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Started Wednesday, November 14, 2001, 12:20pm
Finished Friday, November 30, 2001, 2:00pm
Qualifying Examination Study Manual
BASIC QUESTIONS TO ANSWER WITH THIS CONTENT ................................... 5
HISTORY OF IT .............................................................................................................. 6
DOMAINS OF IT ........................................................................................................... 37
DESIGN .......................................................................................................................... 37
DEVELOPMENT............................................................................................................... 41
UTILIZATION .................................................................................................................. 42
MANAGEMENT ............................................................................................................... 44
EVALUATION ................................................................................................................. 45
Other Information on Evaluation.............................................................................. 45
Introduction to Evaluation ........................................................................................ 45
A Comparative Analysis of Evaluation Approaches ................................................. 47
Evaluation Designs ................................................................................................... 50
THEORIES OF IT .......................................................................................................... 51
COMMUNICATION THEORY ............................................................................................ 51
GENERAL SYSTEMS THEORY ......................................................................................... 53
LEARNING THEORIES – (PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES) ............................... 56
BEHAVIORAL LEARNING THEORIES ............................................................................... 56
Associationists........................................................................................................... 56
Behavior Modification .............................................................................................. 66
Impact of Behaviorism on Instructional Technology ................................................ 66
COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORIES ................................................................................... 68
COGNITIVE INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN STRATEGIES ......................................................... 74
Chunking ................................................................................................................... 74
Advanced Organizers ................................................................................................ 74
Mnemonics ................................................................................................................ 74
Rehearsal .................................................................................................................. 75
Cognitive Theories (A-C) .......................................................................................... 75
Cognitive Theories (D-M) ......................................................................................... 82
Gestalt Theory........................................................................................................... 88
PHILOSOPHICAL THEORIES ................................................................................... 92
CONSTRUCTIVISM .......................................................................................................... 92
Constructivist Theory (J. Bruner) ............................................................................. 98
Model for Designing Constructivist Learning Environments – CLE’s................... 100
Articles .................................................................................................................... 103
Reflections on .......................................................................................................... 104
Constructivism and Instructional Design ............................................................... 104
On the Objectivist/Constructivist Debate ............................................................... 106
Implications for Design Theories............................................................................ 109
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What is Instructional-Design Theory? .................................................................... 109
The Cooperative Metaphor ..................................................................................... 113
Task/Content Analysis and the Nature of Knowledge............................................. 114
The Mystery of Expertise ........................................................................................ 116
Instructional Strategies ........................................................................................... 117
Student Assessment ................................................................................................. 118
Concluding Thoughts .............................................................................................. 119
Author Notes ........................................................................................................... 121
References ............................................................................................................... 122
POSTMODERNISM ......................................................................................................... 128
RITA RICHEY AND MARTY TESSMER – CONTEXT IN LEARNING AND
INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN (HANDOUT FOR THIS SECTION) ....................... 130
GARY MORRISON MODELS ................................................................................... 131
THE FOUR COMPONENTS TO INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN, KEMP, MORRISON AND ROSS
(1998) .......................................................................................................................... 131
KEMP, MORRISON AND ROSS INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN MODEL ................................... 132
MOTIVATION THEORY ........................................................................................... 133
LEARNING STYLES ................................................................................................... 141
LEARNING STYLES: PREFERENCES ............................................................................... 141
OUTLINE ...................................................................................................................... 142
LEARNING STYLE PREFERENCES ..................................................................... 142
Kolb's Theory of Learning Styles ............................................................................ 142
Gardner's Multiple Intelligences ............................................................................ 143
INFORMATION PROCESSING ................................................................................ 144
ATTITUDES ................................................................................................................. 149
REINFORCEMENT..................................................................................................... 150
LEARNER CENTERED INSTRUCTION................................................................. 152
PROBLEM BASED LEARNING ............................................................................... 153
TASK ANALYSIS ........................................................................................................ 158
TASK ANALYSIS STRATEGIES AND PRACTICES BETTINA LANKARD BROWN 1998 ....... 159
TASK ANALYSIS MODELS ............................................................................................ 159
Worker-oriented Task Analysis ............................................................................... 159
Job-oriented Task Analysis ..................................................................................... 159
Cognitive Task Analysis .......................................................................................... 160
STRATEGIES AND RESOURCES FOR PRACTICE .............................................................. 160
SEQUENCING.............................................................................................................. 164
TIME AND LEARNING.............................................................................................. 167
TRANSFER OF TRAINING (HANDOUTS IN THIS SECTION).......................... 170
ASSURE MODEL......................................................................................................... 171
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ASSURE MODEL ........................................................................................................ 171
ASSURE MODEL LESSON PLAN .................................................................................... 171
Analyze learners ..................................................................................................... 171
State Objectives ...................................................................................................... 172
Select, Modify, Design materials............................................................................ 173
Utilize Media, Materials, & Methods .................................................................... 173
Require Learner Participation ............................................................................... 174
Evaluate and Revise ............................................................................................... 174
JOHN KELLER’S ARCS MODEL ............................................................................ 175
KELLER'S ARCS MODEL OF MOTIVATION ................................................................... 175
TESSMER AND WEDMAN’S LAYERS OF NECESSITY..................................... 177
BEN BLOOM’S TAXOMONY OF LEARNING – (HAVE HANDOUT FOR THIS
SECTION) ..................................................................................................................... 179
THE TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES ......................................... 179
COGNITIVE DOMAIN of the Taxonomy of Educational Objectives ..................... 179
AFFECTIVE DOMAIN of the Taxonomy of Educational Objectives ..................... 181
PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN of the Taxonomy of Educational Objectives ............. 182
GAGNE’S NINE EVENTS OF INSTRUCTION AND LEARNING TAXONOMY
......................................................................................................................................... 183
Gagné's Taxonomy of Learning Outcomes ............................................................. 183
ROGER KAUFMAN’S NEEDS ASSESSMENT - (HAVE ARTICLES FOR THIS
SECTION, CHECK MANUAL).................................................................................. 186
ALLISON ROSSETT’S NEEDS ASSESSMENT ...................................................... 187
STUFFLEBEAM’S CIPP MODEL............................................................................. 188
THE CIPP EVALUATION MODEL .................................................................................. 188
CHARLES REIGELUTH’S ELABORATION THEORY ....................................... 190
ELABORATION THEORY BASICS ................................................................................... 190
KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION ................................................................................... 192
What is Content Structure? ..................................................................................... 192
How Is Content Structured?.................................................................................... 193
Content Structure as Organizing Structure ............................................................ 195
Ill-structured Domains ............................................................................................ 196
SEQUENCING ISSUES .................................................................................................... 198
Microworld Design ................................................................................................. 198
Functional Context Training................................................................................... 199
Cognitive Apprenticeships ...................................................................................... 200
Cascaded Problem Sets........................................................................................... 200
Middle-out Sequencing ........................................................................................... 201
Sequencing for Conceptual Change........................................................................ 202
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Internal Reflection-in-Action Processes ................................................................. 204
MAKING CONTENT STRUCTURE EXPLICIT.................................................................... 207
RECOMMENDATIONS .................................................................................................... 208
AUTHOR NOTES ........................................................................................................... 210
ELABORATION THEORY - CHARLES REIGELUTH .......................................................... 217
Overview: ................................................................................................................ 217
Scope/Application: .................................................................................................. 218
Example: ................................................................................................................. 218
Principles: ............................................................................................................... 219
DAVID MERRILL’S ID2 ............................................................................................ 220
COMPONENT DISPLAY THEORY - DAVID MERRILL................................................... 220
Overview ................................................................................................................. 220
Description .............................................................................................................. 220
Use/Application/Limitation of the Model................................................................ 221
INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES AND LEARNING STYLES: WHICH TAKES PRECEDENCE? . 222
MALCOLM KNOWLES’ ADULT LEARNING THEORY .................................... 228
INCLUSIVE ADULT LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS ............................................................ 233
Adult Learning Environments: Changing Conceptions .......................................... 233
Developing Inclusive Learning Environments ........................................................ 234
Some Related Issues ................................................................................................ 235
Creating Inclusive Learning Environments: Some Guidelines ............................... 235
DISTANCE EDUCATION .......................................................................................... 238
WHAT IS DISTANCE EDUCATION? ................................................................................ 238
THEY BLAZED THE TRAIL FOR DISTANCE EDUCATION ................................................ 238
Pioneers in Radio and Television Broadcasting .................................................... 240
Independent (correspondence) Study ...................................................................... 241
World's Biggest Partyline Creates Statewide Classroom ....................................... 244
Packaging and Marketing Extension Programs .................................................... 246
Testing an Articulated Instructional Media Model ................................................ 247
THOMAS GILBERT’S LEISURELY THEOREM AND PERFORMANCE
ENGINEERING MODEL (BEHAVIOR + ACCOMPLISHMENT =
PERFORMANCE) ........................................................................................................ 251
AUSUBELL’S ADVANCE ORGANIZER – SESSION 7, PG2. .............................. 253
CHUCKING – SESSION 7, PG 1. ............................................................................... 254
BANDURA’S SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY ........................................................ 255
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY (A. BANDURA) ................................................................. 255
Overview: ................................................................................................................ 255
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY OF ALBERT BANDURA.............................................. 256
THE SPREAD OF TV VIOLENCE THROUGH MODELING ............................... 258
Attention: "I Never Thought of That Before" .......................................................... 259
Retention: "I Figured Out What I Was Doing Wrong" ........................................... 260
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Motivation: "Why Not Do It? It Worked Out Fine for Them" ................................ 261
"YOU BIG BULLY, QUIT PICKING ON THAT CLOWN" .................................... 263
AROUSED OR DRAINED: TWO ALTERNATIVES TO IMITATION .................... 264
CRITIQUE: A POSITIVE, BUT WEAK, CAUSAL RELATIONSHIP ..................... 265
QUESTIONS TO SHARPEN YOUR FOCUS ......................................................... 266
A SECOND LOOK .................................................................................................. 267
CLARK / KOZMA DEBATE ...................................................................................... 269
1- CLARK VERSUS KOZMA: DOES MEDIA INFLUENCE LEANRING? THE GREAT
DEBATE HTTP://WWW.ITTHEORY.COM/CLARK83.HTM ............................................... 269
2- "LEARNING WITH MEDIA" ARTICLE BY ROBERT B. KOZMA OF THE UNIVERSITY OF
MICHIGAN IN THE REVIEW OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH, SUMMER 1991, VOL. 61. NO. 2,
PP. 179-211. HTTP://WWW.ITTHEORY.COM/KOZMA91.HTM .......................................... 270
3- "MEDIA WILL NEVER INFLUENCE LEARNING," BY RICHARD CLARK. ERT&D, VOL.
42, NO. 2, 1994, PP.21-29. HTTP://WWW.ITTHEORY.COM/CLARK94.HTM ..................... 272
4- "WILL MEDIA INFLUENCE LEARNING? REFRAMING THE DEBATE" BY ROBERT KOZMA,
ERT&D, COL. 42, NO. 2, 1994, PP. 7-19. HTTP://WWW.ITTHEORY.COM/KOZMA94.HTM
..................................................................................................................................... 273
RESEARCHERS OF INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY AND THE RESEARCH
ASSOCIATED WITH THEM ..................................................................................... 275
PEOPLE IN THE IT FIELD............................................................................................... 275
BARBARA SEELS – VISUAL LITERACY – (HANDOUT FOR THIS SECTION)
......................................................................................................................................... 279
MEDIATED INSTRUCTION – (2 HANDOUTS – FROM DALE TO DELIVERY
SYSTEMS: THE PROBLEM OF MEDIA SELECTION THEORY & LEARNING
WITH MEDIA: RESTRUCTURING THE DEBATE) ............................................. 280
MASTERY LEARNING .............................................................................................. 281
BASIC PRINCIPLES: ...................................................................................................... 281
DIFFUSION OF INNOVATIONS (HANDOUTS FOR THIS SECTION) ............. 282
HUMAN PERFORMANCE TECHNOLOGY – (HANDOUT FOR THIS
SECTION) ..................................................................................................................... 283
Basic Questions to Answer with this Content
How are these terms related to instructional design? Support this relationship with
research. Who are the major theorists for each term?
For example, if you designed a diversity-training program from the behavioral approach,
what would it look like? What components would need to be present for the program to
be considered behaviorist? What components would have to be present to make it
constructivist? Do likewise for the other instructional design approaches and methods.
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History of IT
Summary of Major Events in the Field http://www.ittheory.com/history2.htm
The audiovisual movement can be traced back to the early 1900s when schools and
museums began using visuals such as drawings, paintings, slides, films objects and
models to compliment verbal instruction. 1918 though 1928 showed tremendous growth
in the visual instructional movement with formal course offerings, the formation of
professional organizations and journals, research studies, and the formation of
administrative units all in the area of visual education. A few examples include: 1) The
National Academy for Visual Instruction was formed in 1919, 2) The American
Educational Motion Picture was also formed in 1919, 3) the Department of Visual
Instruction (DVI) was established in 1923, 4) the Visual Instruction Association of
America for organized in 1922.
Some changes began to occur in the 1950s and 1960s that would have profound impact
on the audiovisual field. Communications Theory and Systems Theory were quickly
being integrated into the field. As a result, in the early 1950s the term audiovisual
instruction began to be replaced by audiovisual communications. DVI changed its name
to the Department of Audiovisual Instruction (DAVI) in 1947. In 1953, DAVI formed the
AV Communication Review and in 1963 they provided a definition for the field of
audiovisual communication. Then a movement began to professionalize the audiovisual
field, which would eventually led to its transition to the field instructional technology.
James Finn and Arthur Lumsdaine in the Department of Audiovisual Instruction were
particular critical in this process. They believed that the field of audiovisual
communication needed to be broadened to instructional technology. In 1952, James Finn
wrote the article “Professionalizing the Audiovisual field in Audiovisual
Communications Review.
Instruction is defined as the delivery of focused educational experiences leading toward
particular leaning goals (Smith and Ragan, 1993). Technology (the Greek form of
technie, translated as art, craft or skill) was conceived by the ancient Greeks as a
particular activity and as a kind of knowledge. The development of a new process for
doing something, for example, is now considered technology (Saettler, 1990). Since
then, however, authors such as Clark (1998) have argued that a 'craft' and 'technology' are
not synonymous, and to think of them as such is detrimental to the field. More recent
definitions of technology say it is "the application of science, especially to industrial or
commercial objectives. The entire body of methods and materials used to achieve such
objectives."
James Finn, Donald Ely and Robert Heinich were among the most influential individuals
responsible for defining the field of instructional technology. In 1953, Finn wrote,
"Professionalizing the Audio-Visual Field" in which he suggested that the audio-visual
field be broadened to instructional technology. He gave several suggestions for doing so:
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(1) engage in intellectual techniques (existed), (2) develop and deliver practical
applications of this technique (existed), (3) require a long period of training (did not
exist), (4) association and communication between members (did not exist - hence the
Audio-Visual Communication Review), (5) code of ethics and standards, and (6)
intellectual theory and research.
In 1970, the Department of Audiovisual Instruction of the National Education Associated
changed its name to the Association for Educational Communications and Technology
(AECT) who placed a critical role a defining the field of instructional technology. One of
its prominent members, Ely (1968) described educational technology as a branch of
educational theory and practice concerned "primarily with the design and use of message
which control the learning process."
Ely (1972) once described Educational Technology as "a field involved in the facilitation
of human learning through the systematic identification, development, organization, and
utilization of a full range of learning resources, and through the management of these
processes. Applying Galbraith's definition of technology to instruction, Heinich (1989)
defined the instructional technology "as the application of our scientific knowledge about
human leaning to the practical tasks of teaching and learning."
In 1977 they provided the following definition of the field of instructional technology:
"Educational technology is a complex, integrated process involving people, procedures,
ideas, devices and organizations, for analyzing problems, and devising, implementing,
evaluating and managing solutions to those problems, involved in all aspects of human
learning." Their most recent definition was provided in 1994 and states:
"Instructional technology is the theory and practice of design, development, utilization,
management and evaluation of processes and resources for learning" (Seels and Richey,
1994).
A look at the major movements in the field instructional technology is provided below:
Pre-1920s: Assessment and testing movement (Boston Survey, Joseph Rice, E.L.
Thorndike, Horace Mann)
1920s: Advancing technology sparks "visual instruction" movement, where still
photographs and motion pictures are used to add reality to school curriculum (Hoban);
Objectives-based learning and Individualized instruction movements (Sidney Pressey teaching machine, Frederick Burk and Mary Ward, Carleton Washburne - Winnetka Plan,
Helen Parkhurst - Dalton Plan).
1930s: Behavioral objectives movement (R. Tyler)
1940s: Instructional media and R&D (Division of Visual Aids for War Training in US
Office of Education, Dale - Cone of experience)
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1950s: Programmed instruction (B.F. Skinner) and task analysis (Air Force, Bloom);
Professionalization of the field (Finn). Television and the Visual Literacy movement.
1960s: Instructional Systems Development (Glaser, Bloom, Silvern); Growth of
cognitive movement (Gagne, Bruner)
1970s: ID Models and Maturation (Andrews and Godson); Needs assessment (Kaufman,
Tessmer)
1980s: Growth of microcomputer (Web, computer-based instruction). Growth of
Electronic Performance Support Systems (Gery) Growth of performance technology
(Gilbert, Harless, Stolovitch, Rosenberg, Rothwell)
1800’s: Early Educational Evaluation
Year
1838 –
1850
1845
1895 –
1905
Description
Horace Mann submitted 12 annual reports to the Board
of Education of the Commonwealth of MA (Worthen &
Sanders, p. 12)
Boston Survey – Wide scale assessment of student
achievement
Joseph Rice organized assessment program in a number
of large school systems
Early 1900’s: Educational Testing Movement
WWI: 1914 – 1918
1916
Dewey, J. (1916). Democracy and education. New
York: Macmillan Company.
1900s –
1918
Edward Lee Thorndike, father of educational testing
movement, persuaded educators that measuring human
change was important
1914 –
1918
Army Alpha (for literates) and Beta (for illiterates) tests
developed and used (reinforced importance of objective
test information)
1920’s: Connection between outcomes and instruction
Norm-referenced tests developed for use in measuring individual performance levels
1920s
Winnetka and Dalton plans: Promoted pre-specified
learning outcomes, self-pacing within school subjects
and mastery learning.
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1925
Sidney L. Pressey introduced a "simple apparatus which
gives and scores test – and teaches."
1930s: Connection between outcomes and instruction/accreditation movement
Norm-referenced tests developed for use in measuring individual performance levels
1932
Ralph Tyler’s Eight-year study: 1) refined procedures
for writing instructional objectives and 2) revise and
refine curricula (precursor to formative evaluation.)
1937
Hoban, C.F.; Hoban, F.H.; and Zisman, S.B. (1937).
Visualizing the curriculum. New York: The Cordon
Company.
1940s: The influence of WWII
WWII 1939 – 1945
1940s



1941 –
1945
Division of Visual Aids for War Training within the US
Office of Education produced:



1945
Lewin’s research in the 1940s, followed by
significant developments in behavioral science,
was pivotal in creating today’s body of
knowledge about managing organizational
change (present transitional future).
Lewin’s concept of action research suggests that
research can take place as part of the
intervention
Applied gestalt psychology (whole is greater
than sum of its parts) to groups … groups do
indeed take on a distinct personality that
supersedes the aggregate personality of its
members
457 motion pictures (with sound)
432 Silent filmstrips
457 Instructors’ manuals
Charters, W.W. (1945). Is there a field of educational
engineering? Educational Research Bulletin, 24(2), 29 –
37, 53.
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1946
Dale, E. (1946). The "cone of experience" In Audiovisual methods in teaching, 1st ed., 37-51. New York:
Dryden Press.
Summary: The cone is a visual metaphor of learning
experiences in which the various kinds of audio-visual
materials appear in the order of increasing abstraction
as one proceeds from direct experience.
1950s:
Soviet Union’s launch of Sputnik I in 1957
1953
Finn, J.D. (1953). Professionalizing the audio-visual
field. Audio-visual communications review 1(1): 6 –
18.
Summary: For audiovisual communications to become
a profession, the field needs it’s own theory, research
and techniques.
1953
Skinner, B.F. (1953). Science and human behavior.
New York: Macmillan.
1954
Skinner, B.F. (1953). The science of learning and the
art of teaching. Harvard educational review. 24:86 – 97.
Copyright 1954 by the President and Fellows of
Harvard College.
1954
Flanagan, J.C. (1954). The critical incident technique.
Psychological Bulletin, 51, 327-358.
Note: ushered in era of Task Analysis which was first
used by Air Force …
1956
Bloom, B.S. (1956). Taxonomy of educational
objectives, Handbook I: Cognitive domain. New York:
David McKay Company.
1958
National Defense Education Act of 1958


New educational programs (curriculum
development – math and science emphasis)
Funds available to evaluate these curriculum
development efforts
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1960s:
Civil Rights Movement
1960
Finn, J. (1960). A new theory for instructional
technology. Audio-visual Communications Review, 8,
84 – 94.
Finn, J.D. (1960). Technology and the instructional
process. AV communications review 8(1) 5 – 26.
1962
Glaser, R. (1962). Psychology and instructional
technology. In R. Glaser (Ed.), Training research and
education. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press.
Key Point: According to the Anglin book, Glaser
employed the term instructional system and named,
elaborated, and diagrammed its components.
NOTE: Finn authored an article in 1956 titled AV
development and the concept of systems.
1962
Gagné, R.M. (1962). Introduction. In R.M. Gagné (Ed.),
Psychological principles in system development. New
York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Key Point: Among the earliest authors to discuss
systems.
1962
Mager, R.L. (1962). Preparing instructional objectives.
Palo Alto, CA: Fearon Publishers.
1962
Rogers, E.M. (1962). Diffusion of innovations. New
York: The Free Press.
1963
First formal definition of Instructional Technology
developed by the Commission on Definition and
Terminology of the NEAs Department of Audiovisual
Instruction (DAVI).
1963
Cronbach, L.J. (1963). Course improvement through
evaluation. Teachers College Record, 64, 672 – 683.
1964
Lumsdaine, A.A. (1964). Educational Technology, programmed
learning, and instructional science. In E.R. Hilgard (Ed.), Theories of
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learning and instruction. The sixty-third yearbook of the National
Society for the Study of Education, Part I. Chicago: The University of
Chicago Press.
1964
Civil Rights Act of 1964 (led to the Coleman Study in 1965-66 that
focused on equality of opportunity for minority children).
1964
The National Assessment of Educational Progress begins under the
direction of Ralph Tyler (objectives-based evaluation)
1965
Gagné, R.M. (1965). The conditions of learning. New York: Holt,
Rinehart and Winston.
Summary: 1) Elaborated the analysis of learning objectives, 2) related
different classes of learning objectives to appropriate instructional
designs.
1965
Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) established 20
federally funded R & D labs …

Largest single component of the bill was Title 1 (later Chapter
1) educational programs for disadvantaged youth
NOTE: ESEA was by far the most comprehensive and ambitious
education bill ever envisioned … and evidence was needed to ensure
that federal spending was effective. Accordingly, evaluation reports
were mandated for each grant showing what effects had resulted from
the expenditure of federal funds.
1966
Bruner, J.S. (1966). Toward a theory of instruction. Cambridge, MA:
The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
Key Point: First to describe the characteristics of instructional theory.
Bruner’s cognitive theory describes learning and perception as
information-processing activities that reflect our need to simplify and
make sense of the environment (discovery learning/spiral
curriculum/constructivism).
NOTE: Also published in 1957, 1961
1967
Scriven, M. (1967). The methodology of evaluation. AERO Monograph
Series on Curriculum Evaluation, No. 1. Chicago: Rand McNally.
1967
Federal government created the Center for the Study of Evaluation, a
federally supported research and development center at UCLA.
1968
Ausubel, D.P. (1968). Educational psychology: A cognitive view. New
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York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Key Point: For a stimulus or concept to have meaning, there must be
something in the learner’s cognitive structure to which it can be related
(Advance organizers: learners should be provided with organized
information).
1968
Briggs, L.J. (1968). Sequencing of instruction in relation to hierarchies
of competence. Pittsburgh: American Institutes for Research.
1968
Saettler, P. (1968). A history of instructional technology. New York:
McGraw-Hill Book Company.
1969
Stufflebeam, D.L. (1969). Evaluation as enlightenment for decisionmaking. In W.A. Beatty (Ed.), Improving educational assessment and in
inventory of measures of affective behavior. Washington, D.C.:
Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
1969
British Open University experiment changed correspondence education
into what we now call distance learning.
1960s
NOTE: Reiser (1987) credits Robert Glaser with the first use of the
term criterion-referenced measures to refer to tests that assess
achievement of pre-specified objectives.
Reiser, R.A (1987). Instructional technology: A history. In R.M. Gagné
(Ed.), Instructional Technology: Foundations. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum.
1970s:
Professionalization of the evaluation domain (proliferation of associations and
journals)
1970
Mager, R., and Pipe, P. (1970). Analyzing performance
problems or "you really oughta wanna." Palo Alto, CA:
Fearon Publishers/Lear Siegler, Inc., Education
Division.
1970
Silber, K. (1970). What field are we in, anyhow?
Audiovisual Instruction, 15(5), 21 – 24.
1971
Bloom, B.S. (1971). Learning for mastery. In B.S.
Bloom, J.T. Hastings, & G.F. Madaus (Eds.), Handbook
on formative and summative evaluation of student
learning. New York: McGraw-Hill.
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1972
Kaufman, R. (1972). Educational system planning.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Key Point: Needs assessment added to the ISD process
…
1972
The government created the National Institute of
Education (NIE), which focused one of its research
programs on evaluation in education, supporting field
research that added to our knowledge of evaluation
methodology, and also funded research to adapt
methods and techniques from other disciplines for use
in educational evaluation.
1973
Ely, D.P. (1973). Defining the field of educational
technology. Audiovisual instruction 8(3), 52 – 53.
1973
Heinich, R.M. (1973). Is there a field of educational
communications and technology? Audiovisual
instruction 18(5), 44 – 46.
1973
Popham, W.J. (1973). Criterion-referenced instruction.
Palo Alto, CA: Fearon Publishers. (see NOTE under
1960s — Reiser)
1973
Worthen, B.R. and Sanders, J.R. (1973). Educational
evaluation: Theory and practice. Worthington, OH:
Charles A. Jones.
(Rev. in 1987 and 1997)
1974
Gagné, R.M. and Briggs, L.J. (1974). Principles of
instructional design. New York: Holt, Rinehart and
Winston
1975
Joint Committee on Standards for Educational
Evaluation
1976
Bloom, B.S. (1976). Human characteristic and school
learning. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Key Points: Variables within learners (cognitive entry
behaviors and affective entry behaviors) and instruction
can be altered to promote "mastery learning."
1977
Briggs, L. (1977). Instructional design: Principles and
applications. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational
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Technology Publications.
1977
Hoban, C.F. Jr. (1977). A systems approach to
audiovisual communications. In Okoboji: A 20 year
review of leadership 1955 – 1974, edited by L. W.
Cochran, 67 – 72. Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt.
1977
Kaufman, R. (1977). Needs assessments: internal and
external. Journal of instructional development 1(1), 5 –
8.
1978
Gilbert, T.F., (1978). Human competence: Engineering
worthy performance. New York: McGraw-Hill.
1978
Misanchuk, E. R. (1978). Descriptors of evaluations in
instructional development: Beyond the formativesummative distinction. Journal of Instructional
Development, 9(1), 15 – 19.
1978
Dick/Carey design model (need original citation)
1979
Kirkpatrick, D.L. (1979). Techniques for evaluation
training programs. Training and development journal
(June 1979), 178 - 192
1979
Kaufman, R. and English, F. (1979) Needs assessment:
Concept and application,. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Educational Technology Publications.
1979
Keller, J.M. (1979). Motivation and instructional
design. A theoretical perspective. Journal of
instructional development, 2(4), 26 – 33.
1970s



