heredity and environment play an important role in
the development. The development of physical and mental traits comes from an intrinsic
maturing of these traits and from exercise and effort on the part of the individual
For example, a child will learn to walk only if the bones have matured enough to allow
him to stand. But this also involves creeping, crawling, sitting, and eventually walking.
But learning can be facilitated when the individual is given environmental support.
4. The Developmental Pattern is Predictable
The human species follows a pattern of development peculiar to the species. In both
prenatal and postnatal development, there is usually a genetic sequence with certain traits
appearing at fixed intervals.
In physical development, there are two laws of the directional sequence of development,
the cephalocaudal and the proximodistal laws. In the cephalocaudal law, development
spreads over the body from head to foot. In the proximodistal law, development
proceeds from the central axis of the body toward the extremities.
Patterns of mental development are also as predictable as those of physical development.
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5. The Developmental Pattern Has Predictable Characteristics
The following are some predictable characteristics common to development of children
a) Similarity in developmental patterns – all children follow a similar developmental
pattern with one stage leading to the next.
b) Development proceeds from general to specific responses – in mental and motor
responses, general activity always precedes specific activities.
c) Development in continuous – although it occurs at different rates (sometimes slow
or rapid), development continues from conception to death
d) Different Areas Develop at Different Rates – like physical traits, intellectual
capacities develop at different rates and reach maturity at different ages.
e) There is correlation in development – Studies show that “desirable traits tend to go
together”. No negative correlations were found between intelligence and size,
strength, physical well-being, or emotional stability.
6. There are Individual Differences in Development
Although the pattern of development is similar for all children, they differ in the rate
and manner in which they follow the predictable pattern. Some children develop in a
smooth gradual fashion while others move in spurts. They do not reach the same
point of development at the same age.
What causes these differences in development?
7. There are Periods in the Developmental Pattern
Because certain traits are prominent at different ages, it is possible to mark off major
periods in development which are characterized by biological events and changes in the
individual’s behavior. According to Hurlock (1978), these periods are as follows :
a) Prenatal period – conception to birth
b) Infancy – birth to 10-14 days; period of the neonate
c) Babyhood – 2 weeks to 2 years
d) Early Childhood – 2 to 6 years
e) Late Childhood – 6 years to puberty (13 years in girls and 14 years in boys)
f) Puberty (11 to 16 years) – approximately 2 years overlap the end of childhood and 2
years overlap the beginning of adolescence.
Beyond childhood, the major developmental periods are:
g) Adolescence – 13 to 19 years
h) Adulthood – divided into early, middle, and late adulthood
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8. There are Social Expectations for Every Developmental Period
Social expectations or “developmental tasks” are defined by Robert Havighurst (1952)
as a task which arises at or about a certain period in the life of an individual, successful
achievement of which leads to his happiness and success with later tasks, while failure
leads to unhappiness in the individual, disapproval by society, and difficulty with later
tasks”. Some developmental tasks result from physical maturation such as learning to
walk while other arise from cultural pressures of society, such as learning to read.
Developmental tasks serve 3 important purposes:
a) as guidelines to help parents and teachers know what children should learn at a given
age.
b) As motivating forces for children to learn what the social group expects them to
learn at that age.
c) They tell parents and teachers what will be expected of children in the immediate and
remote future, to help them prepare children to meet these expectations.
9. Every Area of Development Has Potential Hazards
At every age, there are hazards in some areas of development that interfere with the
normal pattern. Some of these hazards are environmental, while others come from
within. They affect the physical, psychological and social adjustments that the child or
adolescent is attempting to make. As a result, they change the developmental pattern by
producing a plateau in which no forward movement occurs, or may cause a regression to
a lower stage. This results to adjustment problems on the part of the individual.
10. Happiness Varies at Different Periods in Development
Traditional belief mark childhood as the happiest period of life. This is because almost
everyone find the helplessness of babies and children appealing and tries to make them
happy. But some babies and children are unwanted, neglected, mistreated, and abused.
Thus, this period can be a very unhappy stage in their lives.
Puberty can be an unhappy and tumultuous stage for many children. Social and
emotional adjustments at this stage accompany the many physical changes which may be
difficult for the child to handle.
Happiness (well-being) or the lack of it has such a great impact on the personal and
social adjustments of children and adolescents.
How Happiness Affects Childhood Adjustment
 Happy children are normally healthy and energetic. Unhappiness saps their
strength and energy and lowers their general physical well-being.
 Happy children turn their energies into purposeful activities, while unhappy
children dissipate their energies in brooding, daydreaming, and self-pity.
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 Happiness improves children’s looks by giving them a cheerful expression.
People react positively to cheerfulness and negatively to the “whipped-dog”
expression characteristic of an unhappy child.
 Happiness supplies a strong motivation to do things, while unhappiness
stifles motivation.
 Happy children accept frustrations more calmly and try to understand the
reasons for frustrations. Unhappy children react with temper outbursts, and
this militates against their learning why frustrations exist.
 Happiness encourages social contacts and participation in social activities.
Unhappiness encourages children to be withdrawn and self-oriented.
 With repetition, happiness becomes a habit. In the same way, unhappiness
can develop into a habit.
 A happy childhood does not guarantee adult success, but it lays the
foundation for success, while unhappiness lays the foundation for failure.
ISSUES IN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
The issues raised by developmental psychologists continue to stir debate and new questions
in understanding human development. Some of the most intriguing issues are outlined
below. Examine each issue and discuss how they impact on the study of children and
adolescents.
1. What Roles Do Nature and Nurture Play in Development?
With many decades of debate and research over the issue of nature versus nurture,
many have come to believe that it is not a question of the greater importance of
environmental influences or hereditary factors, or how much of it is present; rather, what is
important is the way in which these two elements interact (Anastasi, 1958, in Salkind, 2004).
The Interactional Model can help to explain the relative effects of genetic and environmental
influences on development. Unless one set of influences, environment or hereditary is clearly
dominant, there is a subtle interplay or interaction between the roles of heredity and
environment.
2. The Process That Guides Development – Maturation and Learning
Maturation is a biological process in which developmental changes are controlled by internal
factors. Events that result from maturation (such as walking or secondary sex changes at
puberty) are characteristic of the species; they are not learned. Learning refers to
developmental changes that result from exercise or practice, and the outcomes of learning
are highly individualized and specific.
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3. The shape of development. Is it Continuous of discontinuous?
Salkind (2004) explains that those who view development as a continuous process believe
that (a) changes occur in small, gradual steps, (b) the outcomes of development are “more of
the same” and not qualitatively different from what was present earlier; and (c) the same
general laws underlie the process at all points along the developmental continuum. Theories
of development that tend to stress the importance of environmental factors, such as
behavioral approaches, view development as continuous.
Those who view development as discontinuous believe (a) that developmental changes are
abrupt and represent qualitative differences from what existed before and (b) that different
general laws characterize various developmental changes. Theorists like Jean Piaget believe
that development is characterized by a series of independent, qualitatively different stages.
4. How prominent are individual differences in development?
Although all individuals have a great deal in common, we are all different as well. By
understanding how various theories of development explain these differences, one can gain
some insight into the differences among these theories. Even from birth, individual
differences are apparent in humans.
ENRICHMENT ACTIVITIES
Critical Thinking:
1. Why are early foundations important in development? Do children really outgrow
undesirable traits as they grow older?
2. Explain further “maturation sets limits to what a person can do or become”.
3. Discuss the importance of readiness to learn or “teachable moment” in learning and
development.
4. Differentiate longitudinal study from cross sectional study which are used in studying
human development. Cite examples to explain the advantages and disadvantages of
using each type of study.
References
1. Bee, Helen Lifespan Development 2nd edition. 1998 Addison Wesley Educational
Publishers Inc.:New York.
2. Bukatko, Danuta and Daehler, Marvin W. Child Development: A Thematic
Approach 3rd edition. Houghton Mifflin Company: Boston
3. Hurlock, Elizabeth B. Child Development 6th Edition (1978) McGraw-Hill Book
Company: New York.