NEA’s Department of Audiovisual Instruction
(DAVI) became the independent Association for
Educational Communications and Technology
(AECT)
National Society for Programmed Instruction
became the National Society for Performance
and Instruction (NSPI).
Potential of cognitive psychology for the
refinement of instructional design was noted.
1980s: Microcomputer Revolution
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16
1981
Joint Committee on Standards for Educational
Evaluation developed the Standards for Evaluation of
Educational Programs, Projects, and Materials, the first
organized statement of principles for sound educational
evaluation. (A parallel effort by the Evaluation
Research Society in 1982 resulted in a second set of
standards, proposed to guide program evaluation
practices in the diverse fields represented by the
Society’s membership).
1983
Clark, R.E. (1983). Reconsidering research on learning
from media. Review of educational research, 53, 445 –
460.
1983
Keller, J. M. (1983). Motivational design of instruction.
In C.M. Reigeluth (Ed.), Instructional-design theories
and models: An overview of their current status (pp.
383 – 434). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
1983
Reigeluth, C.M. (Ed.). (1983). Instructional-design
theories and models: An overview of their current status
(pp. 383 – 434). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
1984
Heinich, R. (1984). The proper study of instructional
technology. Educational Communications and
Technology Journal, 2, 84-98.
1985
Dick, W., & Carey, L. (1985). The systematic design of
instruction. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman.
1986
Richey, R.C. (1986). The theoretical and conceptual
bases of instructional design. London: Kogan Page.
1987
Rossett, A. (1987). Training needs assessment.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology
Publications.
1987a
Keller, J. M. (1987a). Strategies for stimulating the
motivation to learn. Performance and Instruction, 26(9),
1 – 7.
1987b
Keller, J. M. (1987b). The systematic process of
motivational design. Performance and Instruction,
26(10), 1 – 8.
1989
Eraut, M.R. (1989). Conceptual frameworks and
historical development. In M. Eraut (Ed.). The
16
17
international encyclopedia of educational technology.
Oxford: Pergamon Press.
1989
Heinich, R., Molenda, M. & Russell, J.D. (1989).
Instructional media and the new technologies of
instruction. New York: Macmillan.
1990s: The Internet and World Wide Web
1990
Merrill, D. M., Li, Z., & Jones, M. K. (1990).
Limitations of first generation instructional design.
Educational Technology, 30(1), 7-11.
Merrill, D. M., Li, Z., & Jones, M. K. (1990). Second
Generation Instructional Design (ID2). Educational
Technology, 30(2), 7-14.
1990
Saettler, P. (1990). The evolution of American
educational technology. Englewood, CO: Libraries
Unlimited.
1990
Tessmer, M. (1990). Environmental analysis: A
neglected stage of instructional design. Educational
Technology Research and Development, 38(1), 55 – 64.
1991
Kozma, R.B. (1991) Learning with media. Review of
Educational Research, 61(2), 179 – 211.
1991
Hlynka, D. & Belland, J. C. (Eds.) (1991). Paradigms
regained: The uses of illuminative, semiotic and postmodern criticism as modes of inquiry in educational
technology: A book of readings. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Educational Technology Publications.
1991
Hlynka, D. (1991). Postmodern excursions into
educational technology. Educational Technology, 30(6),
27-30.
1992
Hlynka, D. & Yeaman, A. R. J. (1992). Postmodern
educational technology (Report No. EDO-IR-92-5).
Washington, DC: Office of Educational Research and
Improvement. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service
No. ED 348 042)
1992
Richey, R.C. (1992). Designing instruction for the older
adult learner: Systemic training theory and practice.
London: Kogan Page.
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1992
Reigeluth, C.M. (1992). The imperative for systemic
change. Educational Technology, 32(11), 9 – 13.
1992
Greer, M. (1992). ID project management: Tools and
techniques for instructional designers and developers.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology
Publications.
1992
Stolovitch, H.D. and Keeps, E.J. (Eds.). (1992).
Handbook of human performance technology: A
comprehensive guide for analyzing and solving
performance problems in organizations. San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass Publishers.
1992
Hannafin, M.J. (1992). Emerging technologies, ISD,
and learning environments: Critical perspectives.
Educational Technology Research and Development,
40(1), 49-63.
1993
Dick, W. (1993). Quality in training organizations.
Performance Improvement Quarterly, 6(3), 35-47.
1993
Tessmer, M. (1993). Planning and conducting formative
evaluation: Improving the quality of education and
training. London: Kogan Page.
1993
Hellebrandt, J. and Russell, J.D. (1993). Confirmative
evaluation of instructional materials and learners.
Performance and Instruction, 32(6), 22 – 27.
1994
Kozma, R.B. (1994). Will media influence learning? Educational
Technology Research and Development, 42(2), 7 – 19.
1994
Dean, P.J. (Ed.). (1994). Performance engineering at work. Batavia,
Illinois: International Board of Standards for Training, Performance and
Instruction.
1994
Clark, R.E. (1994). Media will never influence learning. Educational
Technology Research and Development, 42(2), 21 – 29.
1994
Hlynka, D. (1994). Glossary of terms. Educational Technology, 34 (2),
14-15.
1994
Seels, B. B. & Richey, R. C. (1994). Instructional technology: The
definitions and domains of the field. Washington, DC: Association for
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Educational Communications and Technology.
1996
Jonassen, D. H. (Ed.) (1996). Handbook of research for educational
communications and technology. New York: Simon & Schuster
Macmillan.
1997
Tessmer, M. and Richey, R.C. (1997). The role of context in learning
and instructional design. Educational Technology Research and
Development, 45(2), 85-115.
Instructional Technology Timeline
Pre-1910s
1920s
1930s
1940s
Assessment and Testing
Educational Objectives;
Objectives-driven learning;
Individualized Instruction
Behavioral Objectives;
Formative Evaluation
Instructional Media and
Research and
Development
Boston Survey (1845)
undertaken by Boston
School Committee widescale assessment of student
achievement
Franklin Bobbitt (1918) goals for schooling should
come from objective analysis
of skills needed for successful
living; specify desired
outcomes then plan
instructional experiences.
Depression& Progressive
Movement resulted in less
progress; Progressivists
advocated extreme studentinitiated activities = little
pre-specified instructional
outcomes
WWII leads to production of
thousands of training films,
photos, audio recordings,
silent film, etc. for Division
of Visual Aids for War
Training in US Office of
Education
Joseph Rice (1895-1905)
organized assessment
program in a number of
large school systems. Used
for educational decision,
such as standardization for
math curriculum.
Individualized Instruction was
an application of objectivesdriven learning
Ralph Tyler – Eight Year
Study refined procedures
for writing instructional
objectives; objectives can
be clarified if written in
terms of student behaviors,
hence behavioral objectives
Emergence of the role of the
instructional technologist,
distinct from SME. Now
three people on team –
designer, SME and
producer.
Edward L Thorndike
(1900s-1918), father of
educational testing
movement, persuaded
educators that measuring
human change was
important. Value of
reinforcement.
Mary Ward/Frederic Burk, SF
Normal School - self-paced
material, self-instructional
Eight Year Study –
objectives and assessment
used to refine and revise
curricula until they
produced appropriate
achievement, hence
formative evaluation
(coined 30 years later)
Lewin research provides
foundation for field of
organizing management
change. Applies Gestalt
theory to groups .. groups
take on personality of their
own.
John Dewey (1916)
Democracy and Education.
Carleton Washburne,
Winnetka Plan – self-paced,
self-instructional, selfcorrective, diagnostic
placement tests, selfadministrated tests
Hoban, C.F., Hoban F.H.
and Zisman S.B. (1937)
author Visualizing the
Curriculum.
W.W. Charters (1945). Is
there a field of educational
engineering? Educational
Research Bulletin, 24(2), 2937,53.
Army Alpha (for literate)
and Beta (illiterates) (1914-
Helen Parkhurst, Dalton Plan
– today known as "contract
Edgar Dale (1946) authors
"Cone of Experience" in
19
20
1918) tests developed and
used (reinforced importance
of objective test information.
learning", self-paced, new
contract when completed
successfully
Horace Mann collects data
between 1838-1850 on
which to base education
decisions. Submits it to
Board of Education in Mass
Winnetka and Dalton – prespecified learning outcomes is
seminal; mastery learning
possible through goal
specification and assessment;
alternative to normal curve
William Bagley (1906)
teaches that the most
effective instruction is that
which brings the learner in
contact with concrete
situations.
Sidney Pressey invents
Teaching Machine (1925)
1950s
1960s
Smith and Tyler (1942)
provide evaluation manual,
which dominates educational
evaluation for next quarter
century.
1970s
1980-1990s
Programmed Instruction
Task Analysis
Instructional Systems
Development
ID Models and
Maturation; HPT
Microcomputers, PT and
the Internet
B.F. Skinner elaborates on
theory of reinforcement and
advocates its application to
learning; control
reinforcement to produce
desired behaviors
Robert Glaser (1962) employs
term Instructional System and
diagrams its components.
Decade of consolidation;
Andrews and Goodson
(1980) article identifies 60
ID models.
(1991) WWW launched.
Programmed Instruction =
clear behavioral objectives,
small frames of instruction,
self-pacing, active learner
responses, immediate
feedback
Robert Gagne (1965)
publishes The Conditions of
Learning which elaborated
the analysis of learning
objectives and relates
different classes of learning
objectives to appropriate
instructional designs
Addition of Needs
Assessment to ID process.
Systems-oriented ID
Models: Dick and Carey
(1996); Smith and Ragan
(1993), Gagne, Briggs, and
Wagner (1992). Classroomoriented: Heinich, Molenda,
Russell, and Smaldino
(1996), Reiser and Dick
(1996)
Move focus of education
process/behavior of teacher
to outcome behavior of
learner
Evaluation and Feedback are
essential features of systems.
Evaluation procedures
refined.
Graduate programs in
instructional systems grow
and professional
associations refined.
Kemp, Morrison and Ross
(1994) ID Model with focus
on curriculum planning.
Task Analysis coined by Air
Force – procedures for
anticipating the job
requirements of new
equipment under
deployment.
Robert Glaser first to use term
criterion-referenced test.
NEAs Department of
AudioVisual Instruction
becomes independent
Association for
Educational
Communication and
Technology.
(1990) Wedman and
Tessmer Layers of Necessity
ID Model.
20
21
Programmed Instruction set
stage for 1960s to adapt it to
curricula, e.g. instructional
systems.
Federal govt: 1965 –
Elementary Secondary Educ.
Act establishes 20 federallyfunded R&D labs
National Society for
Programmed Instruction
becomes National Society
for Performance and
Instruction
D. Merrill (1990) Secondgeneration instructional
design. Begins work on ID2,
computer software to
automate ID process.
ID analysis advanced by B.
Bloom’s 1956 Taxonomy of
Educational Objectives for
cognitive domain.
Specification and analysis of
instructional outcomes and
design of instruction to
attain them.
Finn/Lumsdaine in
Department of AudioVisual
Instruction (DAVI) within
NEA vocal to broaden AV
field to IT.
AECT Division for
Instructional Development
founds Journal of
Instructional Development.
Gloria Gery’s (1991) book
Electronic Performance
Support Systems articulates
benefits of EPSS.
Gagne (1972) introduces 9
Events of Instruction: gain
attention, inform learner of
objectives, Stimulate recall
of prereq’s, present
stimulus, provide guidance,
elicit performance, provide
feedback, assess
performance, enhance
retention/transfer.
(1991) Wilson writes several
articles on Constructivism
and Postmodernism. May &
Sept issues of Ed. Tech
devoted to constructivism, as
well as Feb 94.
James Finn (1953).
Professionalizing the audiovisual field, AV
Communications Review
Field needs its and research
& theory.
Visual literacy gains
attention of educators when
TV seems to influence
behavior
Tyler in 1960s conceptualizes
U.S. National Assessment of
Educational Progress
(NAEP).
Bruner (1973) Discovery
learning and problem
solving.
Sputnik launched (1956)
1950s
Programmed Instruction
Task Analysis
1960s
Instructional Systems
Development
1970s
ID Models and
Maturation
1980-1990s
Microcomputers, PT and
the Internet
Piaget (1954) Child
behavior/learning. Learning
styles.
Flanagan (1954). The
critical incident.
Psychological Bulletin.
Ushers in Task Analysis by
USAF.
Maslow (1954) introduces
Hierarchy of Needs.
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22
Summary of Areas
Study Area
Leaders
Definitions, Arguments
Learning Theory
Skinner
(1958) Behaviorism.
Programmed instruction
Design Implications
Trends
Computer-Assisted
Instruction,
Individualized
Instruction.
E.L. Thorndike
Lumsdaine
(1964) Behaviorism.
Programmed instruction.
Gagne
Cumulative learning theory
Gagne
Conditions of Learning
Bloom
(1956) Taxonomy of
Educational Objectives
Ely
(1963) Definition of IT used
learning theory as element
Bandura
(1983) Social Learning Theory
Dewey
Same basic philosophy as
Constructivism.
Hannafin &
Hooper
(1989) ROPES Model of
Learning: retrieving, oriented,
presenting, encoding,
sequencing.
J. Carroll
Carroll's Model of School
Learning
Bruner
Two: "Process of Education"
(1960) & "Toward a Theory of
Reception and
registration, ST & LT
memory, perception,
rehearsal, executive
control
First attempt to
comprehensively
address message design
from all activities
learner engages in.
Discovery learning.
22
23
Instruction" (1966).
Instructional
Theory
Jonessen
(1985) Constructivism. More
flexible, pragmatic design
process. Like Piaget, emphasize
individual thinking and creation
of meaning. Meaning is
constructed.
We need to teach
learners to learn, not
just pass info on to nonparticipating learners.
Constructivists may use
several design models
for a situation.
B. Wilson
Constructivism. People make
sense of world by taking in info
from environment and
assimilating it with preexisting
schemas and understandings.
More holistic, less
mechanistic. Authemtic
teaching methods.
Often linked with
postmodernism.
B Wilson
Postmodernism. Nonlinear,
multiple perspectives. Reality is
multiperspectival. See Ed. Tech
issues May & Sept 91, Feb 94.
Contextual construction
of meaning. Use layersof-necessity model. Use
rapid prototyping.
Consider HPT items:
job aids, JIT training.
Multiple goals for
different learners.
Multiple delivery
formats.
Wittrock
(1974) Introduced Generate
instructional strategy where
learners construct their own
meaning from the instruction.
Learners generate
associations b/w new
info and prior learning.
Learner carries out the
events of instruction.
Bloom
(1976) Mastery learning.
Merrill and
Garrison
Instructional Transaction
Theory.
Merrill
Component Display/Design
Keller
(1983) ARCS Model
Reigeluth
(1979, 1983) Elaboration theory.
Macro-level instructional
sequence: Overview,
elaboration, summary, and
synthesis.
Ausubel
Cognitive scaffolding
Bruner
(1960) Spiral curriculum.
Some
constructivists
aligned by Situated
Cognition
movement.
Early example of
constructivism.
Motivation of learner
Advanced organizers
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24
Communications
Theory
Systems Theory
Shannon and
Weaver
(1949) Dimensions of
communication theory and
implications for application in
instructional settings.
Miller
(1951) "communication means
that information is passed from
one place to another."
Schramm
(1954,1956) Develops
communication model.
Schramm
(1973) Identified six ways to
categorize delivery systems.
Marsh
(1979) Defined the information
load of a message.
Littlejohn
(1978) Identifies four contexts
which communication occurs.
Charles Hoban,
Jr.
(1956) Presentation. First to
recognize ET was a system.
J. Finn
(1960s) Series of articles in
Audiovisual Communication
Review.
Banathy
(1968) Systems Approach:
Analysis, Solution,
Development
Banathy
(1991)
Four levels of educational
systems: 1) learner-experience,
2) instructional system, 3)
administrative system, and (4)
governance system.
Kaufman
Silvern
Sender, encoder, signal,
noise, decoder,
receiver, signal.
GST is the
foundation for
ISD.
Analysis and
Evaluation in ID
Process. ISD and GST
are both systems
approaches.
ISD becoming less
linear.
(1970) Systems Approach:
Analysis, Synthesis,
Implementation
(1960) J Finn applies
systems concepts to
instructional planning
& delivery
(188) Robert
Mager suggests
systems as
approach to HPT
(1972) Systems Approach:
Analysis, Synthesis, Modeling,
Simulation
Richey (1994) suggests
GST impacts design
systems, even linear
ones. Systemic, not
systematic.
24
25
Bloom
Visual Literacy
Message Design
(1956) Analysis: "breakdown of
the material into its constituent
parts and the detection of the
relationships of the parts";
Synthesis: combining nonrelated elements into meaningful
relations.
Briggs
(1977) Defines Systems
Approach as integrated plan of
operation of all sub-systems,
designed to solve problems or
meet need.
Braden and
Hortin
Defines Visual Literacy as "the
ability to understand and use
images, including the ability to
think, learn and express oneself
in terms of images."
Heinich,
Molenda and
Russell
(1982) Define visual literacy as
"the learned ability to interpret
visual message and to create
such messages."
???
Three elements to visual
literacy: thinking, learning and
communication.
J. Bruner
(1966) postulates knowledge
represented in 3 ways: enactive,
iconic, and symbolic.
G. Miller
(1956) Miller’s Magic 7
Broadbeck
Humans are single channel
processors
Edgar Dale
AECT Model of IT is a
system.
ISD is an open system,
e.g. feedback.
Chunk instruction into
meaningful units
CBI
(1946) Cone of Experience.
From abstract to concrete.
More realistic
instruction promotes
learning.
Constructivism.
Hannafin
ROPES
Retrieving, Organizing,
Presenting, Encoding,
Sequencing.
Morrison
Screen design, screen density
study
Hoban, Sr.
25
26
ID Models
Fleming &
Levie
(1978) Defined messages as
patterns of signs or symbols that
modify behavior in any of the 3
instructional designs
(1978) Define Message
Design as process for
manipulating a pattern
of signs/symbols that
provide for the
conditions of learning.
Dick & Carey
(1985, 1996) Systems-oriented.
May be the most common for
business, industry, and military.
First step, assess needs to
identify goals is very good and
unique.
Next steps: instructional
analyses, learner
analysis, write
performance objectives,
develop assessments,
develop strategies,
develop/select
materials, and
formative evaluation.
summative evaluation.
Wedman &
Tessmer
(1990) Layers of Necessity
Model
More layers as you
move from simple to
complex ID process and
limited to ample time
resources
Kemp,
Morrison, and
Ross
(1994). Emphasis on curriculum
planning. Outer circle: project
mgt., support services, planning,
summative evaluation
Next circle: revision
and formative. Inner
circle: standard ID
Model, e.g. problem ID,
learner analysis,…
Kemp,
Morrison and
Ross
(1998) Four fundamental
components to ID (that overlap):
learners, methods, objectives,
and evaluation.
Heinich,
Molenda,
Russell, and
Smaldino
(1996) ASSURE Model.
Classroom-oriented. Not
graphically-represented. Focus
on media/material section and
utilization, in contrast to wider
ID process.
Steps: analyze learners,
state objectives, select
media/materials, utilize
materials, require
learner participation,
evaluate/review.
Reiser and
Dick
(1996) Classroom-oriented.
Similar to Dick & Carey Model.
ID goals, ID objectives,
plan activities; choose
media, design
assessment, implement,
and revise.
Van Patten
(1989) Product-oriented Model.
ISD Model. Nine phases for
paper-based material.
Steps: analysis, design,
development, pilot,
review, production,
duplication, implement,
Some may
consider productoriented.
Criticisms of ISD:
too mechanistic
and simplistic, too
linear and
inflexible.
26
27
maintain.
Contextual
Analysis
Human
Performance
Technology
Smith and
Ragan
(1993) System-oriented. Popular
among students and
professionals seeking cognitive
view of ID. Emphasis on
instructional strategies.
8 steps: analyze learner
context, analyze
learners, task analysis,
assess performance,
develop strategies,
produce instruction,
evaluate, and revise.
Glaser
(1990) Wrote that ISD models
are based on descriptive models
of learning theory and
prescriptive theories of
instruction.
Tessmer &
Richey
(1997) Systemic Training
Design. Contextual/
environmental analysis model.
Three contexts:
orienting, instructional,
transfer. Three levels of
environments within
each: organizational,
immediate, and
learners.
Tannenbaum
and Yukl
(1992) Three temporal levels of
a training environment.
Three levels: pre,
instructional, and post.
Tessmer
(1990) Environmental analysis.
Extension to front-end analysis.
All instruction occurs in
an environment
composed of physical,
psychological and
social factors.
Tom Gilbert
(1978) Behavioral Engineering
Model: Provides 6 performance
improvement factors for
enhancing individual, group or
organizational performance
problems
HT theory bases: GST,
behavioral psychology,
ID theory,
organizational
development,
motivation theory, mgt.
Theory
Tom Gilbert
(1975) Definition of HPT:
conversion of human potential
into human capital.
9x9 Matrix – nine
performance variables.
3 levels of performance
– job/performer,
process, organization. 3
performance needs –
goals, design, mgt.
Joe Harless
(1986) Describes Performance
Analysis as "front-end analysis"
Everything isn’t a
training issue:
Systems models
usually involve
larger amount of
instruction, e.g.
course or
curriculum.
27
28
equipment, incentives
Task Analysis
Joe Harless
Definition of HPT: process of
analysis, design, development,
testing implementation &
evaluation of relevant and costeffective interventions
Kurt Lewin
Force Field Analysis: what are
the +’s, what are the –‘s
Mager
Behavioral/Performance
objectives
Rothwell;
Deterline and
Rosebeg
(1992) HPT Model:
Performance analysis (customer
needs, mission, desired state,
actual state, gap), Cause
Analysis, Intervention Selection.
Stolivich and
Keeps
"Handbook of Human
Performance Technology".
Gloria Gery
(1991) Book Electronic
Performance Support Systems
articulates benefits of EPSS.
Mager and
Pipe
(1991)
Bloom
(1956) Taxonomy of
Educational Objectives for
cognitive domain.
Specification and
analysis of instructional
outcomes and design of
instruction to attain
them.
Merrill
(1983) Component Display
Theory. Describes tasks in terms
of intersection of two
dimensions – content and
performance level. Content is
either facts, concepts,
procedures or principles.
Performance either remember,
use or find.
Micro-level design
strategy for organizing
instruction for a single
idea in the cognitive
domain.
Jonassen,
Hannum,
Tessmer
(1989) text "Handbook of Task
Analysis Procedures".
Accounts for change
mgt, evaluation of
results & work /
competitive
environment b/w
intervention & actual
state.
Gery suggests it may be
an alternative to ID
which is slow and
costly
We-based. Brings
together many
systems.
Jonassen (1989) - five
28
29
functions of task analysis:
1) inventorying tasks, 2)
describing tasks, 3)
selecting tasks for
instruction, 5) analyzing
task and content level (for
selecting instructional
strategies).
Needs
Assessment
Objectives
Merrill
(1978,1980) Path Analysis
Designer identifies
unique paths through an
information processing
flow chart.
Gagne
(1985) Domains of learning:
verbal, intellectual skills,
cognitive strategies, attitudes,
psychomotor.
Kessels and
Smit
In Encyclopedia of Educational
Technology. Article: Job
Analysis. Job, task and skills
analysis are often used
interchangeably. Cites Kaufman
(1990) and Rossett (1987) for
work on analysis.
Job analysis is often
associated with time
and motion studies
introduced along with
scientific mgt.
Kaufman
(1972; 1977,1991)
Needs assessment
ascertains whether a
perceived problem can
be resolved by training.
(Kessel and Smit)
A. Rossett
(1987) Assess to find out: 1)
optimals, 2) actuals, 3) feelings,
4) causes, 5) solutions.
How to assess: 1)
determine purposes
based on initiators, 2)
identify sources, 3)
select tools, 4) conduct
needs assess. stages, 5)
findings for decision
making.
Mager
(1962,1963) Describes how to
write performance objectives.
3 components:
description of terminal
behavior/performance,
conditions of
demonstration of
behavior, performance
statement or criterion
Mager and
Pipe
(1984)
Closely related to
task analysis,
needs assessment,
and HPT.
29
30
Evaluation
Pophm &
Baker
(1970)
Bloom
(1956) Taxonomy of
Educational Objectives:
Handbook I: Cognitive Domain.
Krathwohl
(1964) Taxonomy of
Educational Objectives:
Handbook II: The Affective
Domain.
R. Tyler
(1932) Eight Year Study.
R. Tyler
(1942) Article General
Statement on Evaluation.
R. Tyler
(1960s) Conceptualizes U.S.
National Assessment of
Educational Progress (NAEP).
M. Scriven
(1967) The Methodology of
Evaluation
Distinguished formative
and summative
evaluation
M. Scriven
(1973) The Methodology of
Evaluation.
Evaluation plays many
roles in education, but
has a single goal. Some
roles: plan, improve,
justify.
Stufflebeam
(1969, 1971, 1983) CIPP
Evaluation Model. Decisionoriented evaluation approach.
Context, Input evaluation,
process evaluation, product
evaluation.
Introduced new idea of
evaluating "not to
prove, but to improve"
Kirkpatrick
(1979) Article Techniques for
Evaluating Training Programs.
Four levels of
evaluation: 1) learner
satisfaction, 2) learner
achievement, 3) transfer
on-the-job, 4) impact on
organization.
Four levels of evaluation
M. Tessmer
(1993, 1995) text "Planning and
Conducting Formative
Evaluations".
Refined procedures for
writing instructional
objectives
Product
evaluation.
Defines formative
evaluation as "a
judgment of the
strengths and
weaknesses of
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instruction in its
developing stages, for
purposes of revising the
instruction to improve
its effectiveness and
appeal.
Adult Learning
Theory
Psychological
Development /
Individual
Differences
Media Selection
Worthen and
Sanders
(1987) text "Educational
Evaluation: Alternative
Approaches and Practical
Guidelines".
Breaks up evaluation
into categories: mgt.,
objectives, consumer,
expertise, adversary.
Misanchuk
Confirmative evaluation.
Answers: 1) do
materials still meet the
original objectives, 2)
have learners
maintained their levels
of competence.
Richey
Knowles
(1983)
Piaget
(1954) The construction of
reality in the child. (1958).The
growth of logical thinking.
Explained development
of thinking from
infancy to adulthood.
Maslow
(1954) Hierarchy of Needs.
Physiological, safety,
love/belonging, esteem,
self-actualization.
Erik Erikson
(1963) Childhood and Society.
(1968) Identify: Youth in crisis.
8 stages to psychological
development: Preconventional,
convention, postconventional.
Developed theory of
psychosocial
development that
describes tasks to be
accomplished at
different stages of life.
Lawrence
Kohlberg
(1963, 1975, 1981) Stages of
moral development.
Howard
Gardner
(1983, 1993). Theory of multiple
intelligences.
Eight intelligences:
verbal, musical, spatial,
logical-mathematical,
bodily-kinesthetic,
interpersonal,
intrapersonal.
Edgar Dale
(1946) Audio-Visual Methods in
Teaching.
Cone of Experience
used as rationale for use
of media
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Wood and
Freeman
(1929) First research on use of
media in education
Richard Clark
(1983,1994). Media does not
influence learning. More time
invested in development newer
technology; uncontrolled
novelty effect. Editorial
decisions and distortion of
effects.
Robert Kozma
(1991,1994). The capabilities of
the medium and methods which
take advantages of these
capabilities influence the way in
which one represents and
processes info. Which can result
in higher learning.
Michael Moore
Distance education
Michael Moore
Distance Transaction Theory:
greater structure and less
interactivity = greater distance =
less learning.
Gary Morrison
CBI screen design
Desmond
Keegan
Theories of Distance Education.
Foundations of Distance
Education.
Diffusion of
Innovations
Everett Rogers
(1983) authored classic text
Diffusion of Innovations.
Motivation
Keller
(1983) ARCS Model
Individualized
Instruction
Skinner
(1958) Teaching machines
Keller
(1968) Personalized System of
Instruction (PSI)
Carroll
(1963) First to outline
procedures for mastery learning,
later adopted by Bloom and
Learning from
Media – Clark
vs. Kozma
Technology;
multimedia,
distance learning
Film utilization
Project
Management
Insights on how to
overcome barriers to
instructional design.
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Block
Bloom
(1968)
AECT
(1994) "IT is the theory and
practice of design, development,
utilization, mgt., and evaluation
of processes and resources for
learning."
Davies
(1991) Described the field as a
science, art and craft
AECT
(1977) "ET is a complex,
integrated process involving
people, procedures, ideas,
devices and organization for
analyzing problems and
devising, implementing,
evaluating, and managing
solutions to those problems
involved in all aspects off
human learning."
AECT
(1972) ET is a field involved in
the facilitation of human
learning though systematic
identification, development,
organization, and utilization of a
full-range of learning resources
and through the mgt. Of these
processes.
President’s
Commission
on IT
(1970) "systematic way of
designing, carrying out, and
evaluating the total process of
learning and teaching in terms of
specific objectives, based on
research in human learning and
communication and employing a
combination of human and nonhuman resources to bring about
more effective instruction.
NEA; Don Ely
(1963) AV Communication is
that branch of educational theory
and practice concerned with the
design and use of messages that
control the learning process.
Trends in
General
Definitions of IT
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History of IT
Reiser
(1987)
Eraut
(1989)
Saettler
(1990)
Government /
Legislation
(1965) Elementary and
Secondary Education Act
(ESEA) creates new R&D labs
Authorized educational
research, development
and dissemination
(1967) Fed. Govt. Created
Center for the Study of
Evaluation
(1972) National Institute of
Education created.
(1970s) NEA’s DAVI becomes
AECT; Natl. Society of
Performance & Instruction
becomes Natl. Society for
Performance Improvement
Definitions
Education
Those experiences in which
people learn.
Instruction
Focused educational
experiences.
Training
Instructional focused for specific
skills to be used in near future.
Teaching
Like instruction, but must
involve human delivery.
Design
Systematic planning process
prior to development /
implementation of plan to solve
problem.
Instructional
Design
Systematic planning of
instruction. An ID theory is a set
of guidelines that indicate what
methods of instruction are most
likely to work best for different
situations. (Reigeluth,
Instructional Design Theories)
Theory
Organized set of statements to
explain, predict, or control
events. May be descriptive or
prescriptive.
Planned, unplanned,
formal, informal.
Mager (1984) says it
answers 3 questions:
where are we going,
how will we get there,
how will we know
when we arrive.
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System
Set of interrelated and
interacting parts that work
together for a common goal.
Curriculum
An organized set of intended
learning outcomes presumed to
lead to the achievement of
educational goals (Posner and
Rudnitsky, 1982)
Dissertation
Topic
Area of
Specialization
Instructional
Sequencing
Web-based
instruction
"Conceptual Frameworks and Historical Development" [of Educational Technology]
M.R. Eraut, 1989
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Educational Technology came into existence as an occupational category during
the course of the 1960s. Prior to that time people were engaged in jobs and
activities that are now regarded as pertaining to educational technology, without
being labeled as educational technologists.
Entrants to educational technology during the 1960s usually came by one of two
routes - audiovisual education or programmed learning.
Most AV specialists saw themselves solely as practitioners: advisors to teachers,
trainer of teachers, and providers of learning resources for use by teachers.
o In so far as they had a theoretical base it consisted of two assumptions:
 that stimulus richness and variety would enhance attention and
motivation
 that degree of abstraction was a critical variable in learning, e.g.
Dale's Cone of Experience.
o It was thought then that more media is better. Not so now, but still is a
rule of thumb
Communication theorists have shown that there is a limit to the amount of
information that can be received and processed at any one time, and the multiplechannel communication can be disadvantageous.
How did we move from AV to Educational Technology?
o A key individual was Dr. James Finn, who became the president of the
Department of Audiovisual Instruction, the United States media
specialists' professional association, in 1960. His seminal paper
"Technology and the Instructional Process" (Finn, 1960) examined the
possible relations of technology with education but set this in the context
of a general discussion of the role of technology in society. His main
argument was that many areas of society in the US were being
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transformed by technology, and that it was inevitable that education would
eventually undergo a similar transformation.
 Finn saw two trends in the opposite direction occurring
 trend toward mass instructional technology as exemplified
by the new prominence of television, and
 a trend towards individualization of which programmed
learning provided a new example.
 Finn said "It is my position that the audio-visual field is in
the easiest position to help integrate these mechanisms
properly into the instructional process. They are not
primarily audio-visual; they are primarily technological.
The audio-visual field, I think must now suddenly grow up.
The audio-visual specialists, are, of all educational
personnel, the closest to technology now; we have, I think,
to become specialists in learning technology - and that's
how I would redefine audio-visual education (pp. 393-94)
 Finn said, "the audiovisual profession, as a technologist of
the teaching profession, must relate to fields like
psychology exactly as the medical doctor related to his
basic sciences."
o The Department of Audiovisual Instruction (DAVI) published a major
sourcebook in 1960 Teaching Machines and Programmed Learning,
edited by Lumsdaine and Glaser.
Two new concepts:
o instructional technology as applied learning theory
o idea of product development through the systematic testing and revision of
learning materials. Skinner wrote: "An unexpected advantage of machine
instruction has proved to be the feedback to the programme. (1968, p. 49)
Lumsdaine's generic definition of a programme:
o An instructional program is a vehicle that generates an essentially
reproducible sequence of instructional events and accepts responsibility
for efficiently accomplishing a specified change from a given range of
initial competences or behavioral tendencies to a specified terminal range
of competences or behavioral tendencies. (p. 385)
The Systems Approach
o The Oxford English Dictionary gave two definitions for a system:
 An organized or connected group of objects; a set or assembly of
things connected, or interdependent, so as to form a complex unity;
a whole composed of parts in orderly arrangement according to
some scheme or plan.
 A set of principles, etc.; a scheme, method
o Heinich (1968) argued the media specialists need to reconceptualize their
role.
o Hoban (1965) added a further strand to the reconceptualization process
when he emphasized the need for a management of learning perspective:
"When we consider the part machines play in education, we are forced
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into a consideration of man/machine systems. When we consider
man/machine systems, we are forced into a consideration of technology ...
technology is not just machines and men. It is a complex, integrated
organization of men and machines, of ideas, of procedures, and of
management." (p. 242)
Systems Engineering (sometimes described as operations research) evolved
during WWII as a field concerned with the design of large-scale technical
systems. Ramo (1973) defined it as follows: "The systems approach is a
technique for the application of a scientific approach to complex problems. It
concentrates on the analysis and design of the whole, as distinct from the
components or the parts. It insists upon looking at a problem in its entirety, taking
into account all the facets and all the variables, and relating the social to the
technological aspects." (p. 15)
Period between 1967 and 1972 can be thought of as a period of consolidation.
Educational technology became a recognized term and people began to accept it
as an occupational definition which covered a range of jobs in all sectors of
education.
o The first official endorsement of a field called educational technology may
well have been the establishment in the United Kingdom of a National
Council for Educational Technology in 1967.
o The United Kingdom Association for Programmed Learning promptly
added "Educational Technology" to its title in 1968
o In 1970 the Department of Audiovisual Instruction of the National
Education Association changed its name to Association for Educational
Communications and Technology
o Also in 1970, Congress appointed a commission "Commission on
Instructional Technology" for a report. Also created the National Center
for Educational Technology
Definition of ET in 1967 by National Council for Education Technology (NCET)
in the United Kingdom: "Educational technology is the development, application,
and evaluation of systems, techniques, and aids to improve the process of human
learning.
Domains of IT
Design
ID and ISD - General Information
 Systems issues in Instructional Design:
o
o
o
tensions between the use of feedback to stabilize a system and creative
system design and development, i.e. how does growth occur? ----- change
is built into design
implications of systems theory for training and organization performance
improvement
implications for analysis
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appropriate breadth of analysis
o implications for evaluation
 appropriate emphasis and types
o implications for transfer of training
 appropriate impact on all design phases
Applying General Systems Theory: The Systems Approach
o Analysis
 identification of component parts of the systems and the
relationships between them
o Synthesis
 combining related components into a new system
Basic elements of Instructional Systems Design
o determine learner needs
o determine goals and objectives
o construct assessment procedures
o design/select delivery approaches
o try-out instructional system
o install and maintain system
ISD Relationships to GST
o determine learner needs
o determine goals/objectives
o construct assessment plans
o design/select delivery approaches
o try-out instructional system
o install and maintain system
Nature of ISD Models:
o procedural models, not conceptual (like Bloom's taxonomy)
o macro-design, not micro-design emphasis typically (not learning process
emphasis)
o designed for generic use, yet their proliferation reflects adaptation to
unique settings
Functions of ISD Models:
o to establish criteria for good design practice and serve as a teaching tool
o to serve as a tool for project organization and management
o to visualize and explain an intended plan so that consensus may be
reached, a communication tool used within the design team or with clients
o marketing tool used with potential clients
o vehicle for emphasizing organizational constraints and/or orientations
o quality control devices
o to facilitate theory description and application
Comparing ISD Models:
o Outcome orientation (e.g. product, program)
o Theoretical emphasis (e.g. performance technology, intuitive design,
systemic)
o Context (work environment)
o Expertise requirement
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o
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Scope
Characteristics of successful use of ISD techniques (McCombs)
o models followed closely
o fully documented procedures
o performed by highly trained personnel
o implemented flexibly
o theory integrated into the process
o emphasis put on evaluation
o primary attention given to front-end analysis activities
o analysis includes a consideration of
 the role of the learner and the instructor
 the organization of knowledge
 the learning environment and social context
Characteristics of expert designers
o assumes problems are complex and poorly defined, and elaborates on
information provided
o delays selection of design solution, often using combined interventions
Common criticisms of ISD
o too linear and over-proceduralized
o needs more emphasis on
 practitioner constraints
 organization's culture and bottom line ($$)
 learning, not teaching process
o needs less emphasis on
 instructional solutions
 behavioral orientations
Basis of Merrill's Criticisms of ID1
o too much emphasis on analysis and not enough on synthesis
o models do not distinguish between macro and micro design
 Macro design is based on systems theory; micro design is based on
psychological theory
o models are too linear with too little relationship and interaction between
the stages
o takes too much time
Further ISD Issues:
o Linearity, fact or fiction?
o over-proceduralization of complex steps makes design appear trivial
o over-proceduralization de-emphasizes design as problem-solving
o should pre-design analysis be de-emphasized to broaden design scope?
o Or should it be emphasized to expand system perspective and address
 broader view of learner characteristics
 analysis of how knowledge is stored
 concerns of organization and environment
 media/technology characteristics
o Does ISD tend to relate more to individualized, self-paced instruction?
 lead to de-humanization?
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lead to micro-analysis of problems and reductionist appearance?
result in more passive learning?
The design cycle time controversy
o issues related to time required to follow all aspects of the ISD process
o workplace pressures to reduce cycle time
o what can be done to reduce cycle time and still produce quality products?
 layers of necessity approach
 EPSS
 rapid prototyping
How have these criticisms been addressed?
o Cycle time can be reduced through the (1) use of non-traditional ISD
models, such as the Layers-of-Necessity and Emdicium models, or (2)
Electronic Performance Support Systems (EPSS), such as Designers Edge.
o Over-emphasis on instructional solutions has led to Human Performance
Technology (HPT) movement.
o More emphasis on practitioner’s constraints, culture, etc. has also led to
greater pushes for contextual analyses (Richey & Tessmer).
o The Systemic Approach to IS is another response to ID concerns such as:
too linear, not responsive enough to practitioner and customer needs, cycle
time to long, etc. It is more creative, ID processes performed concurrently
when possible, more holistic, more flexible and adaptable.
Review of Macro-Design Content:
o Describe principles of general systems theory.
 General Systems Theory refers to an approach to viewing our
environment. There are no formal statements of law, but rather a
series of concepts and orientations, which can be used by many
disciplines to organize and show relationships between the various
parts of the empirical world.
 It has an interdisciplinary orientation; it provides approaches to
building conceptual models in many disciplines using the same
principles. Different that the systems sciences: systems
engineering, operations research, and human engineering. GST, as
the name implies, is more general.
 GST is ordered, logical and rational (but can contain creativity,
invention, interpretation). It has a systematic orientation.
 It is an orientation towards understanding relationships and the
effects of a given process, attitude, or object upon other people and
other events.
 GST assumes systems are: ordered, made up of many components
and processes, there is a relationship between the various elements,
there is a relationship between attributes of the elements, system is
a complete whole, system can be open or closed, system is
hierarchical, structure of system determines function.
o Define and describe attributes of a system.
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
o
o
System - a set of objects together with relationships between the
objects and between their attributes (Hall & Fagan, 1975).
 Examples of system: human body, political party. Non-examples:
pile of leaves (no functional connection between leaves).
 Banathy expanded the definition of a system to include a notion of
purpose, or a goal of a system.
 Systems can be open or closed - depending on whether they
interact with their environment.
 Principle of Equifinality - an open system can reach its final
state(s) in a number of different ways, because it can interact with
its surroundings. Closed system reaches its final state based on
initial conditions.
 Systems are part of an environment, which is made up of
subsystems and suprasystems, providing it inputs and receiving its
outputs. Therefore, systems, by nature, are hierarchical.
 Systems also tend to be self-stabilizing and self-organized. Selfstabilizing occurs through feedback, which comes from interacting
with the environment.
Describe the core elements of ISD.
 ISD is a systematic approach for the design, development, and
mgt. of training materials and programs. A variety of ISD models
have been developed to assist coming into wide use during the
1970s.
 ISD is a systems approach, and therefore has all the characteristics
of this approach - see above.
Describe how ISD is an application of GST.
 ISD and GST are both systems approaches - both containing (1)
consistent definition of a system, (2) notion of purpose within a
system, (3) emphasis on structure, and (4) concept of selfregulation.
 As systems approaches, they both are made up of two processes analysis and synthesis.
 As systems approaches, traditionally they both are made up of the
same stages: (1) analysis of system, (2) identify problem, (3)
design/develop solution, (4) implement solution, (5)
control/evaluate.
 They are both hierarchical, ordered and systematic. Both are goal
oriented.
 They both use feedback and revision, improvement, selfstabilization.
 Both are macro-designs - based on systems theory. As opposed to
micro-design, based on psychology.
Development
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The roots of the development domain are in the area of media production, and
through the years changes in media capabilities have led to changes in the
domain. Although the development of textbooks and other instructional aids
preceded fill, the emergence of film was the first major landmark in the
progression of from the audio-visual movements to the modern day Instructional
Technology era.
In the 1930s theatrical film began to be used instructionally. As a result, the first
film catalogs appeared: film libraries and companies were established; film
studies were undertaken and commercial organizations, such as the Society for
Visual Education, were established.
During WWII many types of materials were produced for military training,
especially films. After the war, the new medium of television was also applied to
education, and a new genre of television program appeared. Concurrently, largescale govt. funding supported curriculum projects, which incorporated other types
of instructional media.
During the 1950s and early 1960s programmed instructional materials were
developed.
By the 1970s computers were used for instruction.
During the 1980s theory and practice in the area of computer-based instruction
came to fruition, and by the 1990s computer-based integrated multimedia was part
of the domain
Development is the process of translating the design specification into
physical form.
Within the development domain, there exists a complex interrelationship between
the technology and the theory, which drives both message design and instructional
strategies. Basically, the development domain can be described by:
o the message which is context driven
o the instructional strategy which is theory drive; and
o the physical manifestation of the technology - the hardware, software and
instructional materials
Utilization
AECT Utilization Domain - From Seels and Richey, "The Definition and Domains of
the Field"


Utilization may have the longest heritage of any of the domains of Instructional
Technology, in that the regular use of AV materials predates the widespread
concern for the systematic design and production of instructional media.
The domain of utilization began with the visual education movement, which
flourished during the first decade of this century when school museums were
established. The first systematic experiments in the preparation of exhibits for
instructional purposes were conducted. Also during the early years of the 20th
century, teachers were finding ways to use theatrical films and short subjects in
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the classroom, thus creating a market for films designed specifically for
educational purposes.
After WWII, the AV movement instruction movement organized and prompted
the use of materials. The available supply of instructional materials expanded as
production increased leading the new ways to assist teachers.
During the 1960s instructional media centers were established in many school and
colleges, and curriculum projects incorporating media became available.
These events all contributed to the utilization domain.
Probably the most significant event, however, was the publication in 1946 of the
first post WWII textbook devoted to utilization, Audiovisual Materials in
Teaching (Dale, 1946), which attempted to provide a general rationale for the
selection of appropriate learning materials and activities. Published in several
languages and used all over the world, new editions of this text appeared regularly
for the next 20 years. It led to other textbooks on utilization that was used in a
widely taught course introducing teachers to AV materials.
In 1982 Heinich, Molenda, and Russell's Instructional Materials and the New
Technologies of Instruction was published. This updated the utilization
information presented to pre- and in-service teachers, and became another
landmark text on utilization.
o After several editions, the ASSURE model presented in this text has
become a widely disseminated procedural guide to help instructors plan
for and implement the use of media in teaching. The steps in this model:
 Analyze learners
 State objectives
 Select media and materials
 Utilize media and materials
 Require learner participation
 Evaluate and revise
The growth of theory during the 1970sand 1980s produced several texts on media
selection. Media selection processes are represented through instructional design
model because they are systematic.
Utilization requires systematic use, dissemination, diffusion, implementation, and
institutionalization. It is constrained by policies and regulations. The utilization
function is important because it describes the interface between the learner and
instructional materials and systems.
The four subcategories in the domain of utilization are:
o Media Utilization
 The systematic use of resources for learning
o Diffusion of Innovations
 The process of communicating through planned strategies for the
purpose of gaining adoption. Goal is to being about change.
o Implementation and Institutionalization
 Implementation is using instructional materials or strategies in real
(not simulated) settings.
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
o
Institutionalization is the continuing, routine use of the
instructional innovation in the structure and culture of an
organization.
Policies and Regulation
Management
AECT Domain of Management - From Seels and Richey, Instructional Technology:
Definition and Domains of the Field

The management domain evolved originally from the administration of media
centers, programs and services. A melding of the library and media programs led
to school library media centers and specialists. These school media programs
merged print and non-print materials and led to the increased use of technological
resources in the curriculum. In 1976 Chrisholm and Ely wrote Media Personnel
in Education: A Competency Approach, which emphasized that the administration
of media programs played a central role in the field.