4. Salkind, Neil J. An Introduction to Theories of Human Development (2004) SAGE
Publications Inc: California.
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CHAPTER 2
THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT
Theory: Definition and Function
According to Salkind (2004) a theory is a group of logically related statements (for example,
formulas, ideas and rules) that explains events that happened in the past and helps to predict
future events.
Good theories, grounded in careful research, help us think about and understand processes
and issues in development. They serve the following purposes: a) to guide scientists in
collecting information needed to describe some aspect of a phenomenon. b) to help
scientists in integrating a set of facts into general categories and (c ) to help scientists
present material and information in an organized and coherent way, so that answers to
questions are not just random, groundless efforts.
All of the theories of development presented in this module have significant contributions to
our understanding of the developmental process. Different theories are in agreement to
some points and differ on others.
MATURATION AND BIOLOGICAL MODELS
As a physician, Arnold Gesell believed that the sequence of development of the organism is
essentially under the control of biological systems and the process of maturation. Although
environment is of some importance, it acts only in a supportive role and does not provide
any impetus for change.
Gesell summarized his theory in five distinct principles of development, which he later
applied to behavior. All these principles assume that the formation of structures is necessary
before any event outside the organism can have an influence on development.(Salkind, 2004)
1. Principle of Developmental Direction – development has direction and this
direction is basically a function of preprogrammed genetic mechanisms. This
principle is supported by the cephalocaudal and proximodistal trends in
development.
2. Principle of Reciprocal Interweaving – opposing sets of forces are dominant
at different times during the developmental cycle. The work of these
opposing forces results in integration and progression toward a higher level
of developmental maturity.
3. Principle of Functional Asymmetry – behaviors go through periods of
asymmetric development that allow the organism to achieve a measure of
maturity a later stages.
4. Principle of Individuating Maturation – development involves predetermined
sequential patterning that is revealed as the organism matures. It stresses the
importance of a growth matrix.
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5. Principle of Self-Regulatory Fluctuation – every stage of disequilibrium or
imbalance in development is followed by a stage of equilibrium.
Gesell also emphasizes the importance of wide-ranging and stable individual differences. He
breaks down individual differences in behavioral development into four areas: motor
behavior, adaptive behavior, language behavior, and personal-social behavior.
The maturation model stresses the importance of biological influences on development and
has had its greatest impact on child rearing practices.
PSYCHODYNAMIC OR PSYCHOSOCIAL MODELS
The psychodynamic (or psychoanalytic) model, developed initially by Sigmund Freud,
assumes that development consists of dynamic, structural, and sequential components, each
of which is influenced by a continuously renewed need for the gratification of basic instincts.
(Salkind, 2004). How psychic energy – energy of life or libidinal energy is channeled through
these different components constitutes the basis of developmental process and individual
differences.
Freud describes three separate, yet interdependent, psychological structures – the id, the ego
and the superego – and the ways in which they regulate behavior.
Freud’s Psychosexual Theory of Development
Freud proposed that many aspects of the individual’s personality originate in an early
and broad form of childhood sexuality and that gratification of this sexuality changes
throughout the various stages of development. He believed that human behavior is fueled by
biological instincts that produce psychological forces or libidinal energy which requires
eventual discharge.
Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development (from Bukatko and Daehler, 1998, with
modifications)
Stage
Focus
Consequence for Personality
Oral (birth to Libidinal energy centered on
12 months
the mouth. Gratification
through sucking, chewing,
eating, and biting.
Inadequate oral gratification may lead to
fixations in the form of thumb sucking, or
other oral activity such as over eating, or
other forms of taking things in (such as
wealth or power) ; possible “biting”
(sarcastic) personality.
Anal (1-3 years)
If toilet training demands are too lax,
fixations may occur in being messy,
disorderly, wasteful, or excessively
demonstrative. Strict toilet training may
result in possessive, retentive (frugal and
stingy) personality and excessive concern
with cleanliness and orderliness.
Libidinal energy centered on
anal region. Gratification
through controlling and
expelling fecal wastes.
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Phallic
years
(3-5 Libidinal energy centered on
genitals. Gratification possible through expressions of
desire for opposite-sex
parent.
Beginning rivalry with members of the
same sex. Fixations appear as inordinate
ties to opposite-sex parent or difficulty in
achieving appropriate relationships with
members of the same and opposite sex.
Latency (5 years Libidinal
energy
is Energies are channeled to emotionally safe
to adolescence
suppressed and not shown areas, such as intellectual, athletic, and
through any body region
social achievements.
Genital
(adolescence
and beyond)
Libidinal energy centered on
mature forms of genital
stimulation.
Gratification
directed toward reproductive functions.
Complete independence from parents
becomes possible. A balance between love
and work marks normal psychosexual
development.
Freud believed that the person’s progression through these stages is greatly influenced by
maturation. However, the environment also plays a critical role in this normal progression.
Lack of opportunity to have needs sufficiently met or express them adequately may have
negative consequences on how the child relates to others and for feelings of self-worth.
Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory
Erik Erikson followed Freud’s developmental theory to chart eight stages of development.
Instead of biological and sexual explanations, he emphasized psychosocial needs and
conflicts that need to be resolved at each stage of development. His theory of development
highlights the child’s need to initiate adaptive modes of functioning while meeting the variety
of demands imposed by the society in which he/she lives.
According to Erikson, psychological development results from the interaction between
biological needs and social demands.
Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development (Bukatko and Daehler, 1998)
Stage
Adaptive Mode
Significant Events and Outcomes
Basic Trust vs. Incorporation – to take Babies must find consistency, predictability
Mistrust (birth to in (and give in return)
and reliability in the caregiver’s behavior.
1 year)
Out of these experiences babies learn to trust
the world and themselves or to gain a sense
of hope.
Autonomy
vs. Control – to hold on The child begins to explore, make messes,
Shame and doubt and to let go
say “no”, and make choices. He comes to
(1-3 years)
understand what is socially acceptable or
unacceptable without losing the feeling of
being able to manage or the sense of will.
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Initiative vs. Guilt Intrusion – to go after
(3-6 years)
The child begin to make plans, set goals, and
persist in both physical and social changes.
Even though frustration is inevitable, the
child’s goal is to remain enthusiastic and
bold and to gain a sense of purpose.
Industry
vs. Construction – to build The child acquires and extends skills to the
Inferiority ( 6 things and relationships wider culture, performs “work” in the sense
years to puberty)
of education or support of the family. Failure
and feelings of inadequacy occur, but the
child must be able to feel competent and
achieve a sense of skill.
Identity
Identity
Confusion
(puberty
adulthood)
vs. Integration – to be The adolescent attempts to bring together
oneself (or not to be experiences to discover his or her identity
oneself)
and place in society. This trying out of many
roles should lead to an answer to the
to
question “Who am I?” or a sense of fidelity
to self.
Intimacy vs.
Solidarity – to lose and The young adult who has achieved a sense of
identity is no longer self-absorbed and can
Isolation (young find oneself in another
now share himself with another. Inability to
adulthood)
do so contributes to feelings of isolation and
self absorption and the absence of a sense of
love.
Generativity vs.
Stagnation
(middle
adulthood)
Productivity - to make The adult not only produces things and ideas
and take care of
through work but also creates and cares for
the next generation. Lack of productive
endeavors leads to boredom, stagnation, and
the absence of a sense of caring.
Integrity
vs. Acceptance – to be (by The older adult reviews his life and
Despair (old age) having been) and to face reevaluates its worth. Acceptance of that life,
not being
even though all goals have not been
achieved, and of death contributes to a sense
of wisdom.
Significant Contributions
1. Many practitioners have adopted Erikson’s theory as a useful framework from which to
deal with parents and children. Educators often find Erikson’s descriptions of the
developmental tasks useful when they are choosing and designing curricula.
2. The commonsense dimensions of Erikson’s stages are appealing and because in his
writings he pays central attention to schools, neighborhoods, cultural values, and social
patterns, his readers find examples of experiences they can identify with.