Management involves controlling Instructional Technology through planning,
organizing, coordinating and supervising.
AECT Management Domain subcategories:
o Project Management
 Planning, monitoring, and controlling instructional design and
development projects. They mist negotiate, budget, install
information monitoring systems, and evaluate programs.
 According to Rothwell and Kazanas (1992), project management
differs from traditional management, which is line and staff
management, because: (a) project members may be new, shortterm members of a team; (b) project managers often lack long-term
authority over people because they are temporary bosses, and (c)
project management enjoy greater control and flexibility than is
usual in the line and staff organizations.

o
o
o
Resource Management
 Planning, monitoring, and controlling resource support systems
and services.
Delivery System Management
 Planning, monitoring, and controlling "the methods by which
distribution of instructional materials is organized ... [It is] a
combination of medium and method of usage that is employed to
present instructional information to a learner" (Ellington and
Harris, 1986, p. 47)
Information Management
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Evaluation
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Ralph Tyler is generally credited with promulgating the concept of evaluation in
the 1930s (Worthen and Sanders, 1973).
The year 1965 saw the passage of the landmark Elementary and Secondary
Education Act, mandating formal needs assessments and evaluation of certain
types of programs. Since that time, evaluation has grown into a field of its own,
with professional associations (e.g. the American Evaluation Association) and a
long list of published books and journal sources.
The publication of Robert Mager's Preparing Instructional Objectives in 1962
was an important even in the evolution of evaluation. Mager decided to use
programmed instruction as an introduction to writing measurable objectives.
In the late 1960's Stufflebeam (1969 introduced another approach to evaluation
which has now become classic, one which sought "not to prove but to improve"
(Stufflebeam, 1983, p. 118) (e.g. formative evaluation). His model suggested four
types of evaluation: context, input, process and product (CIPP).
The Joint Committee on Standards for Education Evaluation (1981) provided
definitions for each of these types of evaluation:
o Program Evaluations
o Project Evaluations
o Materials Evaluation (instructional products)
The four subdomains of Evaluation (from AECT)
o Problem Analysis
o Criterion-Referenced Measurement
o Formative Evaluation
o Summative Evaluation
Other Information on Evaluation

Front-End Analysis
o Needs Assessment
o Cause Analysis
o Performance Analysis
o Gap Analysis

Back-End Analysis (Evaluation)
Introduction to Evaluation


Purposes of Evaluation
o To assess learners' achievement of objectives (summative evaluation)
o To evaluation effectiveness of instruction (formative evaluation)
Assessment Models
o Norm-referenced - developed to rank the order of learners
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o
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Criterion-referenced - developed to determine learners' competence on
particular objectives
Characteristics of Assessment Instruments
o Validity - does it measure what it purports to measure? Does it sample the
possible domain of items adequately?
o Reliability - is the measure objective and consistent? Can one have
confidence that scores represent learners' true abilities?
Assessment Item Specifications
o Objective
o Sample item
o Question form
o Question characteristics
o Response characteristics
o Number of items and mastery criteria
Formal evaluation studies have played many roles in education, including
o to provide a basis for decision making and policy formation
o to assess student achievement
o to evaluate curricula
o to accredit schools
o to monitor expenditure of public funds
o to improve educational materials and programs
Scriven (1973) notes that evaluation plays many roles in education, even though it
has a single goal: to determine the worth or merit of whatever is being evaluated.
Evaluation serves to identify strengths and weaknesses, highlight the good, and
expose the faulty, but not corrects problems, for this is the separate step of using
evaluation findings.
History of Evaluation
o Travers (1983) has established that prior to the mid-1800s there was little
that could be construed as formal evaluation in American Schools.
o Horace Mann, from 1838 to 1850, collected data on which to base
educational decisions.
o The Boston Survey was the first use of printed tests for wide scale
assessment of student achievement. It found low performance in 1845 and
1846m but was discontinued in 1847 because the results were not being
used.
o From 1895-1905, Joseph Rice organized a similar assessment program
carried out in a number of large school systems throughout the United
States.
o In the early 1900s, Edward Lee Thorndike, called the father of the
educational testing movement, helped persuade educators that measuring
human changes was worthwhile.
o The testing movement was in full swing by 1918, with individual and
group tests being developed for use in many educational and
psychological decisions. Though the early school systems relied on
criterion-referenced tests to gather group information in school subject
46
Some
Proponents
47

areas, the 1920s saw the emergence of norm-referenced tests developed
for use in measuring individual performance levels.
o In 1915, the Gary Plan was an innovative means of meeting the
educational needs of the Gary, Indiana school system and community.
o During the 1930s, as part of the progressive education movement, school
districts experimented with curricula based on the writings of John
Dewey.
o Ralph Tyler conducted the Eight Year Study, which included a formal
plan of evaluation that remains popular today. Employed in 1932, it
conceptualized the objectives-based approach to educational evaluation
and developed instruments and procedures to measure a wide range of
educational outcomes.
o The 1930s also witnessed a growing influence among national and
regional school accreditation agencies in the United States.
o The 1940s and early 1950s generally saw a period of consolidation and
application of earlier evaluation developments.
o The 1950s and early 1960s saw considerable technical development,
building on the Tylerian base. For example, taxonomies of possible
educational objectives were published, beginning with the influential
Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Handbook I: Cognitive Domain
(Bloom and others, 1956).
o National Defense Education Act of 1958 provided millions of dollars for
development of new educational programs - curriculum development
projects.
o 1986 merged the Evaluation Network and the Evaluation Research Society
into the American Evaluation Association.
o In 1967, the federal government created the Center for the Study of
Evaluation.
o In 1972, the government created the National Institute of Education (NIE).
A Classification Schema for Evaluation Approaches
o Objectives-oriented approaches
o Management-oriented approaches
o Consumer-oriented approaches
o Expertise-oriented approaches
o Adversary-oriented approaches
o Naturalistic and participant-oriented approaches
A Comparative Analysis of Evaluation Approaches
Comparative Analysis of Alternative Evaluation Approaches
Objectives
Oriented
Management
Oriented
Consumer
Oriented
Expertise
Oriented
Adversary
Oriented
Naturalistic
Oriented
Tyler
Provus
Metfessel and
Stufflebeam
Alkin
Provus
Scriven
Komoski
Eisner
Accreditation
Groups
Wolf
Owens
Levine
Stake
Patton
Guba and
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48
Michael
Hammond
Popham
Taba
Bloom
Talmage
Kourilsky
Lincoln
Rippey
MacDonald
Parlett and
Hamilton
Purpose of
Evaluation
Determining the
extent to which
objetives are
achieved
Providing useful
Providing
information to aid information
in making decisions about
educational
products to aid
decisions about
educational
purchases or
adoptions
Providing
professional
judgments of
quality
Providing a
balanced
examinations
of all sides of
controversial
issues or
highlighting
both strengths
and
weaknesses of
a program
Understanding
and portraying
the
complexities
of an
educational
activity,
responding to
audience's
requirements
for
information
Distinguishing
Characteristics
Specifying
measurable
objectives, using
objective
instruments to
gather data,
looking for
discrepancies
between
objectives and
performance
Serving rational
decision making,
evaluating at all
stages of program
development
Using criterion
checklists to
analyze
products,
product testing,
informing
consumers
Basing
judgments on
individual
knowledge and
experience, use
of consensus
standards, team/
site visitations
Use of public
hearings, use
of opposing
points of view,
decision based
on arguments
heard during
proceedings
Reflecting
multiple
realities, use
of inductive
reasoning and
discovery,
firsthand
experience on
site
Past Users
Curriculum
development,
monitoring
student
achievement,
needs assessment
Program
development,
institutional
management
systems, program
planning,
accountability
Consumer
reports, product
development,
selection of
products for
dissemination
Self-study,
blue-ribbon
panels,
accreditation
examination by
committee,
criticism
Examination of
controversial
programs or
issues, policy
hearing
Examination
of innovations
or change
about which
little is
known,
ethnographies
of operating
programs
Contributions to
the
Conceptualization
of an Evaluation
Pre-post
measurement of
performance,
clarify goals, use
objective tests and
measurements that
are technically
Identify and
evaluate needs and
objectives, consider
alternative program
designs, evaluate
them, watch the
implementation of
Lists of criteria
for evaluating
educational
products and
activities,
archival
references for
Legitimation of
subjective
criticism, selfstudy with
outside
verification,
standards
Use of forensic
and judicial
forms of public
hearing, crossexamination of
evidence,
thorough
Emergent
evaluation
designs, use
of inductive
reasoning,
recognition of
multiple
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49
sound
a program, look for
bugs and explain
outcomes, see if
needs have been
reduced or
eliminated, metaevaluation
completed
reviews,
formative and
summative roles
of evaluation
bias control
presentation of
multiple
perspectives,
focus on and
clarify issues
realities,
importance of
studying
context,
criteria for
judging the
rigor of
naturalistic
inquiry
Criteria for
Judging
Evaluations
Measurability of
objectives,
measurement
reliability and
validity
Utility, feasibility, Freedom from
propriety, and
bias, technical
technical soundness soundness,
defensible
criteria used to
draw conclusions
and make
recommendation,
evidence of need
and effectiveness
are required
Use of
recognized
standards,
qualifications of
experts
Balance,
fairness,
publicness,
opportunity for
crossexamination
Credibility,
fit,
auditability,
confirmability
Benefits
Ease of use,
simplicity, focus
on outcomes, high
acceptability,
forces objectives
to be set
Comprehensiveness
sensitivity to
information needs
of those in a
leadership position,
systematic
approach to
evaluation, use of
evaluation
throughout the
process of program
development, well
operationalized
with detailed
guidelines for
implementation,
use of a wide
variety of
information
Emphasis on
consumer
information
needs, influence
on product
developers,
concern with
costeffectiveness and
utility,
availability of
checklists
broad coverage,
efficiency (ease
of
implementation,
timing),
capitalizes on
human
judgment
Broad
coverage, close
examination of
claims, aim
toward closure
or resolution,
illumination of
different sides
of issues,
impact on
audience, use
of a wide
variety of
information
Focus on
description
and judgment,
concern with
context,
openness to
evolve
evaluation
plan,
pluralistic, use
of inductive
reasoning, use
of wide
variety of
information,
emphasis on
understanding
Limitations
Oversimplification
of evaluation and
education,
outcomes-only
orientation,
reductionistic,
Emphasis on
organizational
efficiency and
production model,
assumption of
orderliness and
Cost and lack of
sponsorship,
may suppress
creativity or
innovations, not
open to debate or
Replicability,
vulnerability to
personal bias,
scarcity of
supporting
documentation
Fallible
arbiters or
judges, high
potential costs
and
consumption
Nondirective,
tendency to be
attracted by
the bizarre or
atypical,
potentially
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50
linear, over
emphasis on
student testing
predictability in
crossdecision making,
examination
can be expensive to
administer and
maintain, narrow
focus on the
concerns of leaders
on support
conclusions,
open to
conflict of
interest,
superficial look
at context,
overuse of
intuition
reliance on
qualifications of
the "experts"
of time,
reliance on
investigatory
and
communication
skills of
presenters,
potential
irrelevancies or
artificial
polarization,
limited to
information
that is
presented
Evaluation Designs







A Design is a plan which dictates when and from whom measurements will be
gathered during the course of an evaluation.
The Treatment or Experimental Group consists of people who receive the
experimental program.
A Control Group is a group consisting of people who are as similar as possible
to those in the E-Group, and who are measured at the same time as the E-Group,
but do not get the treatment.
A True Control Group is one formed by random assignment. Randomization
is the way to make an equivalent, or true, control group. Random assignment of
people to programs is the most effective way of eliminating confounds.
Posttests are measurements made most usually at the end of a program or an
experiment. It is in the posttest scores that the results should allow. The posttest
is the dependent variable; the posttest results depend, partly at least, upon what
happened in the program.
Any test score or measurement, which is collected before the participants receive
the program or began the experiment, can be called a pretest. You might want to
use some kind of pretest in order to:
o select people
o check assumptions which have been made in planning a program
o check on or ensure the comparability of groups
o provide a basis for checking the gains made during a program
o get a more sensitive test of a program's effects
When not to use a pretest
o if taking a pretest would be likely to alter the students is some
unmeasureable way
o when using one would be meaningless
o if the program is already in progress and not pretest was given
50
high labor
intensity and
cost,
hypothesis
generating,
potential for
failure to
reach closure
51
o

if the cost and time is too much
Six types of design
o Design 1: The true control group, pretest-posttest design
o Design 2: The true control group, posttest only design
o Design 3: The non-equivalent control group, pretest-posttest design
o Design 4: The single group time series design
o Design 5: The time series design with a non-equivalent control group
o Design 6: The before-and-after design
Theories of IT
Communication Theory
Communication Theory - "communication means that information is passed from one
place to another" (Miller, 1951, p.6). Includes explanations of the process of transmitting
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this information, the form and structure of the information, and the functions and effects
of the information.













Communication is a type of "system".
A System is a set of related objects.
Systems may be "open" or "closed".
Communication systems are an open system. A critical component of
communications systems is feedback.
The communication system is comprised of a
o Source - responsible for encoding and transmitting messages
o Channel - in which noise can interfere with communication
o Receiver - responsible for accepting, decoding and determining the
meaning of messages
Schramm (1973) identified six ways to categorize delivery systems:
o senses affected
o opportunity for feedback
o amount of receiver control (TV viewers, video recorders)
o type of message-coding (verbal cues)
o multiplicative power (extent that message can be repeated)
o power of message preservation.
Entropy of the system - the amount of order among the parts of a communication
system
Marsh (1979) defined the information load of a message as the product of the
number of chunks of information and the saliency, or previous experience one has
had with the information.
Characteristics of message: (1) is it auditory or visual, (2) is it received using
single or multiple channels, (3) use of cueing.
Littlejohn (1978) identifies four contexts in which communication occurs: (1)
interpersonal, (2) small groups, organizational, and mass media.
Concerns of Communication Theory
o biological systems
o cognitive systems
o social-psychological interactions
Implications of Communication Theory for learning
o words are more flexible than pictures
o print/pictures are more durable than speech
o pictures are more memorable than words
o color directs attention, differentiates ideas; does not affect learning
directly
o mental processing uses limited information
o learning is facilitated by meaning
Implications of Communication Theory for Delivery Selection
o selection of senses to be affected
o opportunities for feedback
o amount of receiver control
o message coding
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o
o



multiplicative power
message preservation
More on messages and communication
More on Communication Theory
Visual Literacy
General Systems Theory



General Systems Theory
o Premises
 the natural world is ordered and rational
 man-made organizations are ordered and rational
 planning and the creation of order are valued activities
o General Systems Theory refers to an approach to viewing out
environment. It is an orientation towards understanding relationships and
the effects of a given process, attitude, or object upon other people and
other events.
o It has an interdisciplinary orientation. It is systematic and based on
logic and precise thinking. But it does not eliminate the role of invention
and interpretation.
o Kaplan (1964) says that GST refers to an approach to viewing our
environment. It is academic because there are no formal statement of law,
but rather a series of concepts and orientations, which can be used in any
discipline.
System
o a set of objects together with the relationships between the objects and
between their attributes (Hall & Fagen, 1975)
o is a set of interrelated and interacting parts that work together toward some
common goal?
o System is the structure or organization of an orderly whole, clearly
showing the interrelationships of the parts to each other and to the whole
itself
Attributes of a system:
o related to a common purpose of goal, & consequently viewed as a whole
o isolated from its environment, if "closed" closed systems cannot change.
o related to its environment, if "open” open systems are responsive to
feedback
o changes by interacting with its environment, i.e. dynamic entity
o hierarchical by nature and structured by a series of supra - and subsystems
o structure determines its function
o stablilized and/or reorganized by feedback, either positive or negative
o changes can lead to progress or to self-destruction
o Principle of Equifinality - an open system can reach its final state, or
final goals, in a number of different ways, because it can interact with its
environment.
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o
o





A system, by its nature, is hierarchical.
Parts of a system: people, objects, processes, external constraints,
resources available
Systems Tools include flowcharts and PERT.
Systems Approach
o Briggs (1977) as "an integrated plan of operation of all components (subsystems) of a system, designed to solve a problem or meet a need." The
four common components of an instructional design model - analysis,
design, evaluation, revision - are common to systems approaches in many
disciplines and very similar to a generalized model of problem solving
applied in many settings.
o Application of analysis and synthesis to a system, in an interactive
approach
A comparison of the stages in the Systems Approach as presented by selected
authors (1968-1082)
o Banathy (1968) - Analysis of Systems, Solution of Problems,
Development of Systems
o Kaufman (1970) - Systems Analysis (identifying the problem,
determining alternatives), Systems Synthesis (choosing a solution strategy,
implementing the solution strategy, determining effectiveness)
o Romiszowski (1981) - Define problem, Analyze problem,
Design/Develop Solution, Implement, Control/Evaluate
o Ryan (1975) - Study existing system, Solve problems, Design system
o Silvern (1972) - Analysis, Synthesis, Modeling, Simulation
Analysis
o Bloom (1956) "Analysis emphasizes the breakdown of the material into its
constituent parts and the detection of the relationships of the parts and the
way they are organized to make explicit their relationships among the
elements, to determine their connections and interactions" - educational
goals
o Herbart in Science of Education - Analysis makes experience more
instructive, for left to itself experience is chaotic.
 Herbart in the early 1800's used analysis and synthesis in referring
to systems. He developed a mathematical model.
 Herbart's Formal Steps in 1806: Clearness, Association, System,
Method
 Ziller (Herbart's student) 1862 and 1874 "we will suppose the
material of instruction is before us. The subject matter to be treated
must first be separated into small divisions, small wholes of
instruction or methodical unites, each one of which is to be
subjected to an elaboration by itself." Small system level one
person/teach level.
o Silvern (1956): Basic Analysis is Identify, Relate, Separate, Limit
Synthesis
o Synthesis is the process of combining non-related elements into
meaningful relations such that the new product is a whole system
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o








Bloom (1956) putting together parts of elements to form a whole,
combining them into a structure that was not evident, category in the
cognitive domain, provides for creative behavior.
o Silvern - Synthesis in Identify, Relate, Combine, Limit
Contribution of DeGarmo (1889) Essential of Method and McMurry's General
Method (1892)
o Preparation
Analysis
o Presentation
Sythesis
o Association
Though, the derivation and arrangement of rule,
principles or class
o Systemization
o Application
From knowing to doing; use of motor powers
Charters (1909) Merrett W., published Methods of Training
o Preparation
o Presentation
o Comparison
o Generalization
o Application
Systems
o Elements of design process (Rowland, 1993) - (1) problem understanding
and solving, (2) converting requirements into specifications, (3) learning
process, (4) use of technical, creativity, rational and intuition, (5) reflects
idealized views.
o Premises of GST: (1) natural world is ordered and rational, (2) man-made
organizations are ordered ad rational, (3) planning and the creation of
order are valued activities.
o Systems issues in ID: (1) Implications for training ad organization
performance improvement, (2) appropriate breadth of analysis, (3)
implications for evaluation, (4) implications for transfer of training.
o GST: (1) Analysis - identification of component parts of system and
relationships between parts, (2) Synthesis - combining related components
into a new system.
A View of Education as a System, Source: Lenard Silvius, Oct. 4, 1995
Systems Approach Foundations: The Early Discussions and Current Applications
Systems Approach: Silvern, Richey, Hoban, Finn
Application of systems theory to instructional design
o Provides a consistent definition of a system
o notion of purpose within a system
o emphasis upon structure and concepts
o has self regulation
More on Systems Theory
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Learning Theories – (Psychological theories)
Behavioral Learning Theories
Introduction







Instructional design is intimately tied to human learning. The whole purpose of
design is to create situations through which people will learn.
Mayer (1982) has clearly summarized a generally recognized description of
learning:
o "Learning is a relatively permanent change in a person's knowledge or
behavior due to experience. This definition has three components: (1) the
duration of the change is long-term rather than short-term, (2) the locus of
change is the content and structure of knowledge in memory or the
behavior of the learner, (3) the cause of the change is the learner’s
experience in the environment rather than fatigue, motivation, drugs,
physical conditions, or physiological intervention."
This definition highlights two key orientations to learning research. The
behaviorist is concerned with performance as the only evidence that learning has
taken place. In contrast, the cognitivists are more interested in changes in what
the subjects know. They tend to emphasize how one processes new information
by examining how one remembers this information. Cognitvism is an internal
approach, whereas behavioralism is an external approach.
Characteristics of changes attributed to learning
o long-term
o altered memory structure
o altered behavior, at times
o caused by planed or unplanned experiences in the environment
Another perspective on learning
o "a relative permanent change in behavior potentially that occurs as a result
of reinforced practice (Kimble)
Alternative interpretation
o behavior changes need not to occur immediately following the learning
experience
o the potential to act is still considered learning
o reinforcement and practice emphasized
Behavioral Theory focuses on changes in what the learner does
Associationists

Aristotle, in his essay "Memory" showed strong focus on association - a
predecessor of behaviorism. He believed, the associations (for example, between
a haystack and a cow) are made because the objects being associated are similar,
or opposite, or near to each other. Many other philosophers followed his thoughts.
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



Thomas Hobbes (1650) wrote of fundamental elements of thoughts - sensation,
recall, and sequence, using terms like motion, communication of motion, and
inertia.
David Hume (1740) stressed that the associations occurring frequently become
firm and that whenever the antecedent occurs; the consequent is bound to follow.
Thomas Brown (1820) added the concepts of frequency, recency, and vividness in
association.
Alexander Bain (1855) took the associationism to a new direction. He noted that
one must discriminate among sensory items before they are associated.
Herman Ebbinghaus formulated a "law of frequency" which held that learning
(association) increased in proportion to the frequency with which a particular
association was made. He also formulated a "law of recency" which said that
recently made associations were strongest and that they decay over time.
Behaviorism


Definitions
o Some refer to behavioral psychology as the stimulus-response approach.
Learning is viewed as the ability to perform new behaviors, which are,
established as goals by the researcher or, in applied situations, the teacher.
o There is an effort to create conditions, which will enable to learner to
demonstrate these behaviors, and to continue to perform them over a
period of time.
o One creates the changes in behavior by manipulating the environmental
conditions, usually in a consistent manner.
o Historically, most of the basic behavioral research has been conducted on
animals.
Thorndike and Connectionism:
o Thorndike (1874-1949)
 Pre-bahaviorist (or early behaviorist)
 Original stimulus-response theories
 Connectionism (Bon Psychology)
o Developed theory called connectionism, which was a type of bond
psychology. He saw the most typical type of learning as trial and error. In
simple terms, one learns by selecting a response, and receiving
reinforcements if it correct; thus a 'connection' is made. Thorndike's most
famous experiments dealt with cats, which were placed in a closed box
with food outside. The object was for the cat to discover how to open the
door in the box and find the food.
o There are three major laws in the theory
 Law of Effect: once a connection is made, the strength of that
connection is dependent on what follows. A reward will
strengthen the behavior, making it like a habit, and a punishment
will weaken the behavior. Later, Thorndike added that rewards
were much more important than punishments.
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

Law of Readiness: if an organism has a state of readiness, making
a connection will be satisfying, and the animal will do things to
maintain the connection. Of the organism is not ready, the
connection will become annoying and the animal will do things to
eliminate it.
 Law of Exercise: related to strengthening connections through
practice and weakening other connections through disuse.
o Thorndike's view of learning
 trial and error, or...
 selecting and connecting
o Thorndike's early experiments (1898 - 1911)
 hungry cat put in box that contains a concealed mechanism
operated by a latch
 learning involves the goal of the cat manipulating the latch,
opening the door, finding food, and eating
 initial random behavior is followed by the cat "catching on" and
quickly opening the door
o Key elements of learning theory comparison
 capacity
 practice
 motivation
 understanding
 transfer
 forgetting
o Six point analysis of Thorndike's Connectionism
 capacity - dependant upon bond
 practice permits rewards (punishment limit practice and thus limits
rewards)
 motivation is a matter of strengthened connections
 understanding is minimized
 transfer is similar to the identical elements theory
 forgetting is a function of the lack of practice
Ivan Pavlov
o Russian scientist (1849-1936). Perhaps most famous for his efforts to get
dogs to salivate.
o He studied situation in which one could produce a given response
(salivation) by using an unrelated stimulus (light) alone. This
phenomenon occurred after the unrelated stimulus had been combined for
a period of time with the more natural elicitor of the desired response
(food). The technical term used is 'unconditioned stimulus' (food) for the
more way to get the response. In this normal situation, the natural
response (salivation) is the unconditioned response. It can become the
conditioned response if paired often enough with a conditioned stimulus
(light).
o There are many facets to the theories which Pavlov constructed based
upon such classical conditioning experiments. Four of them are:
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
o
o
o
Reinforcement. Situation in which a conditioned stimulus (light)
is repeatedly followed by an unconditioned stimulus (food) and its
natural response. Pavlov's research, which involved changing the
reinforcement time schedules, produced many additional
interpretations of the classical conditioning process. For example,
it was possible to obtain different responses to two stimuli by using
reinforcement techniques. This was known as differentiation.
 Extinction. Achieved by dropping the unconditioned stimulus
(food) out of the experiment until the conditioned response
(salivating to the light) no longer occurred. An interesting
response, which routinely occurs in this situation, has been labeled
'spontaneous recovery'. In other words, the conditioned response
can suddenly reappear with no prompting. Extinction is not a case
of forgetting. The response is weakened considerably, but can
reoccur.
 Inhibition. Experimental extinction is a type of inhibition. But a
response can also be eliminated when a confusing stimulus enters
the picture. Or inhibition can occur as a result of differentiation, a
situation in which the subject distinguished between two stimuli,
which previously generated the same response. Reinforcements
can be used to accomplish a variety of ends.
 Generalization. Occurs when the eliciting properties of one
stimulus are taken on by another stimulus with which it is paired.
If both stimuli are reinforced, then generalization can occur. (If
they are not both reinforced, differentiation will occur). Pavlov's
many experiments clearly support conclusions regarding the
power of reinforcement.
Six point analysis of Pavlov's Classical Conditioning
 capacity to form conditional reflexes is in part congenital and the
nervous system features account for different learning abilities
 practice is process in which conditioned reflexes are strengthened
with reinforced repetition (n.b. importance of avoiding inhibition
even with reinforced repetition)
 motivation is a function of drive
 understanding is not emphasized
 transfer is the result of generalization
 forgetting is not emphasized, but is distinguished from extinction
because of the phenomenon of spontaneous recovery
Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
 true behaviorist theory
 classical conditioning (he stated it had nothing to do with human
behavior)
 not applied to human learning
 commonly associated with dog research
Elements of Classical Conditioning research base
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

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repeated pairing of conditioned or neutral stimulus (e.g. light) with
unconditioned stimulus (e.g. meat powder)
 such pairing invariably elicits an unconditioned response (e.g.
salication)
 pattern is repeated until the neutral stimulus (light) alone elicits the
unconditioned response, which has now become the conditioned
response
o Conceptual consequences of Pavlov's research
 reinforcement
 needed to maintain the unconditioned response
 conditioned response gradually disappears
 extinction
 an experimental effect
 does not eliminate spontaneous recovery
 generalization
 occurs when a conditioned response to one stimulus can
also be elicited by another dissimilar but nearby stimulus
 importance of timing
 simultaneous conditioning delayed conditioning
 slot machines example of timing effects
Sidney Pressey
B.F. Skinner
o 1904 - 1990. He continued to the development of theory related to
stimulus-response behavior and reinforcement; however, he distinguished
clearly between those responses which are triggered by a known stimulus
and those behaviors which occur without any apparent stimulus. He called
these types of behaviors operants, and he was most interested in using
reinforcements to condition behavior because it is the most common type
of human behavior.
o Although many think that Skinner has much in common with Pavlov, he is
actually closer to Thorndike. Note that Thorndike experimented with
situations, which started on a trial and error basis. This is true also with
Skinner, who waits for chance behavior to occur and then sets out
systematically to reinforce the desired behavior. Thus, operant
conditioning occurs when a reward is carefully used to increase the
probability that a desired behavior will occur again. The strength of the
operant is determined by how high the probability is that the behavior will
be repeated.
 Burrhus. F. Skinner (1904 - 1990) believed that the study of
behavior must rest on what organisms do and do not do, and that is
all one need pay attention to.
 He developed the concept of operant conditioning and
concentrated on the observation and manipulation of behavior.
 In his 1954 article "The Science of Learning and the Art of
Teaching", he illustrated how human behavior can be shaped
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o
o
o
o
o
o
o
rapidly and without aversive threat though the use of positive
reinforcement.
 In his 1971 book Beyond Freedom and Dignity, he argues that the
concepts of "freedom" and "dignity" are no longer useful in
modern society. Man is not truly free to choose, he says, because
what a person will do in a given situation depends almost entirely
on what has happened to him in the past.
 Skinner contends that we must learn to control behavior
systematically to produce people who are good and right-minded.
We should expand this controlling to all of life.
Put emphasis on "effective control of behavior"
 Thorndike's low of effect
 role of reinforcement, shaping & scheduling of reinforcement
 Similiar results across species and organisms
Analyze current education
 nature of rewards and punishment in schools
 reinforcement is typically infrequent and delayed
 skills minimized in favor of vague objective
Recommendation for education
 use reinforcement to compensate for inadequate nature
reinforcement in subject matter
 divide content into small steps and reinforce after accomplishment
of each step
Impact of his recommendations
 less student failure
 teachers as classroom managers, not reinforces
 emphasis on pre-designed instruction
 inevitable change of educational process
Common objections
 instruction is too inhumane
 school will be mechanistic
 "technological unemployment" of teachers
B.F. Skinner
 true behaviorist theory
 operant conditioning
 experimental studies of animal learning as well as applications to
human learning
 commonly associated with pigeon research and the teaching
machine
Differences between Operant and Classical Conditioning
 in operant conditioning, one systematically administers a reward to
produce the desired operant behavior (i.e. response)
 in classical conditioning, the "learning" is dependant upon
inevitable responses that are natural to the organism
 operant responses are contrived, and conditioned responses are
natural
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o
o
o
o
o
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Skinner's Operant Conditioning
 systematically administered reward to produce the desired operant
behavior (i.e. the response)
 operant responses are contrived, experimenter waits until response
occurs naturally before its probability is increased with a reward
 differs from Pavlov's classical conditioning which was dependant
upon inevitable responses
 similar to Thorndike's Law of Effect (occurrence of an operant is
followed by a reinforcing stimulus resulting in increased strength
of response)
Key concepts derived from operant conditioning research
 positive reinforcement - probability of the operant response is
increased when positive reinforcement is added
 negative reinforcement - probability of the operant response is
increased when negative reinforcement is removed
 punishment - suppresses a response, but does not eliminate it
 extinction - permanent weakening and elimination of response
occurs through no reinforcement
 schedules of reinforcement - frequency and timing of
reinforcement; impacts expectations of reinforcement
 successive approximation - process of rewarding behavior which
approaches desired objectives, known as shaping behavior
Key principles of operant conditioning
 motivation a function of rewards, not punishment
 rewards increase operant strength
 punishment affects rate of response only, but does not
reduce resistance to extinction
 understanding is not emphasized
 "insight" is really a matter of very rapid learning which is a
function of simple problems or problems similar to past
problems solved
 transfer
 similar to the generalization process
 similar to identical elements theory
 forgetting
 not specific theory of forgetting
 a slow process of decay over time
 is not extinction
B.F. Skinner is a founder of sequencing events in "frames" in order to give
positive feedback at each stage of development. Immediate feedback is
also essential, he said, in order to imprint the desired behavior on the
learner.
He believed that you must "program" behavior in the learner, but also
believed in self-pacing of the learner.
Skinner was so sure of his theories, that he implemented many of the ideas
with his own children. Called a "Baby Tender," he put his own children
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into a specially designed learning "box" in the wall of his house to
stimulate their learning about the world and themselves. Today, we might
think this to be a bit cold and industrial.
B. F. Skinner, a professor of behavioral psychology at Harvard University
for most of his career, was one of the most well known advocates of
behaviorism in the fifties and sixties.
B. F. Skinner's major influence on the field of instructional technology
began in 1954 when he published the article "The Science of Learning and
the Art of Teaching," in which he related his learning theory to
deficiencies in schools. As a behavioral psychologist, Skinner focused on
the observable behavior of learners. Skinner held that learning could be
enhanced by appropriate reinforcement, the idea being to reinforce some
desired behavior after it occurs, thus encouraging the learner to repeat
such behavior. He distinguished between reflexive behavior, such as a dog
salivating when prompted with food particles, and voluntary behavior,
such as various learner responses to learning material. He termed such
voluntary behavior an "operant" and called his theory "operant
conditioning," which later became known as reinforcement theory.
Skinner's concepts of reinforcement started making an impact on
educational technology in the sixties (Saettler 1990).
Skinner's approach to human learning was to design an instructional
program composed of little step-by-step bits, which could be easily
learned and reinforced. He advocated the use of "learning machines" to
deliver the instruction. At first public attention was focused on the
learning machines. In the early sixties the focus shifted to the instructional
programs he proposed and the notion of using programmed instruction to
achieve behavioral objectives became popular.
Programmed instruction had some long-term effects on educational
technology. The programmed instruction movement led many researchers
to focus their attention on the process of instruction rather than the media.
Programmed instruction thus had a direct or indirect influence on the
development of several technologies of instruction, such as branching
programmed instruction, programmed teaching and programmed tutoring
(Heinich et al. 1993).
Between Thorndike & Skinner
 Karl Lashley, one of Watson's students, caused the behaviorists to
give more consideration to the role of the central nervous system in
explaining behavior. He believed that behavior should ultimately
be explained in terms of processes occurring in the brain.
 Edwin R. Gutherie (1886-1959) believed that learning occurred at
full strength on the first trial. He formulated his "law of
association" as "A combination of stimuli which has accompanied
a movement will on its recurrence tend to be followed by that
movement."
 Clark L. Hull believed that the behavior model should be S-O-R
instead of the S-R. The O symbolizes Organism. He recognized
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that a given stimulus would produce a variety of responses in
different organisms; therefore, there must be conditions existing
within an individual that interacted in various ways with the
stimulus presented.