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BEHAVIORAL-LEARNING MODELS
The behavioral perspective views development as a function of learning and as something
that proceeds according to certain laws or principles of learning. Most important, it places
the major impetus for growth and development outside of the individual – in the
environment, rather than within the organism itself.
Learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior as a result of such
experiences as exploration, observation, and practice.
The basic assumptions of behavioral models are:
1. Development is a function of learning.
2. Development is the result of different types of learning
3. Individual differences in development reflect differences in the histories and
past experiences of individuals.
4. Development results from the organization of existing behaviors. It
progresses from simple behaviors to more complex ones, all subject to the
laws of learning.
5. Biological factors set general limits on the kinds of behaviors that develop,
but the environment determines the behaviors in which the individual
engages.
6. The development of the individual is not directly related to biologically
determined stages.
Behavior analysis is a theoretical account of development that relies on several basic
principles of learning, particularly classical and operant conditioning, to explain
developmental changes in behavior (Bukatko and Daehler, 1998).
Ivan Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning is a type of learning that occurs when two different
events happen simultaneously and one of the events takes on the quality of eliciting the
other (or the original event). The application of Pavlov’s work on the conditioned reflex to
the process of development can be summed up by two points: (Salkind, 2004).
1. Learning is governed by relationships between stimuli in the environment and the
organism’s reaction to those stimuli.
2. The way one response generalizes to other stimuli (and in turn is differentiated from
other stimuli) explains how an organism becomes increasingly complex in its
multifaceted relationship to the environment.
B. F. Skinner’s Operant Conditioning assume that behavior is a function of its
consequences or what follows it. When a behavior is reinforced by a stimulus, the strength
of the association between the stimulus and the behavior is increased.
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Operant and classical conditioning have been shown to have enormous potential to
change behavior. If the consequences of behavior (such as studying) are good (such as high
grades), that behavior is likely to continue in the future. If the consequences of the behavior
(such as staying out past curfew) are not good (such as loss of privileges), the behavior will
change (perhaps the person will come home an earlier hour or not go out at all on
weeknights).
Operant and classical conditioning have become powerful means by which teachers,
therapists, and caregivers bring about changes in behavior ranging from the elimination of
temper tantrums or thumb sucking to encouraging healthy diets and habits.
Social Learning Theory
This theory emphasizes the importance of learning through observation and imitation
(modeling) of the behaviors displayed by others. It underscores observational learning, the
acquisition of behaviors from listening to and watching other people, as a particularly
important means of learning new behaviors.
Albert Bandura’s theory, now known as social cognitive theory incorporate four cognitive
processes which he believes are important in observational learning. Attentional processes
determine what information will be acquired from models and memory processes convert
these observations into stored mental representations. Production processes then
transform these mental representations into matching behaviors, and motivational
processes define which behaviors are likely to be performed.
COGNITIVE-DEVELOPMENTAL MODEL
The cognitive-developmental model in human development stresses the individual’s active
rather that reactive role in the developmental process and in the social and cultural context
within which he or she develops. The basic assumptions of the model are as follows:
1. Development occurs in a series of qualitatively distinct stages.
2. These stages always follow the same sequence, but they do not necessarily occur at
the same times for all individuals.
3. These stages are hierarchically organized, such that later stages subsume the
characteristics of earlier ones.
Of primary interest to the cognitive-developmental psychologist is the sequence of stages
and the process of transition from one stage to the next. It is for this reason that researchers
have focused on the set of stage-related behaviors and their correlates across such
dimensions as cognitive or social development. For example, a psychologist might be
interested in examining how children of different ages (and presumably different
developmental stages) solve a similar type of problem. After observing many children of
different ages, the psychologist can postulate the existence of different types of underlying
structures that are responsible for the strategies children use.
A great deal of Jean Piaget’s work has been directed towards reaching a better
understanding of the thinking processes that children at different developmental levels use
to solve problems. In Piaget’s model, development entails four factors: maturation,
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experience, social transmission, and equilibration. He outlined four stages of intellectual or
cognitive development namely: Sensorimotor (birth – 2 years), Pre-operational (2-7 years),
Concrete Operational (7-12 years), Formal Operational (12 years – adulthood).
According to Piaget:
1. Development is a discontinuous process characterized by abrupt changes
from stage to stage.
2. Disequilibrium is the motivation for further development.
Another cognitive-developmental theorist, Lev Vygotsky, also placed a great deal of
importance on accomplishments of the individual in his or her own actions. But unlike
Piaget, Vygotsky emphasized the role that culture and outside influences play in leading the
individual toward the next level of development.
According to Vygotsky:
1. Children construct their own knowledge through activity and interaction with culture
and society.
2. Development cannot be separated from the social context within which it occurs.
3. Learning can lead or set the stage for development.
4. Language plays a central role in mental development.
A critical element of Vygotsky’s theory is the concept of the zone of proximal development, or
ZPD, which is the distance between the child’s potential level of development and what the
child can currently do.
The greatest impacts of the cognitive-developmental approach have been in the different
areas of education.
An Overview of Major Theories of Development (Salkind, 2004)
Maturational and Psychodynamic Behavioral
Biological
CognitiveDevelopmental
What are the The sequence and Humans
are Development is Development is
basic
content
of
conflicted
a function of
the result of
assumptions
development is
beings,
and
the laws of
the person’s
of this theory?
determined
individual
learning, and
active particimostly
by
differences as
environment
pation in the
biological
well as normal
has important
developmental
factors and the
growth result
influences on
process in inevolutionary
from
the
growth and
ter action with
history of the
resolution of
development.
important
species.
those conflicts.
environmental
influences.
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An Overview of Major Theories of Development (Salkind, 2004)
What is the Recapitulation
Embryological
philosophical
theory,
rationale for
reformation and
the theory?
predeterminism
What are the Growth
important
biological
variables most
systems
often studied
in this theory?
Tabula
rasa Predeterminism
(blank slate)
of Effects
of Frequency
instincts
on
behaviors
needs and the
way instincts
are satisfied
of Stage-related
transformatio
ns
and
qualitative
changes from
one stage to
another
What is the Use of cinematic Case studies and Conditioning
Observation of
primary
records,
the
indirect
and modeling
social
and
method used
anthropological
examination of
paradigms
cognitive
in the theory
data, normative
unconscious
problem
to
study
investigation,
processes
solving during
development?
and
animal
transitions
studies
from stage to
stage
In what areas Child rearing, the Personality
Systematic
Understanding
has the theory
importance of
development
analysis and
of
how
had
its
biological
and
the
treatment of
thinking and
greatest
determinants,
relationship
behavior and
cognition
impact?
aspects
of
between
educational
develop
in
cultural
and
culture
and
applications
light
of
historical
behavior
cultural
development
conditions
and demands
17
ENRICHMENT ACTIVITIES:
Critical Thinking:
1. What role does age play as a general marker of changes in development?
2. Cite examples to explain this assumption “Development results from the
organization of existing behaviors. It progresses from simple behaviors to more
complex ones, all subject to the laws of learning.”
Activity
1. Find out Gesell’s research using motion pictures or “cinema records” to study
infants during the first year of life and 5 years later. Explain his findings and its
impact to understanding development.
2. Interview an adolescent and trace his/her development using Erik Erikson’s theory
on psychosocial development. Consider the psychosocial crises encountered by the
adolescent, how these were resolved, and the significant events and outcomes.
18
CHAPTER 3
DEVELOPMENT OVER THE LIFE SPAN
STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
1. Prenatal
The Birth Process
2. Infancy
3. Early Childhood
4. Later Childhood
5. Adolescence
Puberty
6. Adulthood
Early Adulthood
Middle Adulthood
Later Adulthood
AREAS OF DEVELOPMENT
1. Physical and Motor Development
2. Speech and Language Development
3. Social Development
4. Mental or Cognitive Development
5. Emotional or Affective Development
6. Moral and Spiritual Development
ENRICHMENT ACTIVITIES
Critical Thinking:
Activity/Project:
1. Trace your own development or that of a person close to you. List down the
developmental milestones at each level and indicate its impact on your current status
as an adult.