John Watson
o John Broadus Watson (1878-1958) wrote in his book Behavior (1948)
"Psychology as the behaviorist views it is a purely objective experimental
branch of natural science. Its theoretical goal is the prediction and control
of behavior. Introspection forms no essential part of its methods."
o Watson believed that learning was a process of conditioning reflexes
(responses) through the substitution of one stimulus for another. His most
famous experiment was Albert - a child who became afraid of all furry
objects as a result of a conditioning.
Influence on instructional design
o
o
o
o
The use of programmed instruction techniques, which emphasize
immediate rewards and learning in small steps.
Reliance on observable behaviors as the basis for instruction.
Performance, or behavioral, objectives describe goals using action verbs.
Identification of observable performance outcomes
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performance in the evidence of learning
desired performance is specified in advance with behavioral
objectives
 testing is criterion-referenced
Design is based upon the specification of sequenced content components
 task analysis techniques introduced in the military oriented toward
particular jobs
 Gagne's Cumulative Learning Theory
 a terminal task can be divided into a set of component parts
 parts have a hierarchical structure with prerequisite
relationships
 learning hierarchies reflect such a structure
Emphasis on real performance, i.e. active practice with reinforcement
Practice should be in same context as desired outcomes using "real life"
stimuli
Practice initially involves the use of cues to:
 elicit desired responses
 direct learner attention
Cues must eventually be faded
What examples of instructional designs can you suggest which involve the
use of:
 practice
 cues
 fading
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o
o
o
o
Instructional strategies to shape component skills:
 practicing component skills in isolation before making task more
complex
 increase complexity by:
 increasing unit size
 decreasing cue strength
 change performance (recognize, edit, produce)
 increase difficulty
 increase fluency requirements
Using feedback in instruction
 as a reward (motivational)
 as knowledge of results (informative)
 as a substitute for punishment
Feedback issues:
 when and how often ?
 what kind?
As M. H. Dembo mentioned in Applying Educational Psychology in the
Classroom, "All teachers have a belief or theory about learning that is the
very fabric of their teaching strategy." Teachers who agreed with the
following statements are supported by the behavioral psychologists:
 Learners need grades, gold stars, and other incentives as
motivation to learn and to accomplish school requirements
 Students should be graded according to uniform standards of
achievement, which the teacher sets for the class
 Curriculum should be organized along subject matter lines that are
carefully sequenced
Teachers who accept the behavioral perspective assume that the behavior
of the students is a response to their past and present environment and that
all behavior is learned. As a result, any behavior can be analyzed in terms
of its reinforcement history. Since learning is a form of behavior
modification, the teacher's responsibility is to construct an environment in
which the correct behavior of the student is reinforced.
The undesired behaviors of the student in the classroom can be modified
using principles of the behavior modification. Dr. Dembo suggested the
following procedures to control or eliminate undesired classroom
behaviors:
 Strengthening of the desirable behavior that will compete with and
eventually replace undesirable patterns of behavior.
 Weakening the undesired behavior by removing the reinforcing
events that maintain the behavior.
 Using the technique of "satiation" which is a procedure that
encourages a person to engage in a problem behavior over and
over again until tired of it.
 Changing the stimulus condition that influences the behavior.
 Using punishment to weaken behavior.
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One important application of the operant conditioning introduced in the
instruction fields is Programmed Learning. In this technique subject
matter is broken into small, understandable steps or "frames," each
followed by a question, which the student can almost always answer
correctly. The object is to reinforce the learning process through an
immediate response and the reward of getting it right.
The authors of the book The Learning Gap think that one of the reasons
that American school is failing is because we do not use "error"
effectively. "American conceive errors as a possible precursor of ultimate
failure. People should strive to avoid errors and to give only the correct
response - a routine that fits our culture and has been strengthened by the
writings of behavioral psychologist such as B. F. Skinner."
Behavior Modification
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The following five steps can be used to implement a behavior change program:
o
o
o
o
Set behavior goals
Determine appropriate reinforcers
Select procedures for changing behavior
Implement procedures and record results
Evaluate progress and revise as needed
Impact of Behaviorism on Instructional Technology

Behavior principles have proven useful for managing both classroom behaviors
and instruction delivery. Behaviorism has influenced the development and design
of several technologies.
o Teaching Machines uses the principles of the programmed learning to
provide a self-pacing delivery of the instruction. In 1968, Fred Keller
proposed using the Personalized System of Instruction (PSI) for college
instruction. There are two programming designs for this technology: linear
and branch. Linear design lays out the sequence of frames for all students
to follow; whereas, in branch design, a student's response determines what
follows.
o Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI) The rapid growth of the personal
computers in the society facilitated the explosion of educational
(instructional) software packages. Hundreds of software products hit the
market every school year. No doubt, the first generation of the software
was generally designed linearly. Key behavior modification principles are
used to program these applications. These principles include:
 Stating the purpose of the software
 Apply the appropriate reinforcer - text or visual or audio
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depending on the application, shaping, chaining, modeling,
punishment, and award principles are used
 Very often, a scoring (monitoring) system is present
 Provides the status of progress
CAI comes in various forms: Drill and Practice Activities, Simulations, and
Tutorials. Electronic learning could be fun using multi-media approach, but the
educators do not think the CAIs can replace active classroom teachers.
Virtual Reality According to Chris Byrne of Human Interface Technology Lab,
Virtual Reality has great potential in the education field. Byrne thinks that VR is
particularly useful in the science field because it provides the students a 3D view
of the world from inside the world. I feel that the weakness of CAI is the human
interface and the lack of appropriate form of reward (reinforcement). VR can
definitely address the human interface part if it can provide a "real" teacher to
give instruction. Furthermore, if the student can create their own teacher image to
teach them. Then, the reward system would be more effective comparing with a
mechanical "good job" sign. The VR teacher can even give the child a pat on the
head when called for. VR creates a brand new learning environment for the world
to explore. Behavioristic principles, like other learning theories, will play a major
role in the building of this environment.
Major Behaviorists:
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E.L. Thorndike
I.P. Pavlov
J.B. Watson
C.I. Hull
A.I. Gates
J.M. Stephens
E.R. Guthrie
W.K. Estes
B.F. Skinner
K.W. Spence
R.M. Gagne
A. Bandura
Conclusion
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Critics say that Behaviorism oversimplifies human behavior and that it sees the
human being as an automaton instead of a creature of will and purpose.
Behavioralism has exerted a strong influence on American psychology. It has
triggered scientific experiments and the use of statistical procedures. Most
importantly, it has turned the attention of psychology to solving real behaviorrelated problems. Since learning is a form of behavior change, the behavior
modification procedures developed by behaviorists have proven useful to many
schoolteachers. The footprints of this set of procedures can be found in many
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existing CAI packages. Behaviorism has had major influence in the learning field
and it will continue to play an important part in it.
Cognitive Learning Theories
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Emphasizes internal processes and knowledge representations which are inferred
and non-observable.
Emphasizes the role of schema, pre-existing knowledge or themes, which direct
perception and comprehension.
Viewing learning as a cognitive process was a departure from the behaviorist
model that was dominating the thinking and impacting the practice of educational
technology. The interest in cognitive development models and learner processes
generated research in human information processing, memory, language
development and the related strategies for instruction.
Cognitive development is a learning theory that proposes learning occurs in
stages and develops in an ordered sequence. The capacity of students is important
and learning is impacted by the interaction of the individual with the environment.
Students interacting with their environment which teachers can improve upon
thereby stimulating learning accomplish learning. In cognitive theory the transfer
of learning occurs when students learn to solve problems.
In 1956 two events occurred:
o The publication of Bruner's A Study of Thinking and
o A symposium held at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology where
papers were presented that made significant contributions to the cognitive
psychology movement.
In the 1970's the effect of cognitive psychology began to impact on the
educational technology field.
A major, early contributor to the cognitivist approach to learning was Jean
Piaget. His theory was based on the premise that people progress, during
childhood, through stages of development. Learners develop schemata, which are
mental frameworks for storing and classifying information. As new information is
presented the process of assimilation occurs to allow the new information to be
placed in existing schemata. If the information doesn't fit existing structures, the
learner can accommodate by creating new schemata or change existing schemata
in order to respond to the new stimulus.
With the advent of cognitivist theories, learners were no longer viewed as passive
entities to be acted on by the environment, but as active participants in the
learning process. A shift was made to focus on mental processes. By the early
1980's the instructional design process reflected a new interest in the strategies
used to promote learning. Instructional technologist included the analysis of
learning processes as an essential element in planning and designing instructional
materials.
Cognitive orientation: instruction leads to a change in memory structure, which
leads to learning outcomes, whereas behaviorism focuses on learning outcomes.
Cognitive Orientation
o Focuses on process, whereas behaviorism is outcome oriented.
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Cognitive view is abstract, whereas behaviorism is concrete and
observable.
Traditional Information Processing Theory
o Information enters through sensory store
o Goes from sensory store to short-term memory (and rehearsal buffer)
o Short-term memory interacts with long-term memory
o Short-term memory = working memory
Alternative view of Information Processing Theory
o Memory is a unified entity without short-term and long-term components
o Memory driven by activation processes, more physiological in nature
o Critical quesitons:
 are there structural components (i.e. storage areas) to memory?
 is there a specific storage place or a wide distribution of memory
data?
o Neurological research shows certain brain regions used in memory tasks
o May be an interconnected network of memory, facilitating use of
alternative routes
o "Reloading" of STM not necessary; interruptions stop activation only
momentarily
o Attention starts activation (and reactivation)
o Attention is not the same as working memory
Information Processing and Computer Analogies
o previous computer analogies
 role of input/process/output in memory
 short-term and long-term memory analogies to RAM and hard disk
o new computer analogies in activation approach to memory
 hypertext and hyperlinks moving us to vast network of information
 memory as multi-tasking, flexible, fast process
Sequencing Patterns - Different types: (1) concrete to abstract, (2) familiar to
unfamiliar, (3) general to specific, (4) "spiraling," (5) movement from novice to
export competence levels.
Cognitive ID Tools: (1) learner characteristics emphasis, (2) measurement of
competence and developing expertise (as opposed to terminal performance
measures), (3) synthesis of knowledge content goals, (a) taxonomy, (b)
sequencing strategies, (4) cognitive task analysis.
Cognitive Task Analysis: (1) distinguished from traditional task analysis which
is most appropriate for procedures and observable performance-oriented content,
(2) appropriate tool for complex learning tasks (a) cognitive skills, (b) much
decision making and knowledge assimilation, (c) multiple task environments, (3)
used to delineate mental processes and skills needed to perform a task at high
proficiency levels, (4) used to delineate changes in knowledge structure and
processing as the skill develops over time.
Cognitive Task Analysis Techniques: (1) protocol analysis (ex. Have learner
talk out instruction while they perform task so you can document it), (2)
expanding expertise components (a) moves beyond declarative/procedural
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knowledge, (3) three stages in ITAM (Integrated Task Analysis Model)
(orientation, basic analysis, skill acquisition and reinforcement).
Food for thought: The more we design for understanding (rather than for
performance), which requires students to acquire and organize knowledge and to
master high-level skills, the less likely it is that the results of instruction can be
predicted (William Winn).
Philosophical Implications of Cognitive Theory: (1) rejection of a belief in
predictability of behavior and reliability of design, (2) rejection of an emphasis on
analysis and reductionism, (3) an integration of design and instruction, (4)
mandates a change in instructional strategies and ID tools.
Principal concern is how a learner remembers and retrieves information from the
memory. Interested in how the human mind works, with particular attention to
memory.
There are different schools of thought among cognitivists:
o Computer Science: a mechanical model of memory and information
processing.
o Human Growth and Development Models
o Human Perception
Behavioralists largely studied animals, whereas cognitivists studied humans.
Edward Tolman's work with sign learning represented a bridge between the
behavioral and cognitive approaches to learning. He was one of the first to deal
directly with insightful learning, and the notion of variables intervening between
the environmental stimuli and the resulting behaviors.
Cognitive influence on instructional design: advanced organizers, questions or
concepts, which are inserted to facilitate organizing and processing of the text,
which follows.
Cognitive Concepts and their Implications for Instructional Design
o Practice from the gestalt viewpoint is a process of consolidating the
memory traces. Practice speeds up information storage, and creates new
cognitive structures leading to an efficient use of the long-term memory.
o Chunking is based one the classic Miller study (1956) showing that seven
(+/- 2) items are typically help in short-term memory. The amount of
information in a single item can be altered by chunking, or grouping,
similar information.
o Mnemonics is a tool for organizing information for long-term storage.
Norman (1976) summarizes memory-aided orgnanization procedures into
three steps:
 dividing the material into small sections with only four or five
parts
 fitting the parts into a logical structure
 Establishing relationships between what is known and what is to be
learned
 forming connections such as stories or mental image
o Organization is important from an information processing viewpoint, but
to a gestaltist, organization means regularizing information into more
common patterns within our experiences.
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o
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Advanced Organizers were defined by Briggs (1977) as "the practice of
providing a brief, highly abstract summary at the beginning of a lecture or
textbook chapter, to enable the learner to profit from the more detailed
presentation to follow."
o Schema theory is another organizing activity, which can be included in
instructional materials to aid information storage and retrieval. A schema
is generalized knowledge about typical sequences of events, consisting of
a play-like sequence of events.
Types of Learning (according to Kearsley 1993):
o Attitudes: "....Disposition or tendency to respond positively or negatively
towards a certain thing (idea, object, person, situation)." Also: Choose to
behave this or that way according to opinions and beliefs. Factual
Information (Memorization): Processing of factual information and
remembering is tied to previous knowledge. Memory research has also a
lot to say about processing constraints.
o Concepts (Discrimination): Concept learning encompasses learning how
to discriminate and categorize things (with critical attributes). It also
involves recall of instances, integration of new examples and subcategorization. Concept formation is not related to simple recall, it must be
constructed.
o Reasoning (Inference, Deduction): "Reasoning encompasses all thinking
activities that involve making or testing inferences. This includes
inductive reasoning (i.e., concept formation) and deductive reasoning (i.e.,
logical argument). Reasoning is also closely related to problem-solving
and creative behaviors".
o Procedure Learning: Procedures refer to being able to solve a certain
task by applying a procedure. Once a procedure is mastered its excused
usually does not take much effort (e.g. ftp a file). Cognitive theories like
Act or Soar are interested in this, because procedures are important in
diminishing cognitive load. Problem-Solving: A good example is Newell
& Simons information processing paradigm for the study of problemsolving and the concepts of "means-ends-analysis" and "problem space".
According to their GPS framework, problem solving involves the
identification of sub goals and the use of methods (especially heuristics) to
satisfy the sub goals. And important contribution was also the
methodology of protocol analysis (of "thinking aloud methods" which has
been extensively used by Anderson (87) to implement intelligent tutoring
systems according to his Act* theory (Anderson 83). Learning Strategies:
can be learned too to some extent. Very much dependant on what you
want to learn Sensory-Motor:
Note that learning types can be strongly related to different kinds of cognitive task
behaviors (that are being used while learning or that are targets for learning). As
an example, Kearsley (93) lists the following types of task behaviors:
o Searching for/receiving information (detects, observes, inspects, identifies,
reads, surveys) Processing information (categorizes, calculates, codes,
itemizes, tabulates, translates) Problem-solving (analyzes, formulates,
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estimates, plans) Decision-making (examines, chooses, compares,
evaluates) Communication (advises, answers, directs, informs, instructs,
requests, transmits) Sensory-motor processes (activates, adjusts, connects,
regulates, tracks)
o By combining those two kinds of typologies one can imagine the
"haystack" Instructional Design theory is faced with when trying to
operationalize how to learn what.
Other categories of learning types has been proposed such as the ones by Gagné
(Aronson 83:81, Gagné 87: 64), i.e.
o Intellectual Skill
o Verbal Information
o Cognitive Strategy (problem solving)
o Attitude
o Motor Skill.
In any case, it think it is useful in this context to distinguish at the least the
following basic categories:
o Factual Information & Concepts (Verbal Information): Remember and
discriminate things
o Problem Solving & Reasoning (Cognitive Strategy): Apply general or
domain-specific heuristics to problem situations
o Procedural skills: Learn how to do simple or complex tasks more or less
automatically.
Learning/Teaching Strategies & Principles
o How can we have the learner use an appropriate learning strategy? In
some learning environments (specially the fully computer-based ones)
learning and teaching strategies are integrated into its design. In others
they are delivered apart. Principles and Strategies vary according to the
type of learning and different theoretical orientations.
o Bruner (1966), inspired by Piaget, focused on how people construct new
knowledge. His constructivist approach (discovery methods and
intellectual stages) still inspires current theories.
 Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and contexts
that make the student willing and able to learn (readiness).
 Instruction must be structured so that it can be easily grasped by
the student (spiral organization of the curriculum).
 Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and or fill
in the gaps (going beyond the information given).
An other early contribution was Ausubel's (1963) subsumption theory concerned
with how individuals learn large amounts of meaningful material from
verbal/textual presentations in a school setting (as opposed to rote or discovery
learning). He initiated that instructional sequences should make content more
meaningful for the learner. He postulates (cf. Kearsley 93, Reigeluth 83:339) that:
Instruction (of verbal information) should start with general knowledge that
subsumes content presented by successive differentiation, i.e. the most general
and ideas of a subject should be presented first and then progressively
differentiated in terms of detail and specificity.
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More generally, instructional materials should attempt to integrate new material
with previously presented information through comparisons and cross-referencing
of new and old ideas.
Both Reigluth's (83) "Elaboration Theory" and Merrill's (83) "Component
Display Theory" are based on work by Bruner and Ausubel.
Other more recent lines of research combine cognitivist information theory with
results from more traditional experimental memory research.
An example is the Act* Theory using Intelligent Tutors as a test bed (cf.
Anderson 87). According to ACT*, all knowledge begins as declarative
information; procedural knowledge is learned by making inferences from already
existing factual knowledge. ACT* involves three types of learning:
generalization, in which productions become broader in their range of application,
discrimination, in which productions become narrower in their range of
application, and strengthening, in which some productions are applied more often.
New productions are formed by the conjunction or disjunction of existing
productions. It is interesting to compare these three types of learning with the
three modes of learning (accretion, restructuring, tuning) proposed by Rumelhart
& Norman (Kearsley: 93).
Principles:
o Identify the goal structure of the problem space to the learner.
o Provide instruction in the context of the problem-solving task.
o Provide immediate feedback on errors.
o Minimize the working memory load.
o Adjust the "grain size" of instruction to account for the knowledge
compilation process.
o Enable the student to approach the target skill by successive
approximation.
With partially automatized environments such as Hypertext course on the Web,
the student should be told how to use the material, how to read it and what to do
beside.
A typical study skill program is SQ3R [applicable to concept learning/D.S] which
suggests 5 steps:
o survey the material to be learned,
o develop questions about the material,
o read the material,
o recall the key ideas, and
o review the material." (Kearsley: 93).
Tenets of traditional and alternative approaches to Information Processing
Theory.
o - This theory is based upon the view of the human mind as a processor of
information, in much the same way as a computer. Information enters
sensory register to short-term (working memory) memory (& rehearsal
buffer), goes through pattern recognition process and into long-term
memory. Enters working memory after going through processes of
selective memory. Either is stored in long-term memory or is lost.
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o
o
- Memory is active process: coding of information, storage of information
in meaningful formats, integrating information into previously stored
schemata, retrieval of information using cues.
Schema theory - generalized knowledge about typical sequences of events,
consisting of play-like sequences of scenes.
Alternative to Information Processing Model: (1) Sign Learning (Tolman),
(2) Gestalt, (3) Memory is a unified entity without short-term and longterm components. May be an interconnected network of memory,
facilitating uses of alternative routes, (4) memory is multi-tasking,
flexible, fast process.
Cognitive Instructional Design Strategies
Chunking
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Chunking rationale rooted incapacity of working memory
Size of information chunking (7 +- 2)
Utility dependant upon internal coherence of the chunk
Advanced Organizers
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A brief and abstract prose passage (a paragraph) placed before a
lesson
Organizes the new materials by outlining, arranging, logically
sequencing or patterning the main points
Transition statement that bridges learner’s previous knowledge to
new content - linking
Encourages transfer
Builds upon existing schema
Function of Schemata
 aid perception by facilitating selective attention
 aid comprehension and recall by
 providing an ideational scaffolding
for assimilating text and events
 allowing orderly search of memory
 permitting inferential construction
and elaboration
Mnemonics
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Artificial memory aids
Provides a substitute for rote memory
Typically used with knowledge with loose structure
Serves as a long-term memory retrieval cue
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Rehearsal
(1) activates which help process material into active working memory to facilitate
deeper processing for recall, (2) rehearsal strategies: (a) repetition, (b)
questioning, (c) predicting, restating, (d) reviewing and summarizing, (e) study
skills (note taking, underlining, SQ3R)
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Review of Cognitive ID Strategies:
 Chunking - (1) chunking rationale rooted in capacity of working
memory, (2) size of information chuck (7+/- 2), (3) utility
dependent upon internal coherence of the chunk.
 Advanced Organizers - (1) a brief and abstract prose passage
(paragraph) placed before a lesson, (2) organizes the new materials
by outlining, arranging, logically sequencing or patterning the
main points, (3) transition statement that bridges learner’s previous
knowledge to new content (linking), (4) encourages transfer, (5)
builds upon existing schemata, (6) functions of schemata: (a) aid
perception by facilitating selective attention, and (b) aid
comprehension and recall by: (i) providing an ideation scaffolding
for assimilating texts and events, (ii) allowing orderly search of
memory, (iii) permitting inferential construction and elaboration.
 Mnemonics - (1) artificial memory aids, (2) provides a substitute
for rote memorization, (3) typically used with knowledge with
loose structure, (4) serves as long-term memory retrieval cue.
 Rehearsal - (1) activates which help process material into active
working memory to facilitate deeper processing for recall, (2)
rehearsal strategies: (a) repetition, (b) questioning, (c) predicting,
restating, (d) reviewing and summarizing, (e) study skills (note
taking, underlining, SQ3R)
Cognitive Theories (A-C)
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ACT* (John Anderson)
o ACT* is a general theory of cognition developed by John Anderson and
colleagues at Carnegie Mellon University that focuses on memory
processes. It is an elaboration of the original ACT theory (Anderson,
1976) and builds upon HAM, a model of semantic memory proposed by
Anderson & Bower (1973). Anderson (1983) provides a complete
description of ACT*. In addition, Anderson (1990) provides his own
critique of ACT* and Anderson (1993) provides the outline for a broader
development of the theory. See the CMU ACT site for the most up-to-date
information on the theory.
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ACT* distinguishes among three types of memory structures: declarative,
procedural and working memory. Declarative memory takes the form of a
semantic net linking propositions, images, and sequences by associations.
Procedural memory (also long-term) represents information in the form of
productions; each production has a set of conditions and actions based in
declarative memory. The nodes of long-term memory all have some
degree of activation and working memory is that part of long-term
memory that is most highly activated.
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Adult Learning (P. Cross)
o Cross (1981) presents the Characteristics of Adults as Learners (CAL)
model in the context of her analysis of lifelong learning programs. The
model attempts to integrate other theoretical frameworks for adult learning
such as andragogy ( Knowles), experiential learning (Rogers), and lifespan
psychology. The CAL model consists of two classes of variables: personal
characteristics and situational characteristics. Personal characteristics
include: aging, life phases, and developmental stages. These three
dimensions have different characteristics as far as lifelong learning is
concerned.
o Aging results in the deterioration of certain sensory-motor abilities (e.g.,
eyesight, hearing, reaction time) while intelligence abilities (e.g., decisionmaking skills, reasoning, vocabulary) tend to improve. Life phases and
developmental stages (e.g., marriage, job changes, retirement) involve a
series of plateaus and transitions, which may or may not be directly related
to age. Situational characteristics consist of part-time versus full-time
learning, and voluntary versus compulsory learning. The administration of
learning (i.e., schedules, locations, procedures) is strongly affected by the
first variable; the second pertains to the self-directed, problem-centered
nature of most adult learning.
Algo-Heuristic Theory (L. Landa)
o Landa's theory is concerned with identifying mental processes -- conscious
and especially unconscious -- that underlie expert learning, thinking and
performance in any area. His methods represent a system of techniques for
getting inside the mind of expert learners and performers, which enable
one to uncover the processes involved. Once uncovered, they are broken
down into their relative elementary components -- mental operations and
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knowledge units that can be viewed as a kind of psychological "atoms"
and "molecules". Performing a task or solving a problem always requires a
certain system of elementary knowledge units and operations.
o There are classes of problems for which it is necessary to execute
operations in a well structured, predefined sequence (algorithmic
problems). For such problem classes, it is possible to formulate a set of
precise unambiguous instructions (algorithms) as to what one should do
mentally and/or physically in order to successfully solve any problem
belonging to that class. There are also classes of problems (creative or
heuristic problems) for which precise and unambiguous sets of
instructions cannot be formulated. For such classes of problems, it is
possible to formulate instructions that contain a certain degree of
uncertainty (heuristics). Landa also describes semi-algorithmic and semiheuristic problems, processes and instructions.
o The theory suggests that all cognitive activities can be analyzed into
operations of an algorithmic, semi-algorithmic, heuristic, or semi-heuristic
nature. Once discovered, these operations and their systems can serve as
the basis for instructional strategies and methods. The theory specifies that
students ought to be taught not only knowledge but the algorithms and
heuristics of experts as well. They also have to be taught how to discover
algorithms and heuristics on their own. Special emphasis is placed on
teaching students cognitive operations, algorithms and heuristics, which
make up general methods of thinking (i.e., intelligence).
o With respect to sequencing of instruction, Landa proposes a number of
strategies, the most important of which is the "snowball" method. This
method applies to teaching a system of cognitive operations by teaching
the first operation, then the second, which is practiced with the first, and
so on.
Andragogy (Malcolm Knowles)
o Knowles' theory of andragogy is an attempt to develop a theory
specifically for adult learning. Knowles emphasizes that adults are selfdirected and expect to take responsibility for decisions. Adult learning
programs must accommodate this fundamental aspect.
o Andragogy makes the following assumptions about the design of learning:
(1) Adults need to know why they need to learn something (2) Adults need
to learn experientially, (3) Adults approach learning as problem-solving,
and (4) Adults learn best when the topic is of immediate value.
o In practical terms, andragogy means that instruction for adults needs to
focus more on the process and less on the content being taught. Strategies
such as case studies, role-playing, simulations, and self-evaluation are
most useful. Instructors adopt a role of facilitator or resource rather than
lecturer or grader.
Anchored Instruction (John Bransford & the CTGV)
o Anchored instruction is a major paradigm for technology-based learning
that has been developed by the Cognition & Technology Group at
Vanderbilt (CTGV) under the leadership of John Bransford. While many
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people have contributed to the theory and research of anchored instruction,
Bransford is the principal spokesperson and hence the theory is attributed
to him.
o The initial focus of the work was on the development of interactive
videodisc tools that encouraged students and teachers to pose and solve
complex, realistic problems. The video materials serve as "anchors"
(macro-contexts) for all subsequent learning and instruction. As explained
by CTGV (1993, p52): "The design of these anchors was quite different
from the design of videos that were typically used in education...our goal
was to create interesting, realistic contexts that encouraged the active
construct ion of knowledge by l earners. Our anchors were stories rather
than lectures and were designed to be explored by students and teachers. "
The use of interactive videodisc technology makes it possible for students
to easily explore the content.
o Anchored instruction is closely related to the situated learning framework
(see CTGV, 1990, 1993) and also to the Cognitive Flexibility theory in its
emphasis on the use of technology-based learning.
Aptitude-Treatment Interaction (L. Cronbach & R. Snow)
o Aptitude-Treatment Interaction (ATI) -- the concept that some
instructional strategies (treatments) are more or less effective for particular
individuals depending upon their specific abilities. As a theoretical
framework, ATI suggests that optimal learning results when the
instruction is exactly matched to the aptitudes of the learner. It is
consistent with theories of intelligence (e.g., Gardner, Guilford, Sternberg)
that suggest a multidimensional view of ability.
o According to Snow (1989), the aim of ATI research is predict educational
outcomes from combinations of aptitudes and treatments. He summarizes
the main conclusions of Cronbach & Snow (1977) as: (1) aptitude
treatment interactions are very common in education, (2) many ATI
combinations are complex and difficult to demonstrate clearly, and no
particular ATI effect is sufficiently understood to be the basis for
instructional practice. Furthermore, Snow identifies the lack of attention to
the social aspects of learning as a serious deficiency of ATI research. He
states: "Learning style differences can be linked to relatively stable person
or aptitude variables, but they also vary within individuals as a function of
task and situation variables." (p51)
Cognitive Dissonance (L. Festinger)
o According to cognitive dissonance theory, there is a tendency for
individuals to seek consistency among their cognitions (i.e., beliefs,
opinions). When there is an inconsistency between attitudes or behaviors
(dissonance), something must change to eliminate the dissonance. In the
case of a discrepancy between attitudes and behavior, it is most likely that
the attitude will change to accommodate the behavior.
o Two factors affect the strength of the dissonance: the number of dissonant
beliefs, and the importance attached to each belief. There are three ways to
eliminate dissonance: (1) reduce the importance of the dissonant beliefs,
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(2) add more consonant beliefs that outweigh the dissonant beliefs, or (3)
change the dissonant beliefs so that they are no longer inconsistent.
o Dissonance occurs most often in situations where an individual must
choose between two incompatible beliefs or actions. The greatest
dissonance is created when the two alternatives are equally attractive.
Furthermore, attitude change is more likely in the direction of less
incentive since this results in lower dissonance. In this respect, dissonance
theory is contradictory to most behavioral theories, which would predict
greater attitude change with increased incentive (i.e., reinforcement).
Cognitive Flexibility Theory (R. Spiro, P. Feltovitch & R. Coulson)
o Cognitive flexibility theory focuses on the nature of learning in complex
and ill-structured domains. Spiro & Jehng (1990, p. 165) state: "By
cognitive flexibility, we mean the ability to spontaneously restructure
one's knowledge, in many ways, in adaptive response to radically
changing situational demands...This is a function of both the way
knowledge is represented (e.g., along multiple rather single conceptual
dimensions) and the processes that operate on those mental representations
(e.g., processes of schema assembly rather than intact schema retrieval)."
o The theory is largely concerned with transfer of knowledge and skills
beyond their initial learning situation. For this reason, emphasis is placed
upon the presentation of information from multiple perspectives and use of
many case studies that present diverse examples. The theory also asserts
that effective learning is context-dependent, so instruction needs to be
very specific. In addition, the theory stresses the importance of constructed
knowledge; learners must be given an opportunity to develop their own
representations of information in order to properly learn.
Component Display Theory (M.D. Merrill)
o Component Display Theory (CDT) classifies learning along two
dimensions: content (facts, concepts, procedures, and principles) and
performance (remembering, and using generalities). The theory specifies
four primary presentation forms: rules (expository presentation of a
generality), examples (expository presentation of instances), recall
(inquisitory generality) and practice (inquisitory instance). Secondary
presentation forms include: prerequisites, objectives, helps, mnemonics,
and feedback.
o The theory specifies that instruction is more effective to the extent that it
contains all necessary primary and secondary forms. Thus, a complete
lesson would consist of objective followed by some combination of rules,
examples, recall, practice, feedback, helps and mnemonics appropriate to
the subject matter and learning task. Indeed, the theory suggests that for a
given objective and learner, there is a unique combination of presentation
forms that results in the most effective learning experience.
o Merrill (1983) explains the assumptions about cognition that underlies
CDT. While acknowledging a number of different types of memory,
Merrill claims that associative and algorithmic memory structures are
directly related to the performance components of Remember and
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Use/Find respectively. Associative memory is a hierarchical network
structure; algorithmic memory consists of schema or rules. The distinction
between Use and Find performances in algorithmic memory is the use of
existing schema to process input versus creating a new schema through
reorganization of existing rules.
o A significant aspect of the CDT framework is learner control, i.e., the idea
that learners can select their own instructional strategies in terms of
content and presentation components. In this sense, instruction designed
according to CDT provides a high degree of individualization since
students can adapt learning to meet their own preferences and styles.
o In recent years, Merrill has presented a new version of CDT called
Component Design Theory (Merrill, 1994). This new version has a more
macro focus than the original theory with the emphasis on course
structures (instead of lessons) and instructional transactions rather than
presentation forms. In addition, advisor strategies have taken the place of
learner control strategies. Development of the new CDT theory has been
closely related to work on expert systems and authoring tools for
instructional design (e.g., Li & Merrill, 1991; Merrill, Li, & Jones, 1991;
ID2 web site)
Conditions of Learning (R. Gagne)
o This theory stipulates that there are several different types or levels of
learning. The significance of these classifications is that each different
type requires different types of instruction. Gagne identifies five major
categories of learning: verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive
strategies, motor skills and attitudes. Different internal and external
conditions are necessary for each type of learning. For example, for
cognitive strategies to be learned, there must be a chance to practice
developing new solutions to problems; to learn attitudes, the learner must
be exposed to a credible role model or persuasive arguments.
o Gagne suggests that learning tasks for intellectual skills can be organized
in a hierarchy according to complexity: stimulus recognition, response
generation, procedure following, use of terminology, discriminations,
concept formation, rule application, and problem solving. The primary
significance of the hierarchy is to identify prerequisites that should be
completed to facilitate learning at each level. Doing a task analysis of a
learning/training task identifies prerequisites. Learning hierarchies provide
a basis for the sequencing of instruction.
Connectionism (E. Thorndike)
o The learning theory of Thorndike represents the original S-R framework
of behavioral psychology: Learning is the result of associations forming
between stimuli and responses. Such associations or "habits" become
strengthened or weakened by the nature and frequency of the S-R pairings.
The paradigm for S-R theory was trial and error learning in which certain
responses come to dominate others due to rewards. The hallmark of
connectionism (like all behavioral theory) was that learning could be
adequately explained without referring to any unobservable internal states.
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Thorndike's theory consists of three primary laws: (1) law of effect responses to a situation which are followed by a rewarding state of affairs
will be strengthened and become habitual responses to that situation, (2)
law of readiness - a series of responses can be chained together to satisfy
some goal which will result in annoyance if blocked, and (3) law of
exercise - connections become strengthened with practice and weakened
when practice is discontinued. A corollary of the law of effect was that
responses that reduce the likelihood of achieving a rewarding state (i.e.,
punishments, failures) would decrease in strength.
o The theory suggests that transfer of learning depends upon the presence of
identical elements in the original and new learning situations; i.e., transfer
is always specific, never general. In later versions of the theory, the
concept of "belongingness" was introduced; connections are more readily
established if the person perceives that stimuli or responses go together
(c.f. Gestalt principles). Another concept introduced was "polarity" which
specifies that connections occur more easily in the direction in which they
were originally formed than the opposite. Thorndike also introduced the
"spread of effect" idea, i.e., rewards affect not only the connection that
produced them but temporally adjacent connections as well.
Contiguity Theory (E. Guthrie)
o Guthrie's contiguity theory specifies that "a combination of stimuli which
has accompanied a movement will on its recurrence tend to be followed by
that movement". According to Guthrie, all learning was a consequence of
association between a particular stimulus and response. Furthermore,
Guthrie argued that stimuli and responses affect specific sensory-motor
patterns; what is learned are movements, not behaviors.
o In contiguity theory, rewards or punishment play no significant role in
learning since they occur after the association between stimulus and
response has been made. Learning takes place in a single trial (all or
none). However, since each stimulus pattern is slightly different, many
trials may be necessary to produce a general response. One interesting
principle that arises from this position is called "postremity" which
specifies that we always learn the last thing we do in response to a specific
stimulus situation.
o Contiguity theory suggests that forgetting is due to interference rather than
the passage of time; stimuli become associated with new responses.
Previous conditioning can also be changed by being associated with
inhibiting responses such as fear or fatigue. The role of motivation is to
create a state of arousal and activity, which produces responses that can be
conditioned.
Conversation Theory (G. Pask)
o The Conversation Theory developed by G. Pask originated from a
cybernetics framework and attempts to explain learning in both living
organisms and machines. The fundamental idea of the theory was that
learning occurs through conversations about a subject matter, which serve
to make knowledge explicit. Conversations can be conducted at a number
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of different levels: natural language (general discussion), object languages
(for discussing the subject matter), and metalanguages (for talking about
learning/language).
In order to facilitate learning, Pask argued that subject matter should be
represented in the form of entailment structures, which show what is to be
learned. Entailment structures exist in a variety of different levels
depending upon the extent of relationships displayed (e.g.,
super/subordinate concepts, analogies).
The critical method of learning according to conversation theory is "teach
back" in which one person teaches another what they have learned. Pask
identified two different types of learning strategies: serialists who progress
through an entailment structure in a sequential fashion and holists who
look for higher order relations.
Cognitive Theories (D-M)
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Dual Coding Theory (A. Paivio)
o The dual coding theory proposed by Paivio attempts to give equal weight
to verbal and non-verbal processing. Paivio (1986) states: "Human
cognition is unique in that it has become specialized for dealing
simultaneously with language and with nonverbal objects and events.
Moreover, the language system is peculiar in that it deals directly with
linguistic input and output (in the form of speech or writing) while at the
same time serving a symbolic function with respect to nonverbal objects,
events, and behaviors. Any representational theory must accommodate this
dual functionality." (p 53).
o
The theory assumes that there are two cognitive subsystems, one
specialized for the representation and processing of nonverbal
objects/events (i.e., imagery), and the other specialized for dealing with
language. Paivio also postulates two different types of representational
units: "imagens" for mental images and "logogens" for verbal entities,
which he describes as being similar to "chunks" as described by Miller.
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Logogens are organized in terms of associations and hierarchies while
imagens are organized in terms of part-whole relationships.
o Dual Coding theory identified three types of processing: (1)
representational, the direct activation of verbal or non-verbal
representations, (2) referential, the activation of the verbal system by the
nonverbal system or vice-versa, and (3) associative processing, the
activation of representations within the same verbal or nonverbal system.
A given task may require any or all of the three kinds of processing.
Elaboration Theory (C. Reigeluth)
o According to elaboration theory, instruction should be organized in
increasing order of complexity for optimal learning. For example, when
teaching a procedural task, the simplest version of the task is presented
first; subsequent lessons present additional versions until the full range of
tasks are taught. In each lesson, the learner should be reminded of all
versions taught so far (summary/synthesis). A key idea of elaboration
theory is that the learner needs to develop a meaningful context into which
subsequent ideas and skills can be assimilated.
o Elaboration theory proposes seven major strategy components: (1) an
elaborative sequence, (2) learning prerequisite sequences, (3) summary,
(4) synthesis, (5) analogies, (6) cognitive strategies, and (7) learner
control. The first component is the most critical as far as elaboration
theory is concerned. The elaborative sequence is defined as a simple to
complex sequence in which the first lesson epitomizes (rather than
summarize or abstract) the ideas and skills that follow. Epitomizing should
be done on the basis of a single type of content (concepts, procedures,
principles), although two or more types may be elaborated simultaneously,
and should involve the learning of just a few fundamental or
representative ideas or skills at the application level.
o It is claimed that the elaboration approach results in the formation of more
stable cognitive structures and therefore better retention and transfer,
increased learner motivation through the creation of meaningful learning
contexts, and the provision of information about the content that allows
informed learner control. Elaboration theory is an extension of the work of
Ausubel (advance organizers) and Bruner (spiral curriculum).
Experiential Learning (C. Rogers)
o Rogers distinguished two types of learning: cognitive (meaningless) and
experiential (significant). The former corresponds to academic knowledge
such as learning vocabulary or multiplication tables and the latter refers to
applied knowledge such as learning about engines in order to repair a car.
The key to the distinction is that experiential learning addresses the needs
and wants of the learner. Rogers lists these qualities of experiential
learning: personal involvement, self-initiated, evaluated by learner, and
pervasive effects on learner.
o To Rogers, experiential learning is equivalent to personal change and
growth. Rogers feels that all human beings have a natural propensity to
learn; the role of the teacher is to facilitate such learning. This includes:
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(1) setting a positive climate for learning, (2) clarifying the purposes of the
learner(s), (3) organizing and making available learning resources, (4)
balancing intellectual and emotional components of learning, and (5)
sharing feelings and thoughts with learners but not dominating.
According to Rogers, learning is facilitated when: (1) the student
participates completely in the learning process and has control over its
nature and direction, (2) it is primarily based upon direct confrontation
with practical, social, personal or research problems, and (3) selfevaluation is the principal method of assessing progress or success. Rogers
also emphasizes the importance of learning to learn and an openness to
change.
Roger's theory of learning evolved as part of the humanistic education
movement (e.g., Patterson, 1973; Valett, 1977).
Functional Context (T. Sticht)
o The functional context approach to learning stresses the importance of
making learning relevant to the experience of learners and their work
context. Making it possible for the learner to relate it to knowledge already
possessed and transform old knowledge into new knowledge facilitates the
learning of new information. By using materials that the learner will use
after training, transfer of learning from the classroom to the "real world"
will be enhanced.
o The model of the cognitive system underlying this approach emphasizes
the interaction of three components: (1) a knowledge base (i.e., long term
memory) of what the individual knows, (2) processing skills including
language, problem-solving, and learning strategies, and (3) information
displays that present information. The performance of a task requires
knowledge about what one is reading or writing, processing skills for
comprehension and communication, and displays of information to be
processed.
o The functional context approach also proposes new assessment methods.
Instead of using grade level scores, tests should measure content
knowledge gained and distinguish between functional learning and
academic learning. For example, an assessment of reading should measure
both reading-to-do (e.g., looking up information in a manual) and readingto-learn (e.g., information needed for future decisions).
o Functional context theory shares a similar emphasis with Situated
Learning theory, which also stresses the importance of context during
learning.
Genetic Epistemology (J. Piaget)
o Over a period of six decades, Jean Piaget conducted a program of
naturalistic research that has profoundly affected our understanding of
child development. Piaget called his general theoretical framework
"genetic epistemology" because he was primarily interested in how
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knowledge developed in human organisms. Piaget had a background in
both Biology and Philosophy and concepts from both these disciplines
influences his theories and research of child development.
o The concept of cognitive structure is central to his theory. Cognitive
structures are patterns of physical or mental action that underlie specific
acts of intelligence and correspond to stages of child development. There
are four primary cognitive structures (i.e., development stages) according
to Piaget: sensorimotor, pre-operations, concrete operations, and formal
operations. In the sensorimotor stage (0-2 years), intelligence takes the
form of motor actions. Intelligence in the preoperational period (3-7 years)
is intuitive in nature. The cognitive structure during the concrete
operational stage (8-11 years) is logical but depends upon concrete
referents. In the final stage of formal operations (12-15 years), thinking
involves abstractions.
o Cognitive structures change through the processes of adaptation:
assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation involves the interpretation
of events in terms of existing cognitive structure whereas accommodation
refers to changing the cognitive structure to make sense of the
environment. Cognitive development consists of a constant effort to adapt
to the environment in terms of assimilation and accommodation. In this
sense, Piaget's theory is similar in nature to other constructivist
perspectives of learning (e.g., Bruner, Vygotsky).
o While the stages of cognitive development identified by Piaget are
associated with characteristic age spans, they vary for every individual.
Furthermore, each stage has many detailed structural forms. For example,
the concrete operational period has more than forty distinct structures
covering classification and relations, spatial relationships, time,
movement, chance, number, conservation and measurement. Similar
detailed analysis of intellectual functions is provided by theories of
intelligence such as Guilford, Gardner, and Sternberg.
Information Processing Theory (G. Miller)
o George A. Miller has provided two theoretical ideas that are fundamental
to cognitive psychology and the information-processing framework.
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The first concept is "chunking" and the capacity of short-term memory.
Miller (1956) presented the idea that short-term memory could only hold
5-9 chunks of information (seven plus or minus two) where a chunk is any
meaningful unit. A chunk could refer to digits, words, chess positions, or
people's faces. The concept of chunking and the limited capacity of shortterm memory became a basic element of all subsequent theories of
memory.
o The second concept is TOTE (Test-Operate-Test-Exit) proposed by
Miller, Galanter & Pribram (1960). Miller et al. suggested that TOTE
should replace the stimulus-response as the basic unit of behavior. In a
TOTE unit, a goal is tested to see if it has been achieved and if not an
operation is performed to achieve the goal; this cycle of test-operate is
repeated until the goal is eventually achieved or abandoned. The TOTE
concept provided the basis of many subsequent theories of problem
solving (e.g., GPS) and production systems.
Levels of Processing (F. Craik & R. Lockhart)
o The levels of processing framework was presented by Craik & Lockhart
(1972) as an alternative to theories of memory that postulated separate
stages for sensory, working and long-term memory. According to the
levels of processing framework, stimulus information is processed at
multiple levels simultaneously depending upon its characteristics.
Furthermore, the "deeper" the processing, the more that will be
remembered. For example, information that involves strong visual images
or many associations with existing knowledge will be processed at a
deeper level. Similarly, information that is being attended to receives more
processing than other stimuli/events. The theory also supports the finding
that we remember things that are meaningful to us because this requires
more processing than meaningless stimuli.
o Processing of information at different levels is unconscious and automatic
unless we attend to that level. For example, we are normally not aware of
the sensory properties of stimuli, or what we have in working memory,
unless we are asked to specifically identify such information. This
suggests that the mechanism of attention is an interruption in processing
rather than a cognitive process in its own right.
o D'Agostino, O'Neill & Paivio (1977) discuss the relationship between the
dual coding theory and the levels of processing framework. Other theories
of memory related to levels of processing are Rumelhart & Norman and
Soar.
Mathematical learning theory (R.C. Atkinson)
o Mathematical learning theory is an attempt to describe and explain
behavior in quantitative terms. A number of psychologists have attempted
to develop such theories (e.g., Hull; Estes; Restle & Greeno, 1970). The
work of R. C. Atkinson is particularly interesting because he applied
mathematical learning theory to the design of a language arts curriculum.
o Atkinson (1972) discusses the problem of optimizing instruction. He
outlined four possible strategies: (1) maximize the mean performance of
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the whole class, (2) minimize the variance in performance for the whole
class, (3) maximize the number of students who score at grade level, or (4)
maximize the mean performance for each individual. Atkinson shows that
while alternative (1) produces the largest gain scores, it also produces the
greatest variance since it increases the spread between the most and least
successful students. Alternative (4) produces an overall gain but without
increased variability. This is accomplished by giving each student variable
amounts of time depending upon performance.
Minimalism (J. Carroll)
o The Minimalist theory of J.M. Carroll is a framework for the design of
instruction, especially training materials for computer users. The theory
suggests that (1) all learning tasks should be meaningful and selfcontained activities, (2) learners should be given realistic projects as
quickly as possible, (3) instruction should permit self-directed reasoning
and improvising by increasing the number of active learning activities, (4)
training materials and activities should provide for error recognition and
recovery and, (5) there should be a close linkage between the training and
actual system.
o Minimalist theory emphasizes the necessity to build upon the learner's
experience (c.f., Knowles, Rogers). Carroll (1990) states: "Adult learners
are not blank slates; they don't have funnels in their heads; they have little
patience for being treated as "don't knows"... New users are always
learning computer methods in the context of specific preexisting goals and
expectations." (p. 11) Carroll also identifies the roots of minimalism in the
constructivism of Bruner and Piaget.
o The critical idea of minimalist theory is to minimize the extent to which
instructional materials obstruct learning and focus the design on activities
that support learner-directed activity and accomplishment. Carroll feels
that training developed on the basis of other instructional theories (e.g.,
Gagne, Merrill) is too passive and fails to exploit the prior knowledge
Multiple Intelligences (H. Gardner)
o The theory of multiple intelligences suggests that there are a number of
distinct forms of intelligence that each individual possesses in varying
degrees. Gardner proposes seven primary forms: linguistic, musical,
logical-mathematical, spatial, body-kinesthetic, intrapersonal (e.g., insight,
metacognition) and interpersonal (e.g., social skills).
o According to Gardner, the implication of the theory is that
learning/teaching should focus on the particular intelligences of each
person. For example, if an individual has strong spatial or musical
intelligences, they should be encouraged to develop these abilities.
Gardner points out that the different intelligences represent not only
different content domains but also learning modalities. A further
implication of the theory is that assessment of abilities should measure all
forms of intelligence, not just linguistic and logical-mathematical.
o Gardner also emphasizes the cultural context of multiple intelligences.
Each culture tends to emphasize particular intelligences. For example,
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Gardner (1983) discusses the high spatial abilities of the Puluwat people
of the Caroline Islands, who use these skills to navigate their canoes in the
ocean. Gardner also discusses the balance of personal intelligences
required in Japanese society.
The theory of multiple intelligences shares some common ideas with other
theories of individual differences such as Cronbach & Snow, Guilford, and
Steinberg.
Gestalt Theory
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One of the early movements to offer alternatives to the stimulus-response
approach to learning started in Germany in the first part of the twentieth century.
Gestalt theory is a broadly interdisciplinary general theory, which provides a
framework for a wide variety of psychological phenomena, processes, and
applications. Human beings are viewed as open systems in active interaction with
their environment. It is especially suited for the understanding of order and
structure in psychological events, and has its origins in some orientations of
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Ernst Mach, and particularly of Christian von
Ehrenfels and the research work of Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler, Kurt
Koffka, and Kurt Lewin, who opposed the elementistic approach to psychological
events, associationism, behaviorism, and to psychoanalysis.
The coming to power of national socialism substantially interrupted the fruitful
scientific development of Gestalt theory in the German-speaking world; Koffka,
Wertheimer, Köhler and Lewin emigrated, or were forced to flee, to the United
States.
Max Weirtheimer, Wolfgang Kohler, Kurt Koffka, and Kurt Levin were the
leaders of what became known as Gestalt Theory.
'Gestalt' is the German word which means a unified whole, with properties which
are more than the sum of its parts.
The original work in this area related to perception. Conclusions from these early
studies led to applications related to human learning.
These notions were that central thinking processes accounted for more behaviors
than simple stimulus-response activities.
Thus, gestalt theory was one of the very early cognitive learning theories, and
an important forerunner of current information processing theories.
There were many conclusions related to the perception work, which were applied
directly to learning. These included the laws of similarity, proximity, closure, and
good continuation. These laws explain perceptual principles of organization,
rules governing what we readily recognize and remember, and also what we tend
not to notice or remember. For example, similar items tend to form groups in out
memory. Another example of such laws is the human tendency to remember open
figures and forms as closed.
Memory and memory traces: memory traces are formed initially as a result of
direct stimulation, and the traces become more fixed with repetition. Such
repetition is more beneficial in the form of distributed practice, however, because
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the intervening time allows the memory traces to become organized and
stabilized.
A very important part of gestalt thinking related to the role of insightful
behaviors. These are the experiences during which one finally 'gets the picture',
and everything seems to come quickly together and make sense
Gestalt theory includes several laws: similarity, proximity, closure, and good
continuation. (See class notes).
There is "good" gestalt and "bad" gestalt.
One example of gestalt deals with memory traces. Often, people have insightful
behaviors such as finally "getting the picture" where everything seems to come
together and make sense - this is often due to memory traces. More intelligent
people have more memory traces and usually have quicker insightful experiences.
Gestalt sees practice as a process of consolidating the memory trace system, for
example.
The fundamental 'formula' of Gestalt theory might be expressed in this way. There
are wholes, the behavior of which is not determined by that of their individual
elements, but where the part-processes are themselves determined by the intrinsic
nature of the whole. It is the hope of Gestalt theory to determine the nature of
such wholes. With a formula such as this one might close, for Gestalt theory is
neither more nor less than this." (Max Wertheimer, 1925: Über Gestalttheorie [an
address before the Kant Society, Berlin, '7th December, 1924], Erlangen, 1925)
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Gestalt Theory (Wertheimer)
o Along with Kohler and Koffka, Max Wertheimer was one of the principal
proponents of Gestalt theory, which emphasized higher-order cognitive
processes in the midst of behaviorism. The focus of Gestalt theory was the
idea of "grouping", i.e., characteristics of stimuli cause us to structure or
interpret a visual field or problem in a certain way. The primary factors
that determine grouping were: (1) proximity - elements tend to be grouped
together according to their nearness, (2) similarity - items similar in some
respect tend to be grouped together, (3) closure - items are grouped
together if they tend to complete some entity, and (4) simplicity - items
will be organized into simple figures according to symmetry, regularity,
and smoothness. These factors were called the laws of organization and
were explained in the context of perception and problem solving.
o Wertheimer was especially concerned with problem solving. Werthiemer
(1959) provides a Gestalt interpretation of problem-solving episodes of
famous scientists (e.g., Galileo, Einstein) as well as children presented
with mathematical problems. The essence of successful problem-solving
behavior according to Wertheimer is being able to see the overall structure
of the problem: "A certain region in the field becomes crucial, is focused;
but it does not become isolated. A new, deeper structural view of the
situation develops, involving changes in functional meaning, the grouping,
etc. of the items. Directed by what is required by the structure of a
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situation for a crucial region, one is led to a reasonable prediction, which
like the other parts of the structure, calls for verification, direct or indirect.
Two directions are involved: getting a whole consistent picture, and seeing
what the structure of the whole requires for the parts." (p 212).
o Scope/Application: Gestalt theory applies to all aspects of human learning,
although it applies most directly to perception and problem solving. The
work of Gibson was strongly influenced by Gestalt theory.
o Example:
 The classic example of Gestalt principles provided by Wertheimer
are children finding the area of parallelograms. As long as the
parallelograms are regular figures, a standard procedure can be
applied (making lines perpendicular from the corners of the base).
However, if a parallelogram with a novel shape or orientation is
provided, the standard procedure will not work and children are
forced to solve the problem by understanding the true structure of a
parallelogram (i.e., the figure can be bisected anywhere if the ends
are joined).
o Principles:
 The learner should be encouraged to discover the underlying
nature of a topic or problem (i.e., the relationship among the
elements).
 Gaps, incongruities, or disturbances are an important stimulus for
learning
 Instruction should be based upon the laws of organization:
proximity, closure, similarity and simplicity.
Max Wertheimer's famous lecture on 'Gestalt Theory' (1924
Information Pickup Theory (J. Gibson)
o The theory of information pickup suggests that perception depends
entirely upon information in the "stimulus array" rather than sensations
that are influenced by cognition. Gibson proposes that the environment
consists of affordances (such terrain, water, vegetation, etc.), which
provide the clues necessary for perception. Furthermore, the ambient array
includes invariants such as shadows, texture, color, convergence,
symmetry and layout that determine what is perceived. According to
Gibson, perception is a direct consequence of the properties of the
environment and does not involve any form of sensory processing.
o Information pickup theory stresses that perception requires an active
organism. The act of perception depends upon an interaction between the
organism and the environment. All perceptions are made in reference to
body position and functions (proprioception). Awareness of the
environment derives from how it reacts to our movements.
o Information pickup theory opposes most traditional theories of cognition
that assume past experience plays a dominant role in perceiving. It is
based upon Gestalt theories that emphasize the significance of stimulus
organization and relationships.
o Scope/Application:
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Information pickup theory is intended as a general theory of
perception, although it has been developed most completely for the
visual system. Gibson (1979) discusses the implications of the
theory for still and motion picture research. Neisser (1976)
presents a theory of cognition that is strongly influenced by
Gibson.
o Example:
 Much of Gibson's ideas about perception were developed and
applied in the context of aviation training during WWII. The
critical concept is that pilots orient themselves according to
characteristics of the ground surface rather than through
vestibular/kinesthetic senses. In other words, it is the invariants of
terrain and sky that determine perception while flying, not sensory
processing per se. Therefore, training sequences and materials for
pilots should always include this kind of information
Lateral Thinking (DeBono)
o Edward de Bono has written extensively about the process of lateral
thinking -- the generation of novel solutions to problems. The point of
lateral thinking is that many problems require a different perspective to
solve successfully.
o De Bono identifies four critical factors associated with lateral thinking: (1)
recognize dominant ideas that polarize perception of a problem, (2)
searching for differ ways of looking at things, (3) relaxation of rigid
control of thinking, and (4) use of chance to encourage other ideas. This
last factor has to do with the fact that lateral thinking involves lowprobability ideas, which are unlikely to occur in the normal course of
events.
o Although De Bono does not acknowledge any theoretical antecedents for
lateral thinking, it seems closely related to the Gestalt theory of
Wertheimer. His work is also highly relevant to the concept of creativity
Visit the De Bono web site for up-to-date information on his work.
o Scope/Application:
 Lateral thinking applies to human problem solving. DeBono
(1971a) discusses the application of lateral thinking to
management development and DeBono (1971b) provides an
interesting study of lateral thinking in children.
o Example:
 The following anecdote is provided by DeBono (1967). A
merchant who owes money to a moneylender agrees to settle the
debt based upon the choice of two stones (one black, one white)
from a moneybag. If his daughter chooses the white stone, the debt
is canceled; if she picks the black stone, the moneylender gets the
merchant’s daughter. However, the moneylender "fixes" the
outcome by putting two black stones in the bag. The daughter sees
this and when she picks a stone out of the bag, immediately drops
it onto the path full of other stones. She then points out that the
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stone she picked must have been the opposite color of the one
remaining in the bag. Unwilling to be unveiled as dishonest, the
moneylender must agree and cancel the debt. The daughter has
solved an intractable problem through the use of lateral thinking.
Principles:
 To get a different perspective on a problem, try breaking the
elements up and recombining them in a different way (perhaps
randomly).
Philosophical theories
Constructivism
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Constructivists. Duffy, Jonassen, Cunningham.
Learning occurs because personal knowledge is constructed by an active and selfregulated learner who resolves conflicts between ideas and reflects on theoretical
explanations. (Seels); Sources of meaning are experience and context; there is a
real world which we experience; meaning is imposed on the world by use; there
are many meanings or perspectives for any given event or concepts; meaning is
rooted in experience; takes advantage of new capabilities of new technologies.
Polar view to objectivism. There is no ultimate, shared reality, but reality is
outcome of a constructive process (Suchman). Goal of instruction is not to assure
individuals know particular things, but construct plausible interpretations of their
own (Cunningham)
Based on the premise that we all construct our own perspective of the world,
based on individual experiences and schema. Focuses on preparing the learner to
problem solve in ambiguous situations.
 Schema- An internal knowledge structure. A person adjusts his
mental model to incorporate new experiences and make sense of
this new information. A person's schema is constantly readjusting.
In the Constructivist theory the emphasis is placed on the learner or the student
rather than the teacher or the instructor. It is the learner who interacts with
objects and events and thereby gains an understanding of the features held by
such objects or events. The learner, therefore, constructs his/her own
conceptualizations and solutions to problems. Learner autonomy and initiative is
accepted and encouraged.
Constructivists view learning as the result of mental construction. Students learn
by fitting new information together with what they already know. People learn
best when they actively construct their own understanding.
In constructivist thinking learning is also affected by the context and the beliefs
and attitudes of the learner. Learners are encouraged to invent their own solutions
and to try out ideas and hypotheses. They are given the opportunity to build on
prior knowledge.
There are many different schools of thought within this theory, all of which fall
within the same basic assumption about learning. The main two are
o social constructivism
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the socially oriented constructivist theories stress the collaboratory
efforts of groups of learners as sources of learning.
o cognitive constructivism
 Cognitive oriented constructivist theories emphasize the
exploration and discovery on the part of each learner as explaining
the learning process. In this view knowledge is still very much a
symbolic, mental representation in the mind of the individual.
Constructivism ...
o emphasizes learning and not teaching
o encourages and accepts learner autonomy and initiative
o sees learners as creatures of will and purpose
o Mind Mapping technique
o thinks of learning as a process
o encourages learner inquiry
o acknowledges the critical role of experience in learning
o nurtures learners natural curiosity
o takes the learner's mental model into account
o emphasizes performance and understanding when assessing learning
o bases itself on the principles of the cognitive theory
o makes extensive use of cognitive terminology such as predict, create and
analyze
o considers how the student learns
o supports co-operative learning
o involves learners in real world situations
o emphasizes the context in which learning takes place
o Considers the beliefs and attitudes of the learner
o provides learners the opportunity to construct new knowledge and
understanding from authentic experience
Key words and phrases:
o meta learning
o meaningful learning
o discovery learning
o situated learning,
o cognitive learning and thinking,
o thinking about thinking,
o learner initiated inquiry and exploration,
o holistic approach,
o problem-solving,
o prediction,
o case-based,
o simulations,
o conceptual,
o intrinsic,
o reflection,
o learner control,
o teacher facilitation,
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and much more....
Today's constructivist-oriented research, classroom pedagogy, and spirit builds on
such key contributors to education as Jean Piaget, John Dewey, Lev Vygotsky,
Jerome Bruner, and Davio Ausubel. (See resources in this Concept Cart). While
there are multiple positions amongst constructivists, all constructivist positions
share some common beliefs about ways of knowing:
o "....constructivist knowing assumes the active and proactive nature of all
perception, learning, and knowledge...." (Mahoney, 1991)
o .... prior knowledge and experience is the springboard for useful, personal
knowledge construction....
o ".... constructivist learning experiences and appropriate classroom
practices include reflective thinking and productivity; authentic activities,
including student collaboration and consideration of multiple perspectives,
and student access to content area experts who can model domain-specific
skills...." (Grabe/Grabe, 1998)
o ....constructivist-oriented teachers mediate between student prior,
knowledge and their lived worlds, creating learning environments that will
help them develop increasingly complex understandings and skills.
Constructivist concepts compared to behaviorist concepts reveals significant
differences in basic assumptions about knowledge, knowers, and learning:
Cognitive/Constructivist
Perspective
Behavioral Perspective
Knowledge is active,
situated in lived worlds
Knowledge is inert
Individuals construct
knowledge
Individuals are passive
recipients of knowledge
Meaningful learning is
useful and retained,
building on what the
learner already knows
Learning occurs with
programmatic, repeated
activities
Teacher's role is coach,
mediator, strategic
Teacher's role is
authoritative, directive
Today's cognitive revolution has replaced behaviorism as the prevailing
paradigm. Behaviorism is a simple, elegant scientific theory that has both
methodological and intuitive appeal. But humans are more complicated than
behaviorism allows...(Bruer, 1993). Although most teachers use varied strategies,
their basic assumptions make an enormous difference in life is like in classrooms.
Classroom environment, expectations, selection and creation of pedagogy, and
assessment are guided by tacit or known teacher assumptions. If you have doubt
about how learning happens, engage in sustained inquiry: study, ponder, consider
alternative possibilities and arrive at your belief grounded in evidence. (Dewey,
1933).
Here is a summary of constructivist principles. See the section in this web site on
what constructivist strategies look like "in practice."
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Constructivist Principles
What a person knows is
actively constructed.
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Learning serves an
adaptive function; its role
is to help the individual
operate within his or her
personal world; thus
learning is not the storage
of "truths," but of useful
personal knowledge.
Some Principles of Constructivism
o Figure 4 – The instructional principles supporting constructivist theory
linked to the (Piagetian) growth of child’s intellectual development
(adapted from – Dershem, An Overview of Semiotic/Constructivist
Theories):
Processes
Description
Assimilation
Association of new events with
background knowledge and prior
conceptions.
Instructional principles
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Accommodation
Accommodation refers to change of
existing structures to adapt to the
new information.
o
o
o
Equilibration
The person striking a balance
between the internal and the
external.
o
o
Anchor all learning activities to a larger
task or problem. The learner should clearly
perceive and accept the relevance of the specific
learning activities in relation to the larger task
complex.
Support the learner in developing
ownership for the overall problem.
Solicit problems from the learner and
use those as the stimulus for learning activities,
or establish a problem such that the learners will
readily adopt the problem as their own.
Design the learning environment to
support and challenge the learners' thinking.
Design the task and the learning
environment to reflect the complexity of the
environment in which they must function after
the learning has occurred.
Encourage testing ideas against
alternative views and alternative contexts.
Design an authentic task. An authentic
learning environment is one in which the
cognitive demands are consistent with the
demands in the environment for which the
learner is being prepared.
Provide opportunity for and support
reflection on both the learning content and
process.
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Disequilibrium
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The experience of a new event. No
balance between assimilation and
accommodation.
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o
Provide opportunity for changing and
enhancing, drafting and redrafting.
The process of debugging.
There is a link between cues and behavior, but behavior is an indirect indicator of
the state of a person's knowledge structure.
Heuristic - A kind of knowledge about thinking and learning that guides strategies
you use to the learner so he can solve problems. You are your own "referee" in
weighing out your decisions.
Reality and rules
o Learners interpret external reality based on individual experience.
o Knowledge is based on the premise that we all construct our own
perspective of the world, using reflection of our individual experiences as
a basis. We create our own "rules" in order to make sense of our
experiences. By adjusting our mental models to incorporate our new
experiences, we are experiencing the process of learning.
Control of learner
o Reality is internally controlled. This puts the learner in control of what he
learns and how he learns it. People create their own interpretation of
objective reality, based on his schema.
o For example, if a student receives a `C' in a class, his reaction might be
one of satisfaction or failure, depending on his existing schema. If he grew
up with his parents stressing that grades are not important or that the grade
of a `C' is a pretty good grade, his schema has incorporated that
knowledge. When he receives a `C', he will feel satisfied.
o In contrast, if he grew up with parents who viewed any grade lower than
an `A' as incompetent, his schema will reflect that. When he receives a `C',
he will feel like he was not successful.
Type of instruction
o Instruction promotes the mental construction of the learner's reality.
Instruction and manipulation
o The instructor facilitates the learner's conceptual modeling. The instructor
must understand the learner's existing cognitive structures and provide
appropriate learning activities that will help the learner construct his
knowledge.
o Use multiple real world contexts, strategies, and coaching. Create a bunch
of environments for the learner, so he gets to practice thinking in different
ways. The result will be a learner who is better prepared to handle
different situations.
Reality to promote
o The learner’s realities are divergent. The learners are encouraged to
develop different realities.
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Problems
o In a situation where the learners are being trained to think and respond in
the exact same manner, such as in military training, it is counterproductive to view different realities.
Strengths
o Because he is able to interpret multiple realities, the learner is better able
to deal with real life situations.
o This is an important concept to apply when working in teams or dealing
with other people. If you do not have the ability to put yourself in others'
shoes and see the reality they are coming from, you will not be able to
relate to each other’s ideas and viewpoints.
Constructivism is based heavily on the work of Piaget and Papert.
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Piagetian Influence
Jean Piaget (1896-1980) was one of the most "influential developmental theorists of the
twentieth century" (Jean Piaget's Biography). His work has had significant impact on the
fields of psychology and education. Much of his interests were in genetic epistemology,
the study of the origin and development of human knowledge. In his work, Piaget
identified the child’s four stages of mental growth (adopted from Ginn, 1995).
Figure 1 – Piagetian stages of mental growth
Stage
Ages
Feature
Sensorimotor
Birth to age 2
Mastery of concrete objects. The child is concerned with gaining moto
control and learning about physical objects.
Preoperational
Ages 2 to 7
Mastery of symbols. The child is preoccupied with verbal skills. At thi
point the child can name objects and reason intuitively.
Concrete
operational stage
Ages 7 to 12
Mastery of classes, relations and numbers, and how to reason. The chil
begins to deal with abstract concepts such as numbers and relationships
Formal
operational
Ages 12 to 15
Mastery of thought. The child begins to reason logically and
systematically.
The growth of a child’s intellectual development involves three key processes:
assimilation, accommodation, and equilibration. Assimilation involves the association of
new events with background knowledge and prior conceptions. Accommodation refers to
change of existing structures to adapt to the new information. "This mutual process,
assimilation-accommodation, enables the child to form schema" (Ginn, 1995).
Equilibration involves the person striking a balance between the internal and the external,
that is, between assimilation and accommodation. The experience of a new event is
characterized by a state of disequilibrium. This state continues until he or she is able to
tap into background knowledge and adapt to the environment and thus attain equilibrium.
The mechanism of equilibration helps to explain why some children develop logical
intelligence at an earlier age than others do. If we consider the influence of a learning and
teaching structure that provides an appropriate environment for building on a learners’
prior experience, then I would argue that the development of logical intelligence can be
enhanced. Papert argued along similar lines. He claimed that Piaget essentially laid a
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foundation, but that a foundation was not enough for transcending learning and teaching
strategies. Papert synthesized a culture symbolizing Piaget’s theories of learning and
intelligence.
Whilst at MIT, as Professor of Education, Papert synthesized a computer software
application known as LOGO. The LOGO application has its own language and syntax. It
evolved with time and included contributions from Marvin Minsky (Toshiba Professor of
Media Arts and Sciences Professor of E.E. and C.S., M.I.T.) and Harold Abelson. The
software was specifically developed with the Piagetian influence in mind, however it
wasn’t just the software itself that underpinned assimilation, accommodation and
equilibration, it was the context in which the software was used. The computer and
LOGO microworld provided a culture, a new medium for learning – a constructivist
approach to learning and teaching. The affective element not evident in Piaget's works
came to fruition with Papert’s construction.
Piaget's theories of cognitive development provided the seeds for the growth of
constructivisim. Papert took the seeds, nurtured them and produced exemplary practice
for educators. The use of computing technology as part of the practice is crucial – since it
provides the key of association with the younger generation.
Figure 3 – Implications and outcomes of Piagetian stages of mental growth to the
development of computing technologies.
Stage
Ages
Features of LOGO and its associated computing technology suppo
to age and stage of development
Sensorimotor
Birth to age 2
Robot turtle provides a mechanical form to LOGO. The robot turtle can
execute LOGO commands.
Preoperational
Ages 2 to 7
The symbolic turtle in LOGO provides an intuitive model for learning.
Concrete
operational stage
Ages 7 to 12
The use of numbers and quantities in LOGO can guide the turtle and al
for visual association.
Formal
operational
Ages 12 to 15
The use of sub-procedures and variables greatly enhance the systematic
of background knowledge and predefined concepts.
Constructivist Theory (J. Bruner)
A major theme in the theoretical framework of Bruner is that learning is an active process
in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current/past
knowledge. The learner selects and transforms information, constructs hypotheses, and
makes decisions, relying on a cognitive structure to do so. Cognitive structure (i.e.,
schema, mental models) provides meaning and organization to experiences and allows
the individual to "go beyond the information given".
As far as instruction is concerned, the instructor should try and encourage students to
discover principles by themselves. The instructor and student should engage in an active
dialog (i.e., Socratic learning). The task of the instructor is to translate information to be
learned into a format appropriate to the learner's current state of understanding.
Curriculum should be organized in a spiral manner so that the student continually builds
upon what they have already learned.
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Bruner (1966) states that a theory of instruction should address four major aspects: (1)
predisposition towards learning, (2) the ways in which a body of knowledge can be
structured so that it can be most readily grasped by the learner, (3) the most effective
sequences in which to present material, and (4) the nature and pacing of rewards and
punishments. Good methods for structuring knowledge should result in simplifying,
generating new propositions, and increasing the manipulation of information.
In his more recent work, Bruner (1986, 1990) has expanded his theoretical framework to
encompass the social and cultural aspects of learning.
Scope/Application: Bruner's constructivist theory is a general framework for instruction
based upon the study of cognition. Much of the theory is linked to child development
research (especially Piaget ). The ideas outlined in Bruner (1960) originated from a
conference focused on science and math learning. Bruner illustrated his theory in the
context of mathematics and social science programs for young children (see Bruner,
1973). The original development of the framework for reasoning processes is described
in Bruner, Goodnow & Austin (1951). Bruner (1983) focuses on language learning in
young children.
Example:
This example is taken from Bruner (1973):
"The concept of prime numbers appears to be more readily
grasped when the child, through construction, discovers
that certain handfuls of beans cannot be laid out in
completed rows and columns. Such quantities have either
to be laid out in a single file or in an incomplete rowcolumn design in which there is always one extra or one
too few to fill the pattern. These patterns, the child learns,
happen to be called prime. It is easy for the child to go from
this step to the recognition that a multiple table, so called,
is a record sheet of quantities in completed multiple rows
and columns. Here is factoring, multiplication and primes
in a construction that can be visualized."
Principles:
1. Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and contexts that
make the student willing and able to learn (readiness).
2. Instruction must be structured so that it can be easily grasped by the
student (spiral organization).
3. Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and or fill
in the gaps (going beyond the information given).
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Model for Designing Constructivist Learning Environments – CLE’s
Model for Designing Constructivist Learning Environments (Jonassen, 1999)
Jonassen (1999) proposes a Constructivist Learning Environment (CLE) model with six
essential components. The model is illustrated and briefly explained as follows;
1. Question/Case/Problem/Project




The focus of any CLE is the question/issue/case/problem/project that learners
attempt to solve or resolve.
It constitutes the learning goal
The problem drives learning
CLEs can be constructed to support many types of learning
The key to learning is ownership of problem/learning goal; therefore, interesting, relevant,
engaging problems must be provided, for students to solve. These ill-defined/illstructured problems have the following characteristics;






Unstated goals/constraints
Multiple solutions/solution paths
Multiple criteria for evaluating solutions
Uncertainty about which concepts/rules/principles are necessary for solution
Offer no general rules/principles for describing/predicting outcome of cases
Require learners to make judgments re. problem and defend arguments
To identify problems for CLEs – ask “What do practitioners in this field do?” Problems
in CLEs must address three components:
Problem Context:

Performance Environment: Describe physical, socio-cultural, organizational
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
climate surrounding problem.
Community of Practitioners/Performers/Stakeholders: What are
values/beliefs/sociocultural expectations/customs of people involved.
Problem Representation/Simulation:


Problem must be authentic presenting cognitive challenges similar to those in real
world, personally relevant/interesting, etc.
Activity structures rely on socio-historical context of Activity Theory (Leontev,
1979): focuses on activities in which community members engage
Problem Manipulation Space:
Mindful activity is a critical characteristic of meaningful learning. Students cannot
assume ownership of problem unless they know they can affect problem in
meaningful way. Should provide a ‘phenomena’ (Perkins 1991). The Problem
Manipulation Space enables students to test effects of manipulation, receive feedback,
etc. Argumentation skills will indicate quality of domain knowledge possessed by the
learner.
2. Related Cases
“Understanding any problem requires experiencing it & constructing mental models of it.
What novice learners lack most are experiences". Related cases in CLEs support learning
in 2 ways;
Scaffold Student Memory:
Related cases scaffold/supplant memory by providing representations of experiences that
learners have not had. They provide referents for comparison (in place of student
experience). CBR argues that human knowledge is encoded as stories about experiences
and events (Schank, 1990). It is necessary to collect a set of cases that are representative
of the current one.
Enhance Cognitive Flexibility:
Multiple perspectives/themes/interpretations represent complexity of cases. Cognitive
Flexibility Theory provides multiple representations of content in order to convey the
complexity that is inherent in the knowledge domain.
3. Information Resources
Learners need information to construct mental models and formulate hypotheses that
drive the manipulation of the problem space – rich sources of information. Information
may be included in the problem representation, information banks and repositories (text
documents, graphics, sound resources, video and animations) Information should be
relevant and readily accessible.
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4. Cognitive (Construction) Tools
Identify the activity structures that are needed to solve the problem. Which of the
required skills are likely to be possessed by the learners? Cognitive tools are
generalizable computer tools that are intended to engage and facilitate specific kinds of
cognitive processing. Select from;
Problem/Task Representation Tools:
Visualization tools tend to be task-and domain specific – helping learners to construct
mental images. Mathlab is used to visually represent mathematical relationships.
Static & Dynamic Knowledge Modeling Tools:
Examples include databases, spreadsheets, semantic networks, expert systems,
hypermedia construction. Modeling tools provide knowledge representation formalisms.
Complex systems contain interactive and interdependent components (Stella/ PowerSim)
5. Conversation & Collaboration Tools
CLEs should provide access to shared information and shared knowledge building tools
to help learners collaboratively construct socially shared knowledge (thus forming
discourse Communities). Computer-Supported Intentional Learning Environments
(CSILEs) help students to produce knowledge databases which can be objectified –
represented in an overt form so it can be evaluated, examined for gaps/inadequacies,
revised, reformulated. (Scardamalia et al, 1994). CLEs can also support communities of
learners. When learners collaborate, they share the same goal, requiring shared decisionmaking, consensus building activities, etc.
6. Social/Contextual Support
Designers of CLEs must accommodate environmental and contextual factors affecting
implementation. (Physical, organizational, cultural aspects of the environment in which
the innovation was being implemented. Support and train students and teachers. CoVis
(Edelson et al 1996) supports teachers by sponsoring workshops and conferences – for
teachers to seek help from and establish consensus from researchers.
Supporting Learning in CLEs
Learning Activities
Exploration
Articulation
Reflection
Instructional Activities
Modeling
Coaching
Scaffolding
Exploration:
Its most important cognitive components are goal-setting and managing the pursuit of
goals, involving speculation, conjecture, manipulation of the environment, observation
and evidence gathering, drawing conclusions, etc.
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Modeling:

Behavioral modeling of the overt performance (demonstrates
how)

Cognitive modeling of the covert cognitive processes
(articulates reasoning)
Articulation:
CLEs require articulation (and reflection) one one’s learning experience
Coaching:
The role of a coach is complex and inexact. A good coach motivates, analyzes
performance, provides feedback and advice, provokes reflection. Coaching may be
solicited/unsolicited by the learner. Coaching activities;

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


Provide hints/helps
Prompt appropriate kinds of thinking
Prompt consideration of related cases
Prompt use of particular tools
Provide feedback
Provoke reflection
Perturb learner’s models (by embedding provoking questions)
Reflection:
Learners reflect on their own learning – processes and outcomes
Scaffolding:
Modeling is focused on expert’s performance. Coaching is focused on learner’s
performance. Scaffolding is a more systemic approach to supporting the learner. It
provides temporary frameworks to support learning and student performance. Scaffolding
represents any kind of support for cognitive activity that is provided by an adult when the
child and adult are performing the task together. In CLEs Scaffolding representing some
manipulation of the task by the system;
Adjust Task Difficulty (black-box scaffolding – Hmelo &

Guzdial, 1996)


Restructure a task to supplant knowledge (add cognitive tasks
to help representation of problem)
Provide Alternative Assessments (clearly communicate
project/problem requirements)
Articles

Reflections on Constructivism and Instructional Design by Brent G. Wilson
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Reflections on
Constructivism and Instructional Design
Brent G. Wilson
University of Colorado at Denver
To appear in
C. R. Dills and A. A. Romiszowski (Eds.),
Instructional Development Paradigms
Englewood Cliffs NJ: Educational Technology Publications.
To be published in March 1997. To order copies of this book, call 1-800-952BOOK.
The field of instructional design (ID) is in a state of rapid change. Recent expressions of
constructivist theorists (Bednar, Cunningham, Duffy, & Perry, 1991; Duffy & Jonassen,
1992) have engendered a lively debate. If our IT department is any indication, graduate
students across the nation are engaging their professors in heated discussions concerning
the fundamental models in our field, and how these models hold up to the constructivist
onslaught.
This is good. I feel better about the future of ID than I have since I was a graduate student
myself. For years, Dave Merrill has pled that more serious attention be given to the
development of ID theory. He finally seems to be getting his wish, but perhaps not the
result he anticipated. For a long time, thoughts about the nature of ID theory and its
practice have been fermenting in my mind. This chapter is a forum for developing some
of those thoughts and sharing them with a wider audience. The tone is personal because it
deals with underlying assumptions I have made in doing ID. In a way, the paper is a sort
of confessional-my tone and stance is much less temperate than in any of my previous
writing. Narrative forms of research are recently gaining esteem among educators and
social scientists (Polkinghorne, 1988; Connelly & Clandinin, 1990; Witherell &
Noddings, 1991); I ask you to consider this chapter a sort of narrative documentation of
my professional beliefs about ID.
A Short History--Why I Care About This
In the 15 years that I have been associated with instructional design, I have seen a gradual
but painful transition from behavioristic roots toward a broader theory base. As a
graduate student, I was privileged to have worked closely with David Merrill and Charles
Reigeluth at Brigham Young University, particularly in the development of elaboration
theory (Reigeluth, Merrill, Wilson, & Spiller, 1978, 1980). I bought into the field-its
theories, models, and aims-yet I always felt an ambivalence toward what I perceived as
cut-and-dried design prescriptions in areas that I felt so personally "mushy" about. My
respect for the complexity and difficulty of design decisions always made me hesitant
about explicit, canned procedures and models that were meant to answer all the
questions. I felt that ID lacked a sense of perspective or a sense of modesty toward the
awesome task of meeting people's learning needs. Recently I came across some old notes
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I had made, dated 15 March 1978, titled "Issues that still haven't been resolved in SSDP
(Structural Strategy Diagnostic Profile-the old name for elaboration theory). Excerpts of
those notes are reproduced in Table 1. Re-reading those notes reminded me that many of
the issues are still pertinent to today's discussion, including the nature of knowledge and
content, the role of context, parts versus wholes, and accommodation of alternative
structures. The task of adapting ID theories to address these issues still remains.
How do our ideas of structure relate to learning/ memory theorists' ideas about how memory is
organized? Mayer, Greeno, Ausubel, Kintsch, Craik & Tulving, Norman & Lindsey, Quillian &
Collins, McConkie, etc....
The problem of "segmentation": Are we sure the contents of a discipline can be broken down into
individual concepts, principles, etc.? What about what theorists call "verbal information,"
"meaningful verbal materials"-facts that are important to know but don't connect to any principles
directly.... Are we rather talking about a mere skeleton in our work, which, to be complete, needs
to be fleshed out by facts, details, context, etc.?....
It seems to me that there are certain kinds of content whose purposes do not admit to use of
synthesizers/epitomes or an elaborative approach. Narratives, for example, often have a dramatic
component, as if the teacher/author were telling a story. It would be senseless to let the cat out of
the bag prematurely simply to "stabilize" the content for the learner. An effective alternative (in
certain situations) is having the student on the edge of his seat waiting in suspense for what
happens next....
Bruner (1966) distinguishes between passive and active learning, between what we know and
what we do with what we know. How do these seemingly separable kinds of knowledge relate to
our scheme? Is true active learning on the rule-finding or rule-using level? Are procedures and
principles real problem-solving behaviors? Would Ausubel object that we devalue facts and
verbal information unnecessarily?....
Is 'content' defined as "What is," "What is presented to the student," or "What is expected to be
learned?"
Table 1. Excerpts from my notes on elaboration theory, circa 1978.
In the ID articles I have written since then, I have tried to steer a delicate balance between
being too accepting of the "received view" about ID and being too radical. I did not want
to lose my audience. My moderate tone sometimes belied the urge within to shout, "Waitdon't you see? We've got it wrong!" That urge was heightened by the recent comments of
an anonymous IT/SIG reviewer on a paper critiquing elaboration theory (Wilson & Cole,
1992):
You have put your finger on a fundamental difference in approaches taken by those who
believe that instruction can be designed to teach knowledge and those who believe that
knowledge is constructed by learners.... I would go so far to say that the two positions are
irreconcilable. If you accept what the "humanistic theorists" say, then you cannot simply
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revise [elaboration theory] in the ways you propose to make it fit in with these views.
You have to throw it out entirely!
I'm not as pessimistic about the possibility of reconciliation. In fact, that is a major theme
of this paper, that there can be a constructivist theory of instructional design. But I am
coming to believe that the best way to handle theoretical differences is not to be coy, not
to downplay problems, but to be honest and straightforward in criticism, and aggressive
in offering alternative design concepts. My experience has now started me to wondering
how many other professionals who, rather than confront their problems with the models,
have simply walked away from the problem by disengaging themselves from the models
or from the field.
On the Objectivist/Constructivist Debate
Rather than comprehensively examine the issue, I want to raise a few selected points.
Still, the central claims of constructivism should become apparent after reading this
section.
1. Constructivism is more a philosophy, not a strategy. In general, I reject the idea that a
particular instructional strategy is inherently constructivistic or objectivistic.
Constructivism is not an instructional strategy to be deployed under appropriate
conditions. Rather, constructivism is an underlying philosophy or way of seeing the
world. This way of seeing the world includes notions about:
--the nature of reality (mental representations have "real" ontological status just as the
"world out there" does)
--the nature of knowledge (it's individually constructed; it is inside people's minds, not
"out there")
--the nature of human interaction (we rely on shared or "negotiated" meanings, better
thought of as cooperative than authoritative or manipulative in nature)
--the nature of science (it is a meaning-making activity with the biases and filters
accompanying any human activity)
When we see the world in constructivist terms, we go about our jobs in a different way,
but the difference cannot be reduced to a discrete set of rules or techniques. Let me give
an example.
My son Joel recently turned eight, and for his birthday we presented him with a
computer-based math-drill game. He is a good math problem-solver-he likes to play with
numbers and invent routines-but because of a schooling mix-up; he is behind in
mastering his math facts. I essentially said, "Joel, this is a fun game you will enjoy; it will
also help you learn the addition and subtraction skills that you're a little behind in. It's no
big deal. You will be glad, because learning that stuff is something you want, too."
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Does my gift of a drill-and-practice program make me an objectivist? I deny that it does.
I also deny that I am violating my deeply held constructivist principles about people and
the way we learn. People do construct meaning from their experiences; learning should
be meaningful and derive from an authentic context; people should be allowed to pursue
individual learning goals. I believe that Joel has a pretty good idea of what the game is
doing for him, and the kind of fun he is deriving from it. As he chooses to make use of
the game, he is actively constructing meaning and new knowledge. Joel has plenty of
other opportunities to exercise his more creative talents; his use of the game is filling a
needed learning gap to meet the expectations and pace set by his school. He was much
happier in school two weeks later, when he aced the timed math test and came home to
tell us about it.
My point is that a given instructional strategy takes on meaning as it is used, in a
particular context. If I had tricked my son, "Joel, look at this computer game. It's better
than Nintendo!" and pretended that he was already great at his math facts, and that the
game had no bearing on his schooling, then I would have felt in violation of my
philosophy. So the same instructional technique can have vastly different meaning (and
effects) depending on its context of use.
Another example-a journal entry from Scott, a teacher in my Reflective Educator class
last semester:
Third hour composition I went to a seating chart, the first time I've done that here. I
caught them as they came in and told them where to sit. Great improvement. Everyone
working hard on their papers....I sense the students are relieved that I've imposed more
structure.
Scott teaches at an alternative high school. His philosophy, as expressed in journal
entries, class contributions, and teaching methods, is definitely constructivistic and antiauthoritarian. Yet imposing a seating chart on a class is a clear act of asserting
authoritative control and imposing structure. Is Scott betraying his principles, or can an
ostensibly "objectivist" instructional technique actually serve his constructivist learning
and teaching goals? The students' answer to that is clear: they welcome the new
arrangement and view it as supporting their own learning goals.
Too often, constructivism is equated with low structure and permissiveness-imposing
predefined learning goals or a learning method is somehow interfering with students'
construction of meaning. In extreme cases, that may be true. Yet to help students become
creative, some kind of discipline and structure must be provided. Laurel (1991) cites
Rollo May (1975), who makes this point very well:
Creativity arises out of the tension between spontaneity and limitations, the latter (like
river banks) forcing the spontaneity into the various forms which are essential to the work
of art....The significance of limits in art is seen most clearly when we consider the
question of form. Form provides the essential boundaries and structure for the creative
act. (quoted in Laurel, 1991, p. 101)
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In other words, an instructional strategy that imposes structure may actually help learners
make constructions needed for learning. Joel's computer game or Scott's seating chart
may be hindering or serving constructivist learning goals. You can't tell by looking only
at the strategy; you have to look at the entire situation and make a judgment. That is the
role of the teacher or instructional designer-to make professional judgments about such
things.
2. You don't have to be a philosopher to take a position. Among the contributors to Duffy
& Jonassen (1992), originally appearing in the May and September 1991 issues of
Educational Technology, Perkins and Cunningham have considerable training in
philosophy, but to my knowledge the remaining writers are, like you and me, relative
novices in that domain. Our interest in these issues derives from a desire to do the right
thing, to be knowledgeable about sources of bias and damaging assumptions we can
make in our work. I hope that practitioners and researchers do not defer to the "experts"
on issues so central to defining the field. At the same time, I am busy trying to expand my
breadth and knowledge base about philosophy. As I read more Schön, more Bruner, and
more postmodern philosophy, my perspective toward ID is necessarily influenced. That
change in perception is for the good; I like the feeling that I am growing in my
understanding of the meaning of my field. (And I confess I tend to grow impatient with
fellow researchers who show no inclination to broaden their understanding of the issues
squarely facing the field.)
3. Nobody I know admits to being an objectivist. Objectivism, in the context of the debate
within instructional design, is not a true philosophy; rather, as Molenda (1991) points out,
it is primarily a pejorative label given by constructivists to the offending others (Johnson,
1984; Lakoff, 1987; Bruner, 1986). That fact alone is enough cause to worry. It's hard to
talk seriously about a philosophical position that no one admits to. This goes for
caricatures made by both ideological sides of the dialogue. Very few people hold radical
positions of either persuasion.
Please note that my complaint has to do with labels and descriptions; there are many
people who may not call themselves objectivists, but whose way of seeing may be very
different from a constructivist perspective. Philosophers holding this more traditional
view of the world call themselves realists (House, 1991; H. Putnam, 1990). To my
understanding, realists do believe there is a "reality" out there, and that the quality of
mental representations can be judged by their correspondence to that reality. This
"correspondence theory of truth" is one of the many issues hotly debated by philosophers.
If they can disagree about it, I imagine the rest of us can as well.
The cross-talking going back and forth about constructivism reminds me of an anecdote
from Readers Digest (Safire, 1991) about a Florida politician, asked to take a position on
a county option to permit the sale of liquor:
"If by whiskey, you mean the water of life that cheers men's souls, that smoothes out the
tensions of the day, that gives gentle perspective to one's view of life, then put my name
on the list of the fervent wets.
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"But if by whiskey, you mean the devil's brew that rends families, destroys careers and
ruins one's ability to work, then count me in the ranks of the dries." (p. 14)
Similarly, if by constructivism you mean the solipsism and subjectivism portrayed by
Merrill or Molenda, then I am a strident opponent. But if by constructivism you refer to
the moderate philosophy of a Cunningham or a Perkins, then count me in as a
constructivist.
4. Neither side is right. I am suspicious of simple dichotomies like the idea that reality is
either inside or outside of the mind. The analogy implicit in such claims is that the mind
is like a box (Heidegger, 1984; Faulconer & Williams, 1990). Inside the box are
reflections of what lies outside. Martin Heidegger's ontology rejects the box metaphor of
mind, and the inner/outer dualism that goes with it (see Faulconer & Williams, 1990;
Dreyfus, 1991; Winograd & Flores, 1986).
Rather than accepting the metaphor of the box, with the human subject walled off from
the nonhuman, objective world, Heidegger's analysis leads to the conclusion that human
being is already being-in-the-world. There is no inside walled off from the outside.
(Faulconer & Williams, p. 46)
According to Heidegger, the starting point is recognizing that we simply are in the world,
working, acting, doing things. Turning Descartes' famous maxim on its head, the motto
becomes "I am [in the world]; therefore I think."
On this view, individual cognition is dethroned as the center of the universe and placed
back into the context of being part of the world. This philosophy is reminiscent of the
socially oriented, connected ways of knowing found among women by Belencky and
colleagues (Belenky, Clinchy, Goldberger, & Tarule, 1986). I am attracted to such
holistic conceptions of the world, even if my understanding of the philosophy is still
incomplete (see Polkinghorne, 1990 for a good, short introduction to many of the issues).
My reading is enough to make me suspect that much of the objective/constructive debate
is based on the wrong questions.
Implications for Design Theories
In this section, I turn to the more difficult issue of articulating implications of a
constructivist philosophy for doing instructional design. But first I discuss the notion of
an ID theory, and how it relates to professional practice.
What is Instructional-Design Theory?
Traditionally, ID theories are seen as prescriptive in the sense that
--they provide recipes or heuristics for doing designs, and
--they also specify how end-product instruction should look.
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Thus in both a product and a process sense, ID theories serve as guides to professional
practice. Conceptually, ID theories are much closer to engineering than to science. They
are about how to get something done, how to design a solution, not about how the world
is. In that sense, they are really less theories and more models for action, for problem
solving.
Such design theories may be based on a lot of hot air, or they may have some validity.
What kind of knowledge base are these theories built on? Several forms of knowledge
may contribute to an ID model, including:
--scientific knowledge of learning and related sciences;
--craft knowledge of effective design, based more on teaching practices than on formal
scientific research;
--idiosyncratic knowledge about instruction unique to the ID profession, untested by
formal research yet functionally important to ID practice.
Reigeluth (1983a) has outlined a prescriptive framework for embodying this knowledge.
A series of rules are developed connecting existing conditions, desired outcomes, and
recommended methods to instrumentally obtain those outcomes. For example, if your
learners are new to a concept and you want them to learn it at an application level, then
you might present a statement of the definition followed by examples and practice
opportunities to classify new cases. An ID theory builds a collection of similar IF-THEN
rules; designers are then supposed to apply these rules to their various situations.
This is a fairly technical view of design activity. Schön (1983, 1987), in fact, refers to
exactly this type of thinking as technical rationality.
From the perspective of technical rationality...a competent practitioner is always
concerned with instrumental problems. She searches for the means best suited to the
achievement of fixed, unambiguous ends...and her effectiveness is measured by her
success in finding...the actions that produce the intended effects consistent with her
objectives. In this view, professional competence consists in the application of theories
and techniques derived from systematic, preferably scientific research to the solution of
the instrumental problems of practice. (Schön, 1987, p. 33)
Schön's technical rationality looks a lot like Reigeluth's conditions-outcomes-methods
framework. Schön does not deny that some problems encountered are routine ones that
relate to the rules and concepts of the discipline. However, professionals go far beyond
technical rationality when they encounter novel problems:
There are also unfamiliar situations where the problem is not initially clear and there is
no obvious fit between the characteristics of the situation and the available body of
theories and techniques. It is common, in these types of situations, to speak of "thinking
like a doctor"-or lawyer or manager [or instructional designer!]....
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We would recognize as a limiting case the situations in which it is possible to make a
routine application of existing rules and procedures....Beyond these situations, familiar
rules, theories, and techniques are put to work in concrete instances through the
intermediary of an art that consists in a limited form of reflection-in-action. And beyond
these, we would recognize cases of problematic diagnosis in which practitioners not only
follow rules of inquiry but also sometimes respond to surprising findings by inventing
new rules, on the spot. (Schön, 1987, p. 35)
Technical rationality suggests a clear demarcation between theory and practice, with
categories of basic knowledge, applied knowledge, and practice. Theory is what gets
written in textbooks and professional journals, while practice tends to be mistrusted since
practitioners never have the good sense to apply theory correctly. On the other hand,
Schön's reflective practitioner model blurs the line between theory and research,
suggesting that practitioners embody personal theories of practice, and often assume a
kind of research stance toward their work (see also Winn, 1990). Schön makes clear the
philosophical basis of his view of practice:
[T]he practitioner [is] constructing situations of his practice, not only in the exercise of
professional artistry but also in all other modes of professional competence....[O]ur
perceptions, appreciations, and beliefs are rooted in worlds of our own making that we
come to accept as reality. (Schön, 1987, p. 36; italics added)
In contrast,
technical rationality rests on an objectivist view of the relation of the knowing
practitioner to the reality he knows. On this view, facts are what they are, and the truth of
beliefs is strictly testable by reference to them. All meaningful disagreements are
resolvable, at least in principle, by reference to the facts. And professional knowledge
rests on a foundation of facts. (p. 36)
Thus Schön is setting certain conditions for a constructivist model of instructional design.
If you buy into a constructivist idea of the world, learners become active creators of
meaning (and teachers to others), and teachers are continual learners.
Communities of practitioners are continually engaged in what Nelson Goodman (1978)
calls "world making." Through countless acts of attention and inattention, naming, sense
making, boundary setting, and control, they make and maintain the worlds matched to
their professional knowledge and know-how.... When practitioners respond to the
indeterminate zones of practice by holding a reflective conversation with the materials of
their situations, they remake a part of their practice world and thereby reveal the usually
tacit processes of world making that underlie all of their practice. (Schön, 1987, p. 36)
I have cited Schön heavily because I am convinced that we need to rethink the roles of
formal ID theory and of the ID practitioner. Schön's model is not complete-for example;
he does not pursue the ethical/moral dimensions of professional decision-making in an
institutional context. But his views serve as a valuable starting point for discussion.
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The expert/novice literature within cognitive psychology reaches similar conclusions
about the nature of expertise. Researchers have found that expertise is
--largely intuitive and inaccessible to direct reflection (e.g., Bloom, 1986)
--more pattern matching than rule-following (Suchman, 1987, Bereiter, 1991)
--more qualitative than quantitative (White & Frederiksen, 1986)
--highly context- and domain-dependent (Brandt, 1988-89).
Such a view of expertise seems also to fit the field of ID. We know that professional
designers are highly flexible and adaptive in applying their knowledge to working
problems (Nelson & Orey, 1991; Thiagarajan, 1976; Nelson, Magliaro, & Sherman,
1988); moreover, instead of applying formal theories in a rote, straightforward way,
many practitioners regularly cut corners, combine models and ideas, and develop their
own idiosyncratic approaches (Tessmer & Wedman, 1992; Wedman & Tessmer, 1990).
With this view of ID expertise, the precise role of traditional ID theory is left in question.
If ID theories are not descriptive science, and not a set of rules to be unambiguously
applied to problems, then what are they and what value do they have?
One possibility is that the recipes contained in ID theories may have some value to
novice designers. R. Putnam (1991) found that when learning a complex subject, novices
tended to grasp onto formulas and recipes to support initial performance, then changed
their use of the recipes as they gained expertise. The main problem with this rationale,
though, is that ID theories are not formulated as simple recipes; they are not easy-to-use
"hooks" into a subject. Rather, ID theories are typically represented as formal, technicalsounding systems with extensive jargon, big words, and acronyms. The ID theory papers
I have read are anything but a support to novices. ID theories are written as though they
were serious science; novices would require another type of representation altogether to
support their initial learning needs.
Another possibility is that ID theories are not really meant to be used by human designers
in normal situations, but rather are best suited to computer-based training and automated
instructional design. This possibility is much more promising, even though both Gagné
and Merrill have denied the need for separate formulations of ID theory for computers
and traditional media (Gagné, 1988; Merrill, 1988). Of course, there is still the question
of whether theorists can successfully represent design knowledge with computers. It may
turn out that the IF-THEN rule approach to design may be unable to capture true design
expertise. This is, however, an empirical question worthy of continued investigation.
In summary, ID theory, with its prescriptive orientation toward both procedure and
product, lies in conceptual limbo. Its role and status remain unclear in light of
cognitive/constructivist views on expertise and professional problem solving. In spite of
these difficulties, I believe at this time that there can be such a thing as a constructivist
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theory of instruction. At the paper's conclusion, I will recommend several changes to
revitalize ID theory and its place within practice and within the discipline.
The Cooperative Metaphor
Ken Komoski, director of the EPIE Institute-a "consumers union" for educators-raised an
issue a few years ago that has continued to affect my views. Citing Buchanan's (1963)
study of ancient Greek and medieval thought, Komoski suggested that technologies can
be divided into two distinct groups, the first being called "exploitative" technologies:
In the first group are the arts practiced on matter and on the many things and forces found
in nature. These arts, such as sculpture, agriculture, hydrology, painting, carpentry,
cooking, etc., are arts in which "the form in the artist's mind...could be impressed on the
matter...which could be fashioned and formed [Buchanan, 1963]." [O]ur uses of all
technologies have been-and continue to be-influenced by this view of "technology as a
system of exploitation." (Komoski, 1987, p. 9; italics removed)
The second group constitutes the "cooperative" technologies because they require the
cooperation of the "object" being worked with. Cooperative technologies are:
those arts "practiced on human beings, who also have artistic capacities." In humans there
are "natural processes which if left to themselves might accomplish their ends, but if
aided by the professional would accomplish their ends more easily and more fully.
Medicine and teaching were the frequently discussed examples of such arts. They were
called cooperative arts because they were understood to be cooperating with rational
natures." The physician who gains the cooperation and confidence of patients, and the
teacher who gains the willing cooperation of students, are much more apt to end up with
healthy patients and competent learners than those doctors and educators who fail to gain
such cooperation. (Komoski, 1987, p. 9)
Komoski notes that "it is the exploitative technologies, with their undeniable and
demonstrable efficiency and effectiveness, that have shaped our thinking about, and our
practices of, all technologies-including those such as medicine and teaching that,
presumably, function more effectively when practiced as cooperative technologies"
(Komoski, 1987, pp. 9-10; see also Mumford's [1967] distinction between authoritarian
and democratic technologies).
It would be an interesting exercise to classify various known educational technologies on
the exploitative/cooperative continuum. Where would ID theories fall? From the standard
conceptualization, I am afraid it falls too neatly into the exploitative category, with
attendant consequences. The despised factory model of schools has a close cousin in the
machine model of ID. The content of current ID theories also belies this orientation. In
Reigeluth's green book (Reigeluth, 1983b), only the Gagné chapter and Keller's ARCS
chapter treat student attitudes in any lengthy way. ID's manipulative bent is ironic, given
the recent emphasis on working with schools and teachers in restructuring initiatives
(e.g., Banathy, 1991) and on cognitive apprenticeships (e.g., Wilson & Cole, 1991). We
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clearly need more cooperative metaphors and rhetoric in our ID literature. I raise this
point because an exploitative view of learning technology bears a strong similarity to
objectivist views. A cooperative view of technology leaves open the possibility for a
constructivist orientation.
Task/Content Analysis and the Nature of Knowledge
Does all learned (or taught) knowledge have to be pre-analyzed? Of course not. There is
much learned within any instructional environment that goes far beyond the instructional
objectives. Curriculum theorists and media critics have been making that point for years
(Hidden curriculum reference; Hlynka & Belland, 1991). Yet ID theorists and
practitioners give every indication that their method of slicing up the world is the method,
and that the content resulting from their analysis is the content to be taught to students.
More than anything else, this aspect of ID theories has troubled me (see Wilson & Cole,
1992 for a similar discussion).
Eisner (1988) puts the counter argument succinctly in an abstract to a paper:
Knowledge is rooted in experience and requires a form for its representation. Since all
forms of representation constrain what can be represented, they can only partially
represent what we know. Forms of representation not only constrain representation, they
limit what we seek. As a result, socialization in method is a process that shapes what we
can know and influences what we value. At base, it is a political undertaking. (p. 15)
In other words, the conceptual schemes we apply to the world constrain that world.
Similarly, the schemes instructional designers apply to content constrain and shape that
content, necessarily distorting it to fit our preconceived notions. If by some chance the
educational community were to agree on knowledge categories, then we might have some
basis for using those consensual categories in content and task analyses. But educators do
not agree. Alexander, Schallert, and Hare (1991), in a recent review, found 25 distinct
knowledge types cited in the educational literature on language and cognition. And that
article was an attempt to simplify the problem!
If our knowledge categories are faulty (which they are), then how can we design adequate
instruction? A short answer is, don't make the quality of your instruction rise or fall on
the quality of your analysis. There is more to instructional design than analysis.
Bunderson made essentially the same point years ago in his discussion of the "lexical
loop" (Bunderson, Gibbons, Olsen, & Kearsley, 1981). The lexical loop refers to the
parade of print-to-print translations we put content through as part of a traditional design
process, beginning with needs and content analyses and ending in paper-based tests (see
Table 2). As an alternative, Bunderson proposed a series of qualitative "work models"
progressing in difficulty and fidelity to the target setting. These work models or learning
environments are highly reminiscent of White and Frederiksen's (1986) progression of
practice environments based on careful cognitive task analysis of mental models; I
believe that such analyses remain highly relevant to the design of instruction, particularly
multimedia products.
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Knowledge of the Master
Work Models
Master performance is documented
through multiple media.
The Lexical Loop
Translation to goal statements
through goal/job analysis.
Work models are designed of
progressively increasing difficulty.
-Learning environments simulate
Translation to objectives list through real-life environments.
task analysis.
-Students practice holistic as well
as parts skills.
Translation to print-based tests
through test item technologies.
Translation to print-based media
using text-design principles.
Student expected to transfer text
material into skills of the master.
-Authentic tools are available.
-Info can be accessed through job
aids, help systems, and other
resources.
-Coaching, mentoring, and peer
consultation is available as needed.
Students complete work models
(Actually, negligible transfer occurs 1...n.
to everyday life.)
Student demonstrates master's
knowledge/skill in real-life
performance environment.
Knowledge of the Master
Table 2. Two paths from mastery to mastery (derived from Bunderson, et al., 1981, p.
206).
The role I am advocating for analysis is fairly modest. Analysis provides an overall
framework for instruction, and provides extra help on some tricky parts, such as
identifying likely misconceptions or previous knowledge that may undercut students'
efforts to understand the content. The role of the designer is then to design a series of
experiences-interactions or environments or products-intended to help students learn
effectively. Neither the instruction nor the assessment of learning can be as confidently
dictated as thought to be possible in the past. But the important point to keep in mind is
that the design role is not lost in such a revised system; the design still happens, only it's
less analytical, more holistic, more reliant on the cooperation of teachers and materials
and learners to generously fill in the gaps left gaping by the limitations of our analytical
tools. Instruction thus construed becomes much more integrally connected to the context
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and the surrounding culture. ID thus becomes more truly systemic in the sense that it is
highly sensitive to the conditions of use.
In summary, no matter whose 2X3 scheme you use, the world doesn't always fit such neat
epistemological categories. Force-fitting people's expertise into ID taxonomies
sometimes can do more harm than good. My recommended alternative is not to throw
away the taxonomies entirely, but simply too:
1. admit the tentativeness of any conceptual scheme applied to content
2. realize that no matter how thorough the task-analysis net, it doesn't come close to
capturing true expertise;
3. realize that since content representation is so tentative, designed instruction should
offer holistic, information-rich experiences, allowing opportunities for mastery of unanalyzed content;
4. always allow for a lack of fit between the conceptual scheme and any given content;
5. realize that the very points of lack of fit can be the most critical to understanding that
content area;
6. always be on the lookout for those critical points of idiosyncratic content demands.
Viewed in such a way, content analysis is less a leveling exercise and more an
exploration of the terrain; noting and even exploiting rough spots. Rules, verbal
information, and other such categories cease to have such literal epistemological status,
and become mere tools in the design process. The change is largely one of attitude and
stance. I personally do not write behavioral, typed objectives anymore unless required by
the sponsoring agency. I try not to teach each content type separately (i.e., verbage apart
from skills). Rather, I do what Gagné and Merrill (1990) have advocated: I try to
combine all the learning outcomes into problem-solving instruction. There are a variety
of possible strategies to address this problem, ranging from conservative to radical. All,
however, should be able to fit within a constructivistic ID framework.
The Mystery of Expertise
A constructivist view of knowledge leads to another dilemma central to the ID process:
Subject matter experts know the content best but often have least access to it.
Because expert knowledge gets automatized, conscious representation typically drops out
of the picture.
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The corollary is just as disturbing:
To go beyond routine mediocre rule-based ID, a designer needs to know content deeply.
Shulman (1987) talks about the many kinds of sophisticated knowledge required of
teachers. In addition to knowing the content, they must know how to teach it. This
typically does not come automatically, but only after years of teaching the same subject
(Berliner, 1986). Designers who script instruction from a newly acquired, superficial
content knowledge cannot be expected to find just the right analogy, just the right way of
approaching a topic. They do have an advantage over the non-teaching expert in that their
understanding of the subject is freshly acquired; that means they have greater access to
strategies that worked for them. But this advantage applies only to initial learning levels:
Once instruction moves to non-elementary tasks, the designer is on more wobbly ground
and lacks the insight needed to create the best teaching methods (if such a thing indeed
exists). Falling back on known design concepts is not the optimal design solution, but
becomes a means of only resort in such situations.
Together, these two problems pose a formidable paradox for ID: The people who know
the subject best often can't relate to the learner, while the designer, with a good general
schema for teaching and a closer feel for the learner's needs, doesn't have a feel for the
subtleties of the content and is thus left to deal in superficials.
The role of the knowledge engineer-the designer's counterpart in AI-is a subject of
continuing debate (e.g., Winograd & Flores, 1986; Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986); thus I am
surprised that the designer/SME relationship is not more controversial than it is. We
should be asking the same tough questions of designers that we ask of AI knowledge
engineers: Where does the expertise really come from? What is lost in the translation?
Are IF-THEN rules sufficient to characterize expertise, or do we need a neural network?
Can expertise be digitally represented? How can we make use of a greater variety of
representation forms in our designs? (See the chapter by Dreyfus and Dreyfus, this book.)
The standard metaphor for the designer/SME relationship is extraction: The designer has
good people skills, asks the right questions, pushes the right buttons, and presto!-out
comes the expertise, on paper no less. But of course things cannot be so simple. The level
of communication between SME and designer needs to move beyond superficialities;
somewhere between the two of them there must occur a synthesis of meaning; the design
process must be deeply collaborative for good design to occur. I personally don't know
how this happens. It remains a mystery.
Instructional Strategies
ID needs a richer language, a deeper conceptual framework for classifying instructional
strategies. While this is not the place for such an effort, I have sketched out in Table 3 a
number of instructional strategies that seem to facilitate more active construction of
meaning (see also Wilson & Cole, 1991).
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Simulations
Strategy and role-playing games
Toolkits and phenomenaria
Multimedia learning environments
Intentional learning environments
Storytelling structures
Case studies
Socratic dialogues
Coaching and scaffolding
Learning by design
Learn by teaching
Group, cooperative, collaborative learning
Holistic psychotechnologies
Table 3. A sampling of alternative instructional strategies.
A defender of traditional ID could suggest that our present theory base already contains
prescriptions for designing all of the above. I would only counter that each of the above
strategies deserves its own mini-design model, and that many traditional design concepts
seem only to get in the way. It seems ludicrous, for example, to discuss simulation design
using terms such as "expository," "inquisitory," "synthesizer," and "summarizer." A new
framework and accompanying language is needed.
Student Assessment
Shepard (1991) recently reported some interesting findings about psychometricians'
beliefs. About half of those surveyed believe in close alignment of tests and instruction
and careful, focused teaching of tested content. Shepard argues, however, that such
beliefs correspond to a "behaviorist learning theory, which requires sequential mastery of
constituent skills and explicit testing of each learning step" (p. 2). She argues for a
constructivist alternative that emphasizes more authentic methods of assessment such as
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interviewing, observations, and holistic task performances (see Perrone, 1991; Linn,
Baker, & Dunbar, 1991).
Jonassen (1991a) takes what I consider to be a more radical stance towards assessment,
extending Scriven's (1973) notion of goal-free program evaluation to the goal-free
assessment of student outcomes.
Constructivistic outcomes may be better judged by goal-free evaluation methodologies. If
specific goals are known before the learning process begins, the learning process as well
as the evaluation would be biased....Criterion-referenced instruction and evaluation are
prototypic objectivist constructs and therefore not [sufficient] for constructivistic
environments. (p. 29; change based on Jonassen, 1991b)
I take exception to Jonassen's position for reasons I discuss below, but I am ambivalent
about the general issue of assessment. Surely ID theory makes assumptions that make
some people feel uncomfortable, for example, that instruction is purposive and goaldirected, and that attainment of those goals can be assessed. I believe these assumptions
can be wholly compatible with a constructivist philosophy; here I differ with Jonassen.
And certainly, assessment need not go to the extreme of being goal-free. It seems that a
key question to ask is, "Does the test performance require all of the contextualized
reasoning and performing that the target performance would require?" (Frederiksen &
Collins, 1989). The question is one of fidelity and validity, not of goal-directedness.
I do not have a problem with the idea of goal-directedness and measurement, but I do
have a problem with how it is often done. A true mastery model with micro levels of
assessment would only be appropriate with highly defined technical content; I believe
that such methods would rarely be appropriate in public schools, though somewhat more
often in training settings. Instructional designers in both school and corporate settings
feel the need for better assessment methods that can be more fully integrated into their
performance and instructional systems. I have not sorted out all the issues; I raise the
question because of its clear importance to the field and to society at large. I continue to
believe that improved assessment methods can be developed that is more consistent with
a constructivist framework.
Concluding Thoughts
The central issue of this paper is this: Is a constructivist theory of instructional design
possible? And if so, what might be it be like? In typical backwards fashion, let me return
to the question of the nature of ID theory by defining terms.
Instruction-teacher(s) and student(s) in interaction trying to learn something. Together
they form an instructional subsystem within a larger system and community.
Design- "the process by which things are made...designers make representations of things
to be built" (Schön, 1990, p. 110). Design is always done within constraints.
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Constraints inherent in the design of instruction include:
a. Some situations don't even have teachers per se. Thus the teacher may be broadly
thought of as the guiding agent, directing the learner toward accomplishing the goals of
instruction. Learners themselves often function in the teacher role, as do instructional
materials and programs.
b. Designers can usually exert more direct influence on the teacher side than on the
learner side of the instructional system. At the same time, designers ignore considerations
of the learner at their peril.
c. Designers can usually exert more direct influence over materials and tools than over
the interaction between learners and teachers.
d. At the same time, the nature of the precise interaction between learners and teachers is
at the heart of understanding instruction.
These constraints pose dilemmas for constructivist designers. As much as we may like to
focus on individual learners' cognitions, often our access is extremely indirect and
limited. This also helps to explain why ID is often a goal-based, stimulus-design oriented
endeavor, working within a noisy system that is near chaos. It is no wonder that we get
no respect; my response to critics who think we should get entirely out of such a messy
business is, "If we didn't do it, somebody else would. Practitioners of ID need somewhere
they can turn to, and our theories are as good as the next guy's." (I am actually serious
about this.)
I have become convinced that a field is largely shaped by the central questions it puts for
itself. In the case of ID, the questions are tough; there are no good answers, the best we
can do is put forth some best guesses. We pay attention to stimulus design (a dirty word
among cognitivists) because we have no choice. We prescribe general principles of
message and interface design because those are aspects of the instructional system that lie
somewhat within our power to influence. For good reasons we tend to get beat up by
cognitivists, constructivists, and humanists; yes, it's a dirty job, but somebody's got to do
it!
The next generation of ID theory needs to better fit the needs of the practitioner:
ID theories need to be thoroughly grounded in a broad understanding of learning and
instructional processes. That foundation needs to be continually evaluated and revised.
We need more modest principles that designers can flexibly apply. These principles
should be generic and principle-based in order to be relevant to the wide variety of
situations encountered in everyday practice.
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In addition to generic principles, we need specific heuristics for dealing with recurring
problems and situations in ID practice. In particular, heuristics should be developed that
are sensitive to:
-setting (schools, business, museums, etc.),
-media (computer, instructor-led, workbook, etc.),
-product type (stand-alone product, program, system, etc.),
-resources (time, money, constraints).
ID theories need to reflect a view of ID as a profession. Designers need sophisticated
schemas of design that go beyond the "technically rational" models presently available.
Students should be encouraged to develop personal models of action through extensive
practice in authentic settings with coaching and opportunities for reflection. (Note the
theme of reflection running through students, teachers, and designers.)
Let me conclude by drawing a parallel with a couple of other disciplines, lest we think
that we're alone in this chaotic science of design. Artificial intelligence right now is
facing some of the same crises we are confronting. So is the field of human/computer
interface design. Both of these fields have a strong tie to learning and cognitive
psychology. Both rely heavily (at least in theory) on user testing and field validation.
Old-time AI theorists presently are being challenged by connectionists, who believe that
parallel processing via neural networks is a more promising way to go than symbolic
manipulation of IF-THEN rules. The controversy goes beyond symbolic versus
networked processing. A growing number of AI researchers have lost faith in traditional
views of the representability of knowledge; the "situated" movement within AI goes so
far as to deny that knowledge is a structure, and that memory is anything more than
process (Clancey, 1991; Brooks, 1991). The field of interface design is going through
similar growing pains, moving from a screen-design view of the field to a global, holistic
view of the entire human experience with computers (Laurel, 1990; 1991). This revised
view of interface design has more to do with human activity than with icons, buttons, and
windows, more with dramatic metaphors, agents, and virtual worlds.
I don't doubt that AI will be around in twenty years. Nor do I doubt that people will still
be studying how computers and humans work together. The theories and concepts may
change, but the basic questions are still there; they cannot be ignored. Likewise, ID will
not go away; this is because the questions behind the field are genuine questions. The
challenge for ID theorists is to continue to adjust our theories, or to replace them with
better ones. The goal is to make our theories worthy of the questions.
Author Notes
This paper is based on a talk I gave to the Instructional Science Department, Brigham
Young University, 4 December 1991. I wish to thank Peggy Cole, David Jonassen, and
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Lyn Taylor for comments on an early draft. Thanks also to students and faculty of
Brigham Young University-in particular Jane Birch and Rob Boody-for their stimulating
comments on the issues addressed. An earlier version of this chapter is published in the
1993 AECT Research Proceedings, edited by Michael Simonson. Please send inquiries to
Brent Wilson, University of Colorado at Denver, Campus Box 106, P.O. Box 173364,
Denver CO 80217-3364 (bwilson@carbon.cudenver.edu).
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Postmodernism
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Post-modern. A way of thinking which celebrates the multiple, the temporal, and
the complex over the modern search for the universal, the stable, and the simple;
related concepts include: break up, irony, and violent juxtaposition; emphasis on
open (not closed) systems; use of multiple theories and alternative design
paradigms: aesthetic models, focus on the complexities, consideration of
transformation and radical change rather than cumulative change (application of
chaos theory).
In a post-modern world, education must celebrate diversity, placing control of
learning objectives into the hands of the individual student. Education must be
relevant and interactive, responding to each student's experience of the world.
Students must be empowered to deconstruct existing ideologies and to construct
new value-systems based on their own, unique perceptions. Teachers must reward
lateral thinking. They must encourage and exploration of alternative styles of
learning. This has proved to be a tall order for educators to fill, hampered as they
are by a long tradition of linear thinking, reductionism, centralized curriculum
planning and behaviourist approaches to teaching.
Postmodernism by its very name defines itself over and against another
movement, modernism. Modernism is best thought of as the philosophical
underpinning of modern science and society since the sixteenth century, and in
particular the assumption that there is an objective reality independent of what
anyone thinks, and so there is a single true way that things are, the truth. On top of
this is the modernist confidence that we humans are able to some extent to know
this truth. Postmodernism denies these assumptions.
So what does it mean to deny that there is a single true way that things are? The
easiest example to understand is aesthetics. When one person says that a painting
is good, and another says the same painting is no good, we are not surprised,
because we are familiar with the idea that beauty is in the eye of the beholder. If
so, that means we don't think there is a single true answer to the question, is this
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painting beautiful? There are as many answers as there are beholders, and no-one
has the exclusive truth.
Many apply this thinking to morality. One person thinks that a particular action is
wrong, another thinks that it isn't wrong, and we shouldn't be surprised, they say.
Just as with beauty, so with morality. There's no single answer, no-one has the
exclusive truth. There is no single true answer to questions of right and wrong,
just many perspectives.
The same applies to religion, others say. There's no one single truth about God or
the divine. There are many different perspectives, and no-one can say that they
have the exclusive truth. There is no single true way that things are in the area of
religion.
Some say this also applies to science. They say that there is no single way of
looking at the natural world. There are many different theories and paradigms,
and no-one has a right to say that one is the single true way things are. There is no
single true account of the world, just many perspectives.
The same thing can be applied to any area of life. In history there is no single way
the world was, just many perspectives; in literature there is no single meaning of a
text, just many interpretations; and a similar story can be given in politics,
economics and so on.
Postmodernism takes this approach in all areas: there is no single true way things
really are, or at least, we are never justified in taking a view of the world that we
might have as being the single true way things really are.
Postmodernism was a movement in architecture that rejected the modernist,
avant-garde, passion for the new. Modernism is here understood in art and
architecture as the project of rejecting tradition in favor of going "where no man
has gone before" or better: to create forms for no other purpose than novelty.
Modernism was an exploration of possibilities and a perpetual search for
uniqueness and its cognate--individuality. Modernism's valorization of the new
was rejected by architectural postmodernism in the 50's and 60's for conservative
reasons. They wanted to maintain elements of modern utility while returning to
the reassuring classical forms of the past. The result of this was an ironic brick-abrack or collage approach to construction that combines several traditional styles
into one structure. As collage, meaning is found in combinations of already
created patterns.
Premodernism: Original meaning is possessed by authority (for example, the
Catholic Church). The individual is dominated by tradition.
Modernism: The enlightenment-humanist rejection of tradition and authority in
favor of reason and natural science. This is founded upon the assumption of the
autonomous individual as the sole source of meaning and truth--the Cartesian
cogito. Progress and novelty are valorized within a linear conception of history--a
history of a "real" world that becomes increasingly real or objectified. One could
view this as a Protestant mode of consciousness.
Postmodernism: A rejection of the sovereign autonomous individual with an
emphasis upon anarchic collective, anonymous experience. Collage, diversity, the
mystically unrepresentable, Dionysian passion are the foci of attention. Most
importantly we see the dissolution of distinctions, the merging of subject and
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object, self and other. This is a sarcastic playful parody of western modernity and
the "John Wayne" individual and a radical, anarchist rejection of all attempts to
define, reify or re-present the human subject.
Rita Richey and Marty Tessmer – Context in Learning
and Instructional Design (Handout for this section)
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Gary Morrison Models
The Four Components to Instructional Design, Kemp, Morrison
and Ross (1998)
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Kemp, Morrison and Ross Instructional Design Model
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Motivation Theory
Definition
The following definitions of motivation were gleaned from a variety of psychology
textbooks and reflect the general consensus that motivation is an internal state or
condition (sometimes described as a need, desire, or want) that serves to activate or
energize behavior and give it direction (see Kleinginna and Kleinginna, 1981a).
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internal state or condition that activates behavior and gives it direction;
desire or want that energizes and directs goal-oriented behavior;
influence of needs and desires on the intensity and direction of behavior.
Franken (1994) provides an additional component in his definition:

the arousal, direction, and persistence of behavior.
While still not widespread in terms of introductory psychology textbooks, many
researchers are now beginning to acknowledge that the factors that energize behavior are
likely different from the factors that provide for its persistence.
Importance of motivation
Most motivation theorists assume that motivation is involved in the performance of all
learned responses; that is, a learned behavior will not occur unless it is energized. The
major question among psychologists, in general, is whether motivation is a primary or
secondary influence on behavior. That is, are changes in behavior better explained by
principles of environmental/ecological influences, perception, memory, cognitive
development, emotion, explanatory style, or personality or are concepts unique to
motivation more pertinent.
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For example, we know that people respond to increasingly complex or novel events (or
stimuli) in the environment up to a point and then responses decrease. This inverted-Ushaped curve of behavior is well-known and widely acknowledged. However, the major
issue is one of explaining this phenomenon. Is this a conditioning (is the individual
behaving because of past classical or operant conditioning), a motivational process (from
an internal state of arousal), or is there some better explanation?
The relationship of motivation and emotion
Emotion (indefinite subjective sensation experienced as a state of arousal) is different
from motivation in that there is not necessarily a goal orientation affiliated with it as there
is with motivation. Emotions occur as a result of an interaction between perception of
environmental stimuli, neural/hormonal responses to these perceptions (often labeled
feelings), and subjective cognitive labeling of these feelings (Kleinginna and Kleinginna,
1981b). Evidence suggests there is a small core of core emotions (perhaps 6 or 8) that are
uniquely associated with a specific facial expression (Izard, 1990). This implies that there
are a small number of unique biological responses that are genetically hard-wired to
specific facial expressions. A further implication is that the process works in reverse: if
you want to change your feelings (i.e., your physiological functioning), you can do so by
changing your facial expression. That is, if you are motivated to change how you feel and
your feeling is associated with a specific facial expression, you can change that feeling by
purposively changing your facial expression. Since most of us would rather feel happy
than otherwise, the most appropriate facial expression would be a smile.
Explanations of influences/causes of arousal and direction may be different from
explanations of persistence
In general, explanations regarding the source(s) of motivation can be categorized as
either extrinsic (outside the person) or intrinsic (internal to the person). Intrinsic sources
and corresponding theories can be further subcategorized as either body/physical,
mind/mental or transpersonal/spiritual.
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In current literature, needs are now viewed as dispositions toward action (i.e., they create
an environment which is predisposed towards taking action or making a change and
moving in a certain direction). Action or overt behavior may be initiated by either
positive or negative incentives or a combination of both. The following chart provides a
brief overview of the different sources of motivation (internal state) that have been
studied. While initiation of action can be traced to each of these domains, it appears
likely that persistence may be more related to emotions and/or the affective area
(optimism vs. pessimism; self- esteem; etc.) or to conation and goal-orientation.
Sources of Motivational Needs
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behavioral/external
biological
affective
cognitive
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elicited by stimulus associated/ connected to
innately connected stimulus
obtain desired, pleasant consequences (rewards) or
escape/avoid undesired, unpleasant consequences
imitate positive models
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increase/decrease stimulation (arousal)
activate senses (taste, touch, smell, etc.
decrease hunger, thirst, discomfort, etc.
maintain homeostasis, balance
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increase/decrease affective dissonance
increase feeling good
decrease feeling bad
increase security of or decrease threats to selfesteem
maintain levels of optimism and enthusiasm
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maintain attention to something interesting or
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threatening
develop meaning or understanding
increase/decrease cognitive disequilibrium;
uncertainty
solve a problem or make a decision
figure something out
eliminate threat or risk
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meet individually developed/selected goal
obtain personal dream
take control of one's life
eliminate threats to meeting goal, obtaining dream
reduce others' control of one's life
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understand purpose of one's life
connect self to ultimate unknowns
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conative
spiritual
Theories of motivation
Many of the theories of motivation address issues introduced previously in these
materials. The following provides a brief overview to any terms or concepts that have not
been previously discussed.
Behavioral
Each of the major theoretical approaches in behavioral learning theory
posits a primary factor in motivation. Classical conditioning states the
biological responses to associated stimuli energize and direct behavior.
Operant learning states the primary factor is consequences: reinforcers are
incentives to increase behavior and punishers are disincentives that result
in a decrease in behavior. Social learning theory suggests that modeling
(imitating others) and vicarious learning (watching others have
consequences applied to their behavior) are important motivators of
behavior.
Cognitive
There are several motivational theories that trace their roots to the
information processing approach to learning. These approaches focus on
the categories and labels people use help to identify thoughts, emotions,
dispositions, and behaviors.
The first is cognitive dissonance theory, which is in some respects similar
to disequilibrium in Piaget's theory. This theory states that when there is a
discrepancy between two beliefs, actions or belief and action, we will act
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to resolve conflict and discrepancies. The implication is that if can create
the appropriate amount of disequilibrium this will in turn lead to the
individual changing his or her behavior which in turn will lead to a change
in thought patterns which in turn leads to more change in behavior.
A second cognitive approach is attribution theory, which proposes that
every individual tries to explain success or failure of self and others by
offering certain "attributions". These attributions are either internal or
external and are either under our control or not in our control. The
following chart shows the four attributions that result from a combination
of internal or external locus of control and whether or not control is
possible.
Internal
External
No Control
Ability
Luck
Control
Effort
Task Difficulty
A third cognitive approach is expectancy theory, which proposes the
following equation:
Motivation = Perceived Probability of Success * Value of Obtaining Goal
Since this formula states that the two factors of Perceived Probability and Value
are to be multiplied by each other, a low value in one will result in a low value of
motivation. Therefore, both must be present in order for motivation to occur.
Summary
To summarize the cognitive approaches, cognitive dissonance theory suggests that
we will seek balance or homeostasis in our lives and will resist influences or
expectations to change. How, then, does change or growth occur. One source,
according to Piaget, is biological development. As we mature cognitively we will
rework our thinking and organizations of knowledge (e.g., schemas, paradigms,
explanations) to more accurately reflect our understanding of the world. One of
those organizations involves our explanations or attributions of success or failure.
After puberty, when biological change slows down considerably, it is very
difficult to change these attributions. It requires a long-term program where
constant feedback is given about how one's behavior is responsible for one's
success.
Notice the relationship between William James' formula for self-esteem (Selfesteem = Success / Pretensions) and the attribution and expectancy theories of
motivation. If a person has an external attribution of success, self-concept is not
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likely to change as a result of success or failure because the person will attribute it
to external factors. Likewise, if the person has an Internal/Ability explanation, his
or her self-concept will be tied to learning to do a new activity quickly and easily
(I do well because I'm naturally good at it). If failure or difficulty occurs, the
person must quickly lower expectations in order to maintain self-esteem.
However, if the person has an Internal/Effort explanation and high expectations
for success, the person will persevere (i.e., stay motivated) in spite of temporary
setbacks because one's self-esteem is not tied to immediate success.
Psychoanalytic theories
The psychoanalytic theories of motivation propose a variety of fundamental
influences. Freud (1990) proposed that all action or behavior is a result of
internal, biological instincts that are classified into two categories: life (sexual)
and death (aggression). Many of Freud's students broke with him over this
concept. For example, Erikson (1993) and Sullivan (1968) proposed that
interpersonal and social relationships are fundamental; Adler (1989) proposed
power, while Jung (1953, 1997) proposed temperament and search for soul.
Humanistic Theories
One of the most influential writers in the area of motivation is Abraham Maslow
(1954). His theory of motivation is discussed separately.
Transpersonal or Spiritual Theories
Most of the transpersonal or spiritual theories deal with the
meaningfulness of our lives or ultimate meanings. Abraham Maslow
(1954) has also been influential in this approach to motivation. Other
influential scholars included Gordon Allport (1955), Victor Frankl (1998),
William James (1997), Carl Jung (1953, 1997), Ken Wilber (1998).
Achievement motivation
One classification of motivation differentiates among achievement, power, and
social factors (see McClelland, 1985; Murray, 1938, 1943). In the area of
achievement motivation, the work on goal-theory has differentiated three separate
types of goals: mastery goals (also called learning goals) which focus on gaining
competence or mastering a new set of knowledge or skills; performance goals
(also called ego-involvement goals) which focus on achieving normative-based
standards, doing better than others, or doing well without a lot of effort; and
social goals which focus on relationships among people (see Ames, 1992; Dweck,
1986; Urdan & Maehr, 1995). In context of school learning, which involves
operating in a relatively structured environment, students with mastery goals
outperform students with either performance or social goals. However, in life
success, it seems critical that individuals have all three types of goals in order to
be very successful.
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One aspect of this theory is that individuals are motivated to either avoid failure
(more often associated with performance goals) or achieve success (more often
associated with mastery goals). In the former situation, the individual is more
likely to select easy or difficult tasks, thereby either achieving success or having a
good excuse for why failure occurred. In the latter situation, the individual is
more likely to select moderately difficult tasks that will provide an interesting
challenge, but still keep the high expectations for success.
Impacting motivation in the classroom
Stipek (1988) suggests there are a variety of reasons why individuals may be
lacking in motivation and provides a list of specific behaviors associated with
high academic achievement. This is an excellent checklist to help students
develop the conative component of their lives. In addition, as stated previously in
these materials, teacher efficacy is a powerful input variable related to student
achievement (Proctor, 1984).
There are a variety of specific actions that teachers can take to increase
motivation on classroom tasks. In general, these fall into the two categories
discussed above: intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation.
Intrinsic
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Explain or show why
learning a particular content or
skill is important
Create and/or maintain
curiosity
Provide a variety of
activities and sensory
stimulations
Provide games and
simulations
Set goals for learning
Relate learning to student
needs
Help student develop plan
of action
Extrinsic
o
o
o
o
Provide clear
expectations
Give
corrective feedback
Provide
valuable rewards
Make
rewards available
As a general rule, teachers need to use as much of the intrinsic suggestions as
possible while recognizing that not all students will be appropriately motivated by
them. The extrinsic suggestions will work, but it must be remembered that they do
so only as long as the student is under the control of the teacher. When outside of
that control, unless the desired goals and behaviors have been internalized, the
learner will cease the desired behavior and operate according to his or her internal
standards or to other external factors.
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References
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Adler, A. (1989). Individual psychology of Alfred Adler: A systematic
presentation in selections from his writings. New York: HarperCollins.
Allport, G. (1955). Becoming: Basic considerations for a psychology of
personality. New Haven, CT: Yale Univ Press.
Ames, C. (1992). Classroom goals, structures, and student motivation. Journal of
Educational Psychology, 84(3), 261-271.
Dweck, C. (1986) Motivational processes affecting learning. American
Psychologist. 41(10), 1040-1048.
Erikson, E. (1993). Childhood and society. New York: W. W. Norton &
Company.
Frankl, V. (1998). Man's search for meaning (Revised ed.). New York:
Washington Square Press.
Franken, R. (1994). Human motivation. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Freud, S. (1990). Beyond the pleasure principle. New York: W. W. Norton &
Company.
Izard, C. (1990). Facial expressions and the regulation of emotions. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 487-498.
James, W. (1997). The varieties of religious experience (Reprint ed.). New York:
Macmillan.
Jung, C. (1953). Modern man in search of a soul. New York: Harcourt Brace.
Jung, C. (1997). Man and his symbols (reissue). New York: Laurelleaf.
Kleinginna, P., Jr., & Kleinginna A. (1981a). A categorized list of motivation
definitions, with suggestions for a consensual definition. Motivation and Emotion,
5, 263-291.
Kleinginna, P., Jr., & Kleinginna A. (1981b). A categorized list of emotion
definitions, with suggestions for a consensual definition. Motivation and Emotion,
5, 345-379.
Maslow, A. (1954). Motivation and personality. New York: Harper.
McClelland, D. (1985). Human motivation. New York: Scott, Foresman.
Murray, H. (1938, 1943). Explorations in personality. New York: Oxford
University Press.
Proctor, C. (1984, March). Teacher expectations: A model for school
improvement. TheElementary School Journal, 469-481.
Seligman, M. (1990). Learned optimism. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
Stipek, D. (1988). Motivation to learn: From theory to practice. Englewood Cliffs,
NJ: Prentice Hall.
Sullivan, H. S. (1968). The interpersonal theory of psychiatry. New York: W. W.
Norton & Company.
Urdan, T., & Maehr, M. (1995). Beyond a two-goal theory of motivation and
achievement: A case for social goals. Review of Educational Research, 65(3),
213-243.
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Learning styles
From INSTRUCTIONAL-DESIGN THEORIES AND MODELS, PP 571.
In addition to variable proportion driven by the nature of the subject matter, individual
learners may have attitudinal component preferences incorporated into their learning
styles. A person with a superior ability to develop the cognitive-dominant field such as
engineering, whereas a person with a superior ability to develop the psychomotor
component might do best in the construction industry. When a person who has a very
strong component preference in their learning style finds a way to focus exclusively on a
subject that has a very strong matching domain dominance, they may achieve a reputation
as a master performer (“prodigy”) with little apparent effort.
Learning Styles: Preferences
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File updated Aug. 3, 1996
Updated by: Jessica Blackmore
Outline
 Learning Style Preferences
o
o
Kolb's Theory of Learning Styles
 Diagram of Kolb's Learning Styles
Gardner's Multiple Intelligences
LEARNING STYLE PREFERENCES
Litzinger & Osif describe learning styles as "the different ways in which children and
adults think and learn (1992, 73)." They see that each of us develops a preferred and
consistent set of behaviors or approaches to learning. In order to better understand the
learning process, they break it down into several processes:
1. cognition--how one acquires knowledge
2. conceptualization--how one processes information. There are those who are
always looking for connections among unrelated events. Meanwhile for others,
each event triggers a multitude of new ideas.
3. affective--people's motivation, decision making styles, values and emotional
preferences will also help to define their learning styles.
A number of people have tried to "catalogue" the ranges of learning styles in more detail
than this. Kolb is perhaps one of the best known and his thinking is outlined below.
Kolb's Theory of Learning Styles
First Kolb showed that learning styles could be seen on a continuum running from:
1. concrete experience: being involved in a new experience
2. reflective observation: watching others or developing observations about own
experience
3. abstract conceptualization: creating theories to explain observations
4. active experimentation: using theories to solve problems, make decisions
Hartman (1995) took Kolb's learning styles and gave examples of how one might teach to
each them:
1. for the concrete experiencer--offer laboratories, field work, observations or trigger
films
2. for the reflective observer--use logs, journals or brainstorming
3. for the abstract conceptualizer--lectures, papers and analogies work well
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4. for the active experimenter--offer simulations, case studies and homework
Although Kolb thought of these learning styles as a continuum that one moves through
over time, usually people come to prefer, and rely on, one style above the others. And it
is these main styles that instructors need to be aware of when creating instructional
materials. In order to find out more about each of Kolb's learning styles, and how to teach
to them, you may choose to click on any of the learning style names in the diagram
below.
(Diagram from Litzinger and Osif 1992, 79)
Accommodators | Assimilators | Convergers | Divergers
Gardner's Multiple Intelligences
Gardner chose to look at learning styles in a different light. Winters (1995) and Wang
(1996) provided the following summary of Gardener's Multiple Intelligences:
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plays with words (Vernal/Linguistic)
plays with questions (Logical/Mathematical)
plays with pictures (Visual/Spatial)
plays with music (Music/Rhythmic)
plays with moving (Body/Kinesthetic)
plays with socializing (Interpersonal)
plays alone (Intrapersonal)
Again, each of us uses some of these styles when learning, but we tend to prefer a small
number of methods over the rest.
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Information Processing
Information processing involves:
a). Students are actively processing,
storing and retrieving information
b). Teaching involves helping learners to develop
information processing skills and apply them systematically to mastering the curriculum.
Cognitive structures relate to structure of the subject matter.
Information processing emphasizes cognitive structures built by the learner.
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Two types of memory exist, they are;
Episodic memory- the recall of events, which is in detail and sequence.
Semantic memory - intentional learning, which involves encoding, storage and retrieval
of information.
The Three Stage Information Processing Model This is the most accepted model, with
versions developed by
Atkinson & Shiffrin, Kintsch,
Klatsky, Loftus & Loftus.
The three stages of this model are
1) Input or sensory registry,
2)Short-term memory,
3) Long-term memory.
Sensory registry
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-Input primarily from sight and sound.
-processing occurs in 3-5 seconds.
-input must go to short term memory for actual processing.
-information entering is monitored at a low attention level so can selectively
respond. For
example, when driving a car and simultaneously carrying on a conversation, one
can monitor and
respond to driving conditions without transfer of this information to short-term
memory
.
Short-Term Memory and Rehearsal
-Information transferred to short-term memory (STM)
can remain active 15-20 seconds without rehearsal, longer if practice.
- STM has limit of 7 +/- 2 items.
-STM capacity can be increased by chunking.
Chunking places input into subsets that are remembered as single units.
- George Miller (1956) determined the chunk is the unit in memory; therefore 7+/- 2
chunks can typically be recalled from STM.
-STM is equivalent to working memory.
-Three means of handling cognitive tasks in STM have been defined
Chunk
Break into subparts and process one at a time.
Practice skills until they are automatic.
Long-Term Memory and Storage - Information for future reference is stored in longterm memory (LTM).
- LTM is thought to have unlimited capacity and duration.
-most additions to LTM occur through deliberate efforts rote memorization is not a good
method for LTM
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Semantic Network Theory of storage into LTM -Assume concepts are stored in LTM
within hierarchical networks of meaningful association.
-Superordinate-subordinate relationships occur e.g. animal-dog-collie.
-Concept linkage or common concept link occurs
direct linkage: black-white
indirect linkage: black-powder, black-smith
-Proximity of concepts stored within networks is dependant on degree of meaningful
relatedness.
-Time to retrieve related information is relative to proximity of concept in the hierarchy.
-Because semantic theories can be built into computer programs, they have been useful in
cognitive simulation research.
- Semantic network theories portray memory as static storage of information.
Schema Theory of storage into LTM -Explains constructive encoding of input and
reconstruction of storage memories.
-Similar theories are plans, scripts, frames
-New knowledge is interpreted within the context of existing schema.
-New knowledge is interpreted from the beginning within context supplied by existing
knowledge.
Information Processing as a computer model. -Information processing easily relates to
computer, Input-process-output. -Processing information involves subroutines or
procedures. -Subroutines are performed in a hierarchical manner to complete tasks. -Flow
of control can be diagramed. -1955-60 Logic Theorist computer program by Newell,
Shaw and Simon
was used to simulate human process of solving theorems in symbolic language. Same
time MIT had pattern recognition program. Many computer models for human
information processing. -Two types of information processing models are those dealing
with simulation, or step-by-step and those that are dealing with artificial intelligence and
are task driven. -Logic Theorist emulates six human characteristics of problem-solving
behavior.
Factors affecting Learning (within theory of information processing) Factors
affecting Rote Learning: Meaningfulness effect: Highly meaningful words are easier to
learn and remember than less meaningful words. This is true whether meaningful is
measured by
1) the number of associations the learner has for the word,
2) by frequency of the word
3) or by familiarity with the sequential order of letters,
4) or the tendency of the work to elicit clear images.
An implication is that retention will be improved to the extent the user can make meaning
of the material.
Serial position effect Serial position effects result from the particular placement of an
item within a list. Memory is better for items placed at beginning or end of list rather than
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in the middle. An exception to these serial positions is the distinctiveness effect - an item
that is distinctively different from the others will be remembered better, regardless of
serial position.
Practice effects Active practice or rehearsal improves retention, and distributed practice
is usually more effective than massed practice. The advantage to distributed practice is
especially noticeable for lists, fast presentation rates or unfamiliar stimulus material. The
advantage to distributed practice apparently occurs because massed practice allows the
learner to associate a word with only a single context, but distributed practice allows
association with many different contexts.
Transfer effects Transfer effects are effects of prior learning on the leaning of new
material. Positive transfer occurs when previous learning makes new learning easier.
Negative transfer occurs when it makes the new learning more difficult. The more that
two tasks have in common, the more likely that transfer effects occur.
Interference effects. Interference effects occur when memory or particular material is hurt
by previous or subsequent learning. Interference effects occur when trying to remember
material that has previously been learned. Interference effects are always negative.
Organization effects Organization effects occur when learners chunk or categorize the
input. Free recall of lists is better when learners organize the items into categories rather
than attempt to memorize the list in serial order.
Levels-of-Processing effects The more deeply a word is processed, the better it will be
remembered. Semantic encoding of content is likely to lead to better memory.
Elaborative encoding, improves memory by making sentences more meaningful.
State-Dependent effects State- or Context-dependent effects occur because learning takes
place in within a specific context that must be accessible later, at least initially, within the
same context. For example, lists are more easily remembered when the test situation
more closely resembles the leaning situation, apparently due to contextual cues available
to aid in information retrieval.
Mnemonic effects Mnemonics - strategies for elaborating on relatively meaningless input
by associating the input with more meaningful images or semantic context. Four wellknown mnemonic methods are the place method, the link method, the peg method and the
keyword method.
Factors affecting meaningful verbal learning: Abstraction effects Abstraction is the
tendency of learners to pay attention to and remember the gist of a passage rather than the
specific words of a sentence. In general, to the extent that learners assume the goal is
understanding rather than verbatim memory and the extent that the material can be
analyzed into main ideas and supportive detail, learners will tend to concentrate on the
main ideas and to retain these in semantic forms that are more abstract and generalized
than the verbatim sentences included in the passage.
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Levels effect This effect occurs when the learner perceives that some parts of the passage
are more important than others. Parts that occupy higher levels in the organization of the
passage will be learned better than parts occupying low levels.
Schema effects Gagne' and Dick suggest that
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1) newly learned information is stored by being incorporated into schemas formed
on the basis of previous learning
2) recall of previously learned verbal information is strongly influenced by these
schema, so that remembering is a constructive act;
3) schemas not only aid retention of new material, by providing frameworks for
storage, but also alter the new information by making it "fit" the expectations built
into the schemas;
4) schemas make it possible for learners to make inferences that fill gaps in stories
or expository prose.;
5) schema are organized in terms of figurative verbal knowledge and in terms of
components of intellectual skills;
6) ideally learners will be able to process new information as well as evaluate and
modify their own schema.
Anderson (1984) has also developed six functions of schema.
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1) provide scaffolding for
assimilation of textual information.
2) facilitate selective allocation of attention.
3) enable
inferential elaboration .
4) allow orderly memory searches
5) facilitate editing and summarizing
6) permit inferential reconstruction.
Prior Knowledge effects Prior knowledge effects will occur to the extent that the learner
can use existing knowledge to establish a context or construct a schema into which the
new information can be assimilated.
Inference effects Inference effects occur when learners use schemas or other prior
knowledge to make inferences about intended meanings that go beyond what is explicitly
stated in the text. Three kinds of inferences are case grammar pre-suppositions,
conceptual dependency inferences and logical deductions.
Student misconception effects. Prior knowledge can lead to misconceptions.
Misconceptions may be difficult to correct due to fact that learner may not be aware that
knowledge s a misconception. Misconception occurs when input is filtered through
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schemas that are oversimplified, distorted or incorrect.
Text Organization Effects Text organization refers to the effects that the degree and type
of organization built into a passage have on the degree and type of information that
learners encode and remember. Structural elements such as advanced organizers,
previews, logical sequencing, outline formats, highlighting of main ideas and summaries
assist learning in retaining information. These organization effects facilitate chunking,
subsumption of material into schemas and related processes that enable encoding as an
organized body of meaningful knowledge. In addition, text organization elements cue
learners to which aspects of the material are most important.
Mathemagenic Effects
Mathemagenic effects, coined by Rothkopf (1970) , refer to various things that learners
do to prepare and assist their own learning. These effects refer to the active information
processing by learners. Mathemagenic activities include answering adjunct questions or
taking notes and can enhance learning.
References: Educational Psychology A Realistic Approach: Good, T.E. and Brophy, J.E.
Third edition. Longman Publishing, New York.1986. Theories of Learning: Hilgard, E.R.
and Bower, G.H. Fourth Edition. Prentice-Hall, Inc. Englewood Cliffs, NJ 1975.
Attitudes
From INSTRUCTIONAL-DESIGN THEORIES AND MODELS, PP 566.
How Attitudes Function
An attitude can be viewed as a functional entity containing elements of all three learning
domains: cognitive, psychomotor, and affective. Just as an atom is a fundamental unit of
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matter, one that cannot be subdivided by any practical means, we propose that an attitude
is the fundamental unit of learning.
Reinforcement
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Learner centered instruction
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Problem based learning
Learning that is situated around an event, case, problem, or scenario.
Five Strategies for Using PBL: taken from (Duffy & Cunningham, 1996, p.190)
1. The Problem as a Guide: the problem is presented in order to gain
attention prior to presenting the lesson.
2. The Problem as an Integrator or Test: the problem is presented after
readings are completed and/or discussed -- these are used to check for
understanding.
3. The Problem as an Example: the problem is integrated into the material
in order to illustrate a particular principle, concept or procedure.
4. The Problem as a Vehicle for Process: the problem is used to promote
critical thinking whereby the analysis of how to solve it becomes a lesson
in itself.
5. The Problem as a Stimulus for Authentic Activity: the problem is used
to develop skills necessary to solve it and other problems -- skills can
include physical skills, recall of prior knowledge, and metacognitive skills
related to the problem solving process. A form of authentic assessment of
the skills and activity necessary in the content domain.
Design PBL Instruction:
Task Analysis: analysis must take place not only within the content domain but should
also determine the actual setting where the learning will be authentic.
Problem Generation: The problems must be constructed so they include the concepts and
principles that are relevant and they must be set in a real context.
Learning Sequence:
a. Collaborative Analysis session where groups work together to solve the problem.
b. Self-directed Learning where the students identify the information and resources that
are necessary to solve the problem.
The instructor in PBL only acts as a facilitator to learning, instead of a transmitter of the
necessary information.
Assessment: assessment of learning must occur within the context of the problems and
should be in the form of both self-assessment and peer assessment.
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Problem Based Learning
If asked, most educators would agree that one essential goal of education is the
development of students who are effective problem solvers for the Information Literacy
Age. Most reports, such as the national SCANS (Survey of Necessary and
Comprehensive Skills) and Goals 2000 documents, recommend such instruction. Most
school goal statements allude to the need for critical thinking and problem solving skills.
Recent California Frameworks in Mathematics and Science reflect consensus on this
educational goal. But often such instruction in problem solving takes the approach of
teaching models to students to apply to neat case studies rather than the messy problems
of a real world.
Research indicates that critical thinking and problem solving skills are not typically
addressed in the classroom. A number of studies indicate that in the typical classroom,
85% of teacher questions are at the recall or simple comprehension level. Questions that
elicit synthesis and evaluative skills of thinking are rarely asked. The media portrays
teachers as asking such simple, mindless questions in movies such as "Ferris Bueller's
Day Off" and "Dead Poet's Society".
In Problem Based Learning (PBL) environments, students act as professionals and
confront problems as they occur - with fuzzy edges, insufficient information, and a need
to determine the best solution possible by a given date. This is the manner in which
engineers, doctors, and, yes, even teachers, approach problem solving, unlike many
classrooms where teachers are the "sage on the stage" and guide students to neat solutions
to contrived problems.
What is Problem Based Learning?
Problem Based Learning is a curriculum development and delivery system that
recognizes the need to develop problem solving skills as well as the necessity of helping
students to acquire necessary knowledge and skills. Indeed, the first application of PBL
was in medical schools that rigorously test the knowledge base of graduates. PBL utilizes
real world problems, not hypothetical case studies with neat, convergent outcomes. It is
in the process of struggling with actual problems that students learn both content and
critical thinking skills.
Problem based learning thus has several distinct characteristics that may be identified and
utilized in designing such curriculum. These are:
1. Reliance on problems to drive the curriculum - the problems do not test skills;
they assist in development of the skills themselves.
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2. The problems are truly ill-structured - there is not meant to be one solution, and as
new information is gathered in a reiterative process, perception of the problem,
and thus the solution, changes.
3. Students solve the problems - teachers are coaches and facilitators.
4. Students are only given guidelines for how to approach problems - there is no one
formula for student approaches to the problem.
5. Authentic, performance based assessment - is a seamless part and end of the
instruction.
(Adapted from Stepien, W.J. and Gallagher, S.A. 1993. "Problem-based Learning: As
Authentic as it Gets." Educational Leadership. 50(7) 25-8 and Barrows, H. (1985)
Designing a Problem Based Curriculum for the Pre-Clinical Years.
Problem Based Learning assists students to solve problems by the process of continually
encountering the type of ill-structured problems confronted by adults or practicing
professionals. As with information literacy, PBL develops students who can:
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Clearly define a problem
Develop alternative hypotheses
Access, evaluate, and utilize data from a variety of sources
Alter hypotheses given new information
Develop clearly stated solutions that fit the problem and its inherent conditions,
based upon information and clearly explicated reasoning
Students with such ingrained skill are well prepared for occupations which rarely have a
supervisor who has time, inclination, or knowledge to tell the worker what to do. They
are also well prepared for the explosion of knowledge which gluts the world today.
Stages in Problem Based Learning
In the PBL curriculum, one may note three distinct phases of operation by students.
Whether gathering knowledge through a variety of sources on the Internet, through print
sources, or by speaking with experts, these stages explicated below are characteristic of
PBL. Each step in the process is "hot linked" to a sample lesson developed by a SCORE
Teacher on Assignment.
Stage 1: Encountering and Defining the Problem
Students are confronted with a real world scenario through authentic looking
correspondence. Students may be asked to present to the Ancient World Architectural
Review Board regarding their perspective about how and why great ancient monuments
were built. They may ask some basic questions such as:
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What do I know already about this problem or question?
What do I need to know to effectively address this problem or question?
What resources can I access to determine a proposed solution or hypothesis?
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At this point, a very focused Problem Statement is needed, though that statement will be
altered as new information is accessed and understood.
Stage 2: Accessing, Evaluating and Utilizing information
Once they have clearly defined the problem, students might access print, human, or
electronic information resources. In the case of the Southern Illinois Medical School,
professors may be interviewed or medical texts examined. In the case of a city plan, calls
to human resources such as the town manager or staff engineers might be of use. The
Internet can be a focal point of research when a problem is constructed with that purpose.
In the case of the sample problem, students may find a rich diversity of perspectives and
resources preparatory to phase 3. Part of any problem is evaluation of the resource. How
current is it? How credible and accurate is it? Is there any reason to suspect bias in the
source? When utilizing the information, students must carefully appraise the worth of the
sources they have accessed. If evaluating sites which theorize about these monuments
and how and why they were built, students must carefully note and evaluate the accuracy
and credibility of information posted at that site.
Stage 3: Synthesis and Performance
In this stage, students construct a solution to the problem. Students may create a multimedia production, a presentation to a body such as the U.N. Commission on Human
Rights or the Ancient World Architectural Review Board, or a more traditional written
paper focused around an essential question. In all cases, the students must re-organize the
information is new ways. This is unlike an assignment that asks them to " make a report
about the Palestinians and Israelis." This latter leads to use of the Internet as if it were a
giant cyberspace encyclopedia. An assignment which asks students to propose a solution
to the conflict between the Palestinian people and the Israelis involves a question which
forces re-organization of information and consideration of perspectives.
Problems in Implementation
Cultural change is required to implement PBL. Students trained in the more traditional
model of teaching, which features the teacher as "sage on the stage" and disseminator of
knowledge, will experience culture shock of a sort. Students will wish to know
expectations for a high grade. Though constructing a rubric with a teacher may allay
fears, there is initial suspicion of the new approach.
Students must also learn to be part of the group. As with real life tasks, one person cannot
conduct all research and make the entire presentation of the problem solution. Complaints
about "hitchhikers" (those in the group who do not pull their own weight) will be heard
from hard working students and their parents.
Teachers also experience major adjustments. More preliminary work must be done to
design the problem and to ensure that there are enough materials available (in print,
online, and through human resources) for this resource's ravenous approach. They must
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learn to construct problems that assist students to learn appropriate skills and knowledge.
And they must learn to facilitate, rather than direct, student learning.
The Rewards
Though change from a teacher-centered to a problem and project based environment
causes discomfort, those that have made the transition speak of new energy and
enthusiasm for their classes. Students praise challenging tasks that prepare them for
learning. For more information, see the Problem Based Learning online resources below:
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The University of Delaware has numerous articles about PBL including teaching
art, science, and other courses. A good teacher resource. http://www.udel.edu/pbl/
Howard Barrows, Southern Illinois School of Medicine (A medically focused
analysis of PBL.) http://edaff.siumed.edu/PBLI/Index.htm
Illinois Math and Science Academy (Includes K-12 applications in various
disciplines.) http://www.imsa.edu/
If you have further questions about PBL, please email Bob Benoit of the Butte County
Office of Education at bbenoit@bcoe.butte.k12.ca.us. Bob has directed a PBL project
which included six high schools and 30 teachers over the last four years.
A Selected Problem Based Bibliography
Books:
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Barrows, H. (1994) Practice-Based Learning: Problem-Based Learning Applied to
Medical Education. Springfield, Il: Southern Illinois University School of
Medicine
Barrows, H. (1985) Designing a Problem Based Curriculum for the Pre-Clinical
years. New York: Springer Publishing Company.
Boud, D., Felleti, G. (1991) The Challenge of Problem-Based Learning. London:
Kogan.
Woods, Donald R. (1994). Problem-Based Learning: How to Gain the Most from
PBL. Hamilton, Ontario, Canada. Donald R. Woods, Publisher.
Selected Articles
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Barrows, Howard. See Southern Illinois University School of Medicine
Homepage for an extensive list of articles published in medical journals.
Gallagher, S., Rosenthal, H., and Stepien, W. (1992) "The Effects of ProblemBased Learning on Problem Solving. Gifted Child Quarterly, 36(4), 195-200.
Knoll, Jean W. (1993). "An Introduction to Reiterative PBL." Issues and Inquiry
in College Learning and Teaching. Spr/Smr. 19-36
Stepien, W. and Gallagher, S., and Workman, D. (1993) "Problem-Based
Learning for Traditional and Interdisciplinary Classrooms." Journal for the
Education of the Gifted, 16(d4), 338-357.
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Stepien, W. and Gallagher, S.A. (1993). "Problem-based Learning: As Authentic
as it Gets." Educational Leadership. 50(7), 25-8
Duffy, T. M., & Cunningham, D. J. (1996). Constructivism: implications for the
design and delivery of instruction. In D. Jonassen (Ed.), Handbook of research for
educational communications and technology (pp. 170 - 198). New York, NY:
Simon & Schuster Macmillan.
Task Analysis
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Task Analysis Strategies and Practices Bettina Lankard Brown
1998
Worker-oriented, job-oriented, and cognitive task analyses have all been used as tools for
closing the gap between what curriculum teaches and what workers do. Although they
share a commonality of purpose, the focus, cost, and practicality of task analysis
techniques vary. This Practice Application Brief presents information on current
practices and examples of the various types of task analyses, highlighting their strengths
and weaknesses and detailing how they can be used in diverse settings to promote
knowledge and skill development.
Task Analysis Models
Initiated for the purpose of helping management make hiring, promotion, wage, and
salary decisions, occupational analysis is designed to identify the work requirements of
specific jobs by providing a detailed overview of the tasks that must be performed by
workers in a given occupational area. Task analysis, the next step in the process of job
analysis, is conducted to identify the details of specified tasks, including the required
knowledge, skills, attitudes, and personal characteristics required for successful task
performance. This information is used to develop education and training programs that
are based on the realities of the job.
Current practices focus on three main types of task analysis: (1) worker-oriented task
analysis, which focuses on general human behaviors required of workers in given jobs;
(2) job-oriented analysis, which focuses on the technologies involved in the job; and
(3) cognitive task analysis, which focuses on the cognitive components associated with
task performance (Hanser 1995). Although definable in this manner, the distinctions
among the types are often blurred in practice. In an attempt to prepare workers who are
able to meet the demands of a changing, high-performance workplace, single-focused
task analyses are giving way to combinations that reflect the greater breadth and depth of
skills required for the jobs of the future. Following is a summary of a literature review of
the three task analysis models.
Worker-oriented Task Analysis
The traditional methods of job/task analysis investigate work behaviors and the tasks
associated with them. Although the work behaviors can be communicated, their
application in performance of a task must be observed. Thus the process of work-oriented
task analysis typically involves discussions with job incumbents, observations of job
tasks performed by workers, interviews with workers, review of tasks by
management/supervisors, and surveys to determine the criticality of tasks and the
knowledge and skill requirements (Clifford 1994).
Job-oriented Task Analysis
Considered a traditional method, job-oriented task analysis is a systematic process for
collecting information about the highly specific and distinct tasks required for particular
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jobs. The job-related task analysis relies on employees and supervisors who can explicitly
state the step-by-step sequence of job tasks and an auditor who can describe the behaviors
in a way that is understandable to employees and supervisors (Texas Higher Education
Coordinating Board 1995).
Cognitive Task Analysis
Cognitive task analysis attempts to determine the thought processes workers follow to
perform the tasks and identify the knowledge needed to perform the tasks at various
levels, e.g., novice and expert (Hanser 1995). It is a process used to gather information on
worker behavior in problem-solving situations that highlights the interactive and
constructive nature of everyday knowledge and the social constraints that influence
problem solving (Llorente 1996). Cognitive task analysis relies on the techniques of
observation and interview.
Strategies and Resources for Practice
Given the varied nature of task analysis methods, how can practitioners decide the
method(s) that offer the best options for application? The following guidelines are
presented to help practitioners in the selection process.
1. Determine the strategy of task analysis that is most likely to generate the
specific information you need for your education/training program.
Worker-oriented task analysis is most valuable for identifying the types of activities
associated with the job (e.g., judgments, interpersonal relationships), rather than the
specifics of what the worker actually does (Burnett and McCracken 1982).
o
o
The Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) is the most well-known
method of worker-oriented task analysis. It characterizes jobs by
human behavior requirements through the use of 187 workeroriented job elements. The PAQ reveals the types of interpersonal
relationships required in task performance, which are often
overlooked in task inventory analysis (ibid.).
The Occupational Analysis Inventory, another worker-oriented
instrument, groups 622 work elements into 5 categories of jobrelated behaviors: information received, mental activities, work
behavior, work goals, and work context. It identifies the worker
characteristics associated with specific jobs—information that can
be used as one way to match workers to the jobs (ibid.).
Job-oriented task analysis details not only what workers do but also how well they must
do it. It is the most traditional form of task analysis and is extensively used in developing
curriculum.
o
Task Inventory Analysis
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results in an inventory of tasks performed by job incumbents, which
are designated by importance, frequency, and job relevance.
o
DACUM (Develop A CurriculUM)
follows a seven-step process to produce a job profile, which
provides a structure for analyzing each specified task—the
sequenced steps, performance standards, related knowledge and
skills, tools and equipment, worker behaviors and attitudes, safety
considerations, decisions involved in task performance, and future
occupational trends and concerns (Norton 1996).
o
V-TECS (Vocational-Technical Education Consortium of States)
has developed another task-focused job analysis process that is
similar to DACUM. The V-TECS method also produces task lists,
performance objectives, standards for performance, and sequenced
task performance steps. In addition, it includes enabling objectives
and related academic skills.
Cognitive task analysis emphasizes the cognitive skills workers need to perform tasks
that now call for inference, diagnosis, judgment, and decision making—skills in demand
by today’s organizations that are characterized by flattened hierarchies, work teams, and
participatory management (Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board 1995).
o
FIPM
is an approach to cognitive task analysis that analyzes knowledge
about jobs in terms of Fact, Image, Procedure, and Mechanism
(Black et al. 1995). It allows for unique distinctions to be made
between jobs in terms of the knowledge required to perform various
jobs—including knowledge gained through informal as well as
formal processes of information exchange (ibid.).
2. Consider the cost-efficiency of the strategy you select.
Traditional task analysis methods are expensive to conduct, involve processes that are
long and tedious, and require the efforts of trained analysts (Bailey and Merritt 1995).
The DACUM process of task analysis, however, is more cost efficient than most other
methods. Although it requires the active involvement of business-industry
representatives, it demands less time, expense, and staff training than the task inventory
methods of task analysis (Hesse and Nijhof 1988). The cost and benefits of cognitive task
analysis cannot be determined until the process receives more widespread application
(Hanser 1995). However, Dehoney (1995) reports that cognitive task analysis requires far
more time and complex data analysis than traditional task analysis.
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When selecting a task analysis method, it is important to make clear determinations of
how much time will be involved, how you will obtain expert workers, how you will
verify experts’ judgments, what training will be required for staff, and what costs will be
associated with each aspect of the process.
3. Be able to ensure that the strategy provides acceptable and reliable
information.
Both the worker-oriented and job-oriented task analysis strategies described have proved
to be accepted by users as reliable forms of task analysis (Burnett and McCracken 1982).
DACUM and V-TECS have special appeal to the skill standards movement and to
school-to-work programs such as tech prep in that they require the involvement of
business and industry, which adds validity to the effort and establishes linkages between
schools and the business community.
Cognitive task analysis has not yet been proven practical in application (Hanser 1995).
The data collection, retrieval, and reporting methods used for an analysis, however, have
the potential for bias and error (Dehoney 1995).
4. Plan for periodic review and update of any task analysis.
Work is dynamic—tasks change, processes change, technologies change, and the
knowledge and skills required for jobs change. To be an effective tool for education and
training, the task analysis must reflect what is happening in the real world/workplace.
Burnett and McCracken (1982) suggest that the periodic review and update of task
analyses should employ different techniques to ensure that all areas of the job have been
identified.
5. Consider using a combination of methods to capitalize on the strengths
of each.
Hanser (1995) suggests that educators look to create a synergy between traditional job
analysis and cognitive task analysis as a means for eliminating the skills gap evident in
today’s workplace. Black et al. (1995) suggest that cognitive task analysis be used to
enhance instructional and technological education by providing a source for site-specific
educational materials that are situation based and reflect the current emphasis of
cognitive theory that promotes contextual learning. Norton (1996) promotes expanding
the focus of job-related task analysis to include a DACUM Enhanced Literacy Task
Analysis (DELTA) for identifying the basic skills associated with various tasks. One
example of expanded task analysis is the Ohio Competency Analysis Profiles (OCAPs),
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which were developed through the use of a modified DACUM process. These profiles
identify the occupational, academic, and employability skills for given occupational areas
and outline three levels of skills—core, advancing, and futuring (Vocational Instructional
Materials Laboratory 1996). They may be found in the ERIC database.
References
Bailey, T., and Merritt, D. Making Sense of Industry-Based Skill
Standards. Berkeley: National Center for Research in Vocational
Education, University of California, 1995. (ED 389 897)
Black, J. B. et al. "Using a Knowledge Representations Approach to
Cognitive Task Analysis." In Proceedings of Selected Research
and Development Presentations at the 1995 National
Convention of the Association for Educational Communications and
Technology , edited by M. R. Simonson and M. L. Anderson. Washington,
DC: Association for Educational Communications and Technology, 1995.
(ED 383 287)
Burnett, M. F., and McCracken, J. D. "Characteristics, Procedures, and
Results of Two Job Analysis Techniques." Journal of Vocational
Education Research 7, no. 3 (Summer 1982): 1-10.
Clifford, J. P. "Job Analysis: Why Do It, and How Should It Be Done?"
Public Personnel Management 23, no. 2 (Summer 1994): 321-340.
Dehoney, J. "Cognitive Task Analysis: Implications for the Theory and
Practice of Instructional Design." In Proceedings of Selected Research
and Development Presentations at the 1995 National Convention of the
Association for Educational Communications and Technology, edited by
M. R. Simonson and M. L. Anderson. Washington, DC: Association for
Educational Communications and Technology, 1995. (ED 383 294)
Hanser, L. M. Traditional and Cognitive Job Analyses as Tools for
Understanding the Skills Gap. Berkeley: National Center for Research in
Vocational Education, University of California, 1995. (ED 383 842)
Hesse, C. G., and Nijhof, W. J. "Cost-Effectiveness of Two Methods of
Job Analysis." Paper presented at the American Vocational Association
Convention, St. Louis, MO, December 1988. (ED 301 659)
Llorente, J. C. Problem Solving and Constitution of Knowledge at
Work Research. Bulletin 92. Helsinki, Finland: Department of Education,
Helsinki University, 1996. (ED 394 037)
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Norton, R. E. SCID Handbook. SCID: A Competency-Based
Systematic Curriculum and Instructional Development Model, 2d ed.
Columbus: Center on Education and Training for Employment, The Ohio
State University, 1996.
Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board. Analyzing Workforce
Education. Monograph. Austin: Texas Community and Technical
College. Workforce Education Consortium, 1995. (ED 395 166)
Vocational Instructional Materials Laboratory. Turf and Landscape
Worker: Ohio’s Competency Analysis Profile. Columbus: Vocational
Instructional Materials Laboratory, The Ohio State University, 1992. (ED
345 080)
Sequencing
What is instructional sequencing? Describe the major work done in this area.
Instructional sequencing is a body of prescriptive theories and models that set out to
mandate the optimal means for structuring and organizing subject matter (Reigeluth).
Agreed upon by most and stated by Bruner (1966) was the fact that the sequence of
instruction will affect the students’ ability to grasp, transform, and transfer what they
are doing. Micro-level sequencing strategies apply to teaching a single idea
(Reigeluth, 1980) and include such methods as examples and practice. On the other
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hand, macro-level sequencing strategies apply to the teaching of many related ideas,
such as the selection of ideas, the sequencing of those ideas, the teaching of
interrelationships among those ideas, and the systematic preview and review of those
ideas. Listed below are some of the major sequencing theories and procedures,
grouped by philosophical orientation:
Behavioral
¨
Random and Logical Sequences. Among the earliest instructional sequences to be
discussed and researched were termed random and logical sequences. These
sequences were the focus of many researchers during the 1960s and therefore, not
surprisingly based off of programmed instruction.
¨
The forward and backward sequencing approaches are heavily based on stimulusresponse theories of performance. From Gilbert’s work with Mathetics came the
backward chaining sequence (Gilbert, 1962) which sequences steps in the opposite
order from that in which they are performed. The rationale for this sequence is that
the completion of the task is far more intrinsically rewarding than the completion of
some intermediate step. Hence, a backward chaining sequence should result in
greater reinforcement, which in turn should improve learning. In contrast, the forward
chaining sequences steps in the order in which they are performed.
¨
Ruleg. Also based off of programmed instruction was the ruleg sequencing
approach proposed by Evans, Homme, and Glaser (1962) which suggested a sequence
of generalization-to-instance.
¨
Intrinsic Programming. Although based on programmed instruction, this approach
offered a non-linear alternative. Proposed by Crowder (1960), this strategy suggested
branching programs to allow for flexibility in the structure of the program. This
branching was based on the learner’s initial response and took the form of either
remedial loops or continuation through instruction.
¨
Bottom-Up Sequence. The bottom-up sequence proposed by Gagne (1962, 1968,
1977) and validated by Gagne and Paradise (1961) has been found quite effective in
teaching intellectual skills. The bottom-up sequence takes the results of a hierarchical
task analysis and sequences them in a bottom up order. Ordinarily, the sequence
starts with the left-most skill on the bottom of the hierarchy and proceeds to the right
until all of the skills that are subordinate to a single higher-level skill have been
taught.
Cognitive
¨
Cumulative Learning Theory, pioneered by Robert Gagne (1962, 1965), was a
response to the limitations he observed in the use of existing learning principles in
training programs. It is based on the premise that any intellectual skill or task can be
broken down into simpler skills, which can in turn by broken down into even simpler
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skills, and so on. The result is a hierarchical model which, in the words of Gagne and
Briggs (1974), displays and transforms “an arrangement of intellectual skill
objectives into a pattern which shows the prerequisite relationships among them.” (p.
109) The idea is that lower-level tasks must be mastered before higher-level tasks.
¨
Top-Down (Subsumptive) Sequence. Ausubel (1963, 1968) and Ausubel and
Fitzgerald (1961) developed a set of sequencing principles based on the idea that
knowledge is organized hierarchically in the human mind, and that each new piece of
knowledge, in order to be meaningfully assimilated, must be “subsumed” by the most
appropriate, more general piece of knowledge in that hierarchical organization.
Hence, Ausubel called for a “subsumptive” sequence of instructional content.
Another important principle of Ausubel’s subsumptive theory is the notion of
scaffolding, where new subsumed concepts provide anchoring for superordinate
concepts in a way that reveals their interrelationships. This strategy is also referred to
as a general-to-detailed or top-down.
¨
Schema Theory, pioneered by Ausubel (1963, 1968) proposed that a reader's abstract
cognitive structures provide the "ideational scaffolding" for the detailed information
contained in text. "New ideas and information are learned and retained most
efficiently when inclusive and specifically relevant ideas are already available in
cognitive structures to serve a subsuming role or to furnish ideational anchorage."
Schemata are the mental structures that incorporate general knowledge, are common
to a large number of things or situations and are therefore more abstract than the
representation of any particular thing or situation (Bartlett, 1932). Bartlett also stated
"schema refers to an active organization of past reactions or of past experiences."
Mayer (1977) described the schemata model as a process of “assimilation-toschemata,” which in its simplest form refers to the process of learning as the
acquisition of new material in the learner by connecting it with (or ‘assimilating’ it to)
some aspect of existing cognitive structure (or schema).
¨
Path Analysis. Path analysis (Merrill, 1978; Reigeluth & Rodgers, 1980) entails
identifying all the possible “paths” (or distinct combinations of steps) that could be
used in performing the rule or procedure. Then the shortest path is taught first,
usually in a forward chaining sequence. Also, each step in that path is always
preceded by any prerequisites that are revealed by a hierarchical analysis of it. Then
the next shortest path is taught in the same manner, and so on until all of the paths
have been taught.
¨
Elaboration Theory (Reigeluth, 1979, 1983): (1) identify and teach the most
overarching, fundamental concepts, principles, or procedure at the application level.
Reigeluth refers to this as an epitome. Ex. Teach principles of computer use, (2)
present an "elaboration" of the content. Ex. Teach principles of software use, (3)
present further levels of elaboration, as needed, ensuring prerequisites have been
covered in previous level of elaboration, and (4) instruction at each level of
elaboration is tied to the other levels with synthesizing and summarizing statements
that integrate the levels of elaboration.
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¨
Concept-Related. The last of Posner’s (Posner & Strike, 1976) five organization
patterns, this model sequences instruction based on the structure of the discipline to
organize the content. The most super-ordinate, all-inclusive concepts or principles
are taught first, and then the more specific cases of the concepts or applications of the
principles are taught later. An example of this approach would be teaching about the
properties of matter before teaching about atoms, and teach about atoms before
teaching about electricity.
Time and learning

Carroll’s 1963 Model of School Learning - Degree of learning = f(time actually
spent/time needed); introduced new emphasis on time; developed as a result of
Carroll’s research on foreign language; was a mathematical model; time spent
consists of perseverance and time allowed; time needed consists of aptitude,
ability to comprehend instruction and quality of instruction; addresses
implications of learner characteristics, environmental characteristics, and
instructional management; students will master instructional objectives to the
extent that they are allowed and willing to invest the time needed to learn the
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



content; postulates five basic classes of variables that would account for
variations in school achievement
Bloom’s 1976 Model of School Learning - an input-process-output model; based
upon extensive analysis of research literature and his own research; an extension
of the thinking of John Carroll; basis of mastery learning; instead of old thinking
that there are good learners and poor learners, Bloom believed there are faster
learners and there are slower learners. Model has three categories: student
characteristics, instruction, and learning outcomes.
Harnishfeger & Wiley’s 1976 Determinants of Pupil Achievement - Based on
Carroll’s model, but also influenced by Bloom; encompasses background
characteristics, teaching-learning process, and outcomes; recognition that all pupil
outcomes are directly mediated through pupil pursuits; emphasizes teacher time
and learner time; they include teacher background characteristics as conditions
related to student achievement.
Cooley, Leinhardt, & Lohnes’s 1975 Model of Classroom Processes - Focuses on
relationship between school practices and school performance. Variables being
predicted included academic achievement and attitudes toward school, peers and
teachers. Input = initial student performance; Process - opportunity, motivators,
structure, instructional events; output - criterion performance.
Learner-based models of instruction. There is currently an increased emphasis on
learner characteristics; expansion beyond learner prerequisites skills and contentrelated variables: background experiences, cultural diversity, and attitudes.
Examples:
o Models of Adult Teaching and Learning - Considers whether cognitive
functioning is function of age.
 Knowles Model of Andragogy - movement from dependency
toward self-directedness with age; adult instruction requires an
emphasis on one’s personal experiences; instruction should focus
on problems not subject matter.
 Phases Theories of Adult Development
 Havinghurst’s Phases of Development - Chronology-based. Early
adulthood (select mates, begin career), middle adulthood (achieve
social responsibility, guide teenagers), old age (adjust to
decreasing health, reduced income); use as basis for planning
relevant learning experiences for adults.
 Erickson’s Developmental Cycles - Eight life cycle periods;
Movement from basic trust vs. mistrust to ego integrity vs. despair.
 Richey’s Systemic Training Design - Descriptive theory of
learning in training environments and related procedural model;
Learner-related prerequisites - impact of age, attitudes, and past
experiences. To improve ISD, include: (1) quality of delivery, (2)
intellectual & emotional baggage, (3) instructional strategies. More
iterative, builds on ISD, expands front-end analysis. Systemic
refers to fact that concurrent aspects of situation may affect
learning. Disadvantages of Richey (1992) model: (a) increased
design cycle time, (b) knowledge not does directly impact
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behavior. Contextual factors stressed - learner background,
incentives, resources, culture, group support. Formal schooling
knowledge retention, on-the-job transfer, and training motivation.
Older adults with more work experiences may be less motivated to
participated in training.
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Transfer of training (Handouts in this section)
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ASSURE model
ASSURE Model
Analyze learners - general characteristics, specific entry competencies (knowledge,
skills and attitudes), and learning style
State objectives - What is the student to learn?
Select methods, media and materials - select available materials, modify existing
materials or design new materials.
Utilize media and materials - conduct the instruction
Require learner participation - provide feedback and practice
Evaluate and revise - evaluate the learner and the materials and change the instruction
for the next time
Assure Model Lesson Plan
Analyze learners
(give as much information as possible about recipients of this lesson)
(use an additional sheet if necessary, or use back of this page)
General Characteristics
Number of Students:
Level (grade or age):
Gender: (Male/Female)
Age range:
Exceptionalities - adhd, hearing, etc:
Cultural/Ethnic/or other types of Diversity:
Other:
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Entry Competencies
What skills do they have already:
They need to review:
Other:
Learning Styles:
Visual (% of students):
Auditory (hearing/verbal):
Kinesthetic (hands on/physical):
Other:
State Objectives
(Statements describing what the learner will do as a result of
instruction)
Objective elements:
Audience:
(ex: etec 2003 class, workshop participants, 5th grade PE class)
Behavior:
(what you want them to do - needs to be observable and
measurable, see page 38, ex: label, define...)
Condition:
(under what circumstances? ex: using a blank map, working in
groups, without notes, etc..)
Degree:
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(how well do you want them to demonstrate their mastery? 9 out of
10, 100%....)
Objective Statement(s):
(combine the ABCD elements into one statement)
(ex: The 9th and 10th grade high school art class will be able to
identify and draw perspective using pencils and rulers with 90%
accuracy. or The kindergarten class will identify the colors, red,
green, and blue using blocks 9 out of 10 tries. Use as many objective
statements as you need for your lesson, if you have several different
objectives the learner needs to meet.)
Select, Modify, Design materials
(Bridge between the audience and objectives)
List Media and Materials to be used in the lesson:
Exam/Worksheet
Transparency
Non Projected Interactive Media (ex: interactive bulletin board)
Power Point Instructional Project
Five Instructional web pages
Extras: (ex: guest speakers, video tape, computer, lcd panel,
etc....)
Utilize Media, Materials, & Methods
(Plan of how you are going to implement your media and materials)
For each media and materials listed under select, describe in detail
how you are going to implement them into your lesson to help your
learners met the lesson's objective. Please write in full sentences, do
this for each item. (ex: I am going to use my instructional web pages
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to demonstrate to my students how Shakespeare used a certain style
to write.....)
Require Learner Participation
(Describe how you are going to get each learner "actively" and
individually involved in the lesson. ex: games, group work,
presentations, skit, etc...)
Evaluate and Revise
(Describe how you will, in the future, measure whether or not the
lesson objectives were met. Also, was the media and the instruction
effective?)
Evaluate student performance:
How will you determine whether or not they met the lesson's
objective?
(ex: quiz, presentations, etc...)
Make a note for revision in the future.
Evaluate media components:
How will you determine the media effectiveness?
(ex: student reaction, peer review, etc...)
Make a note for revision in the future.
Evaluate instructor performance:
How will you determine whether or not your own performance as
instructor/facilitator was effective?
(ex: peer evaluation, student evaluation, etc....)
Make a note for revision in the future.
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John Keller’s ARCS model
Keller's ARCS Model of Motivation
Doctor, Florida State University: Program Leader, Instructional
Systems.
E-mail: kellerj@cet.fsu.edu
In the late 1970s, John Keller began work on motivation in
instruction, which was an outgrowth of his interest in effort and its
variability.
He was frustrated that so much of the interest in psychology especially research and theory that accounted for learner differences
in achievement - was concentrated on differences in leaner ability.



To account for performance differences, Keller felt that it was necessary to
understand and model the influence of effort and the contributors to effort.
He determined that among the various constructs that might be applied to the
problem of variation in effort, that of motivation was the most appropriate and
useful (Keller, 1983).
Hence, the ARCS Model of Motivation:
o Attention. Increase perceptual arousal with the use of novel, surprising,
incongruous and uncertain events. Increase inquiry arousal by stimulating
information seeking behavior; pose or have the learner generate questions
or a problem to solve. Maintain interest by varying the elements of
instruction.
o Relevance. Emphasize relevance within the instruction to increase
motivation. Use concrete language and examples with which students are
familiar. Provide examples and concepts that are related to learners'
previous experiences and values. Present goal orienting statements and
objectives. Explain the utility of instruction for both present and future
uses.
o Confidence. Allow students to develop confidence by enabling them to
succeed. Present a degree of challenge that allows for meaningful success
under both learning and performance conditions. Show the student that his
or her expended effort directly influences the consequences. Generate
positive expectations. Provide feedback and support internal attributions
for success. Help students estimate the probability of success by
presenting performance requirements and evaluation criteria.
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o


Satisfaction. Provide opportunities to use newly acquired knowledge or
skill in a real or simulated setting. Provide feedback and reinforcements
that will sustain the desired behavior. Maintain consistent standards and
consequences for task accomplishments. Manage reinforcement: keep
outcomes of learner's efforts consistent with expectations.
John Keller’s ARCS model of Motivational Design - Attention, Relevance,
Confidence, Satisfaction; applies motivation = expectancy X value; enhances the
traditional ISD orientation; original model developed in 1979; includes
motivational criterion measures; identify expected and unexpected motivational
effects of instruction during formative and summative evaluation.
John Keller’s ARCS model of Motivational Design - Based upon the work of
Tolman & Lewin; behavioral influence - contingency design, reinforcement &
feedback; Cognitive influence - emphasizes learner characteristics, distinguishes
between effort and performance; Humanistic influence - emphasizes the
importance of free will; Social Learning Theory influence - motivation is
dependent at least in part upon human interactions; psychological research on
motivation to instructional design. One of first to imply that designers should
assume responsibility for motivation; major contribution was not too focus on
learner ability like others were doing to account for different achievement, but
look at motivation.
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Tessmer and Wedman’s Layers of Necessity
Tessmer, M and Wedman, J.F. (1990). A Layers-of-necessity instructional development
model. ETR&D, 38 (2), 77-85.
Layers of Necessity Layers of Necessity is actually a series of nested ISD models where the
designer determines a layer of design and development based on project
restrictions. Based on the premise that instruction evolves over time
rather than emerges fully developed and that most instructional design
models prescribe a level of detail and complexity which is difficult and
sometimes impractical to obtain in practice.
"Based on the time and resources available to the developer, the
developer chooses a layer of design and development activities to
incorporate into an instructional product or project. The layer is matched
to the necessities of the project. Individually each layer is a selfcontained ID model. Collectively the models differ in terms of design and
development sophistication. For situations with severe time and resource
limitations, only the simplest layer may be possible; for situations with
more time and resources, a more sophisticated layer may be
used"
p. 79
"The purpose of subsequent layers is to enhance the work that was
previously completed."
p. 80
Need to determine:
1. layer-selection: determines which ID activities are appropriate
given time and resource constraints
Example: the precision of an ID activity is a function of the ease of
achieving that precision; ex. if you only have limited time then you
should choose broad goals rather than specific objectives
2. layer-implementation: determines how the ID activities within a
particular layer are carried out.
Example: the output of all activities should be consistent
with each other; don't have complicated objectives and
simple assessments
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Each layer needs to include 5 basic activities:
1. situational assessment
o what performance improvement is required?
o will instruction improve performance?
o who will receive the instruction?
o what are the resource and time constraints?
2. goal and task analysis
o what is the instructional goal?
o what will the performer do when performing
the goal?
o what learning domains are involved?
3. instructional strategy development
o given the learning domain and the audience,
what instructional strategies are most likely to
e effective and efficient for the instructional
outcome?
o what strategy will work within the situational
constraints?
4. materials development
o what materials can be used to deliver the
instruction in a timely and economical
manner?
5. evaluation and revision
o is the content accurate?
o is the instructional strategy adequate?
o what revisions must be made before fill-scale
implementation?
**The model is as much about a way of thinking about ID as it is a
perspective one brings to the ID process.
**The key to using the model is a realistic assessment of the time and
resource constraints associated with a particular design and
development project.
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Ben Bloom’s Taxomony of Learning – (Have handout for
this section)
THE TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES
This is a revised version of Benjamin Bloom's work with the addition of
the Psychomotor Domain as developed by Anita Harrow [1972]. Dr.
Bloom's intent was to develop a classification framework for writing
educational objectives.
COGNITIVE DOMAIN of the Taxonomy of Educational Objectives
1. Knowledge: recognize or recall information.
Q: What is the capital of Maine? Who wrote "Hamlet?"
Words typically used: define, recall, recognize, remember, who, what, where,
when.
2. Comprehension: demonstrate that the student has sufficient understanding to
organize and arrange material mentally.
Q: What do you think Hamlet meant when he said, "to be or not to be, that is the
question?" (Rosenshine, among others, would argue that one of the best ways to
teach is to teach pupils how to ask their own questions about the topic under
consideration.)
Words typically used: describe, compare, contrast, rephrase, put in your own
words, explain the main idea.
3. Application: a question that asks a student to apply previously learned
information to reach an answer. Solving math word problems is an example.
Q: According to our definition of socialism, which of the following nations would
be considered to be socialist?
Words typically used: apply, classify, use, choose, employ, write and example,
solve, how many, which, what is.
4. Analysis: higher order questions that require students to think critically and in
depth. [Unless students can be brought to the higher levels of analysis, synthesis,
and evaluation, it is unlikely that transfer will take place, i.e., this is stuff I can use
rather than this is just more dumb school stuff that I can forget after I take the test.
If teachers don't ask higher-level questions, it is unlikely that most students will
transfer schoolwork to real life. They may not even be able to apply it to school
situations other than the one in which it was "learned." E.g., we "know" that
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students know more than scores on the CAP Test or SAT would suggest.] In
analysis questions, students are asked to engage in three kinds of cognitive
processes:
1. identify the motives, reasons, and/or causes for a specific occurrence (Q:
Why was Israel selected as the site for the Jewish nation?),
2. consider and analyze available information to reach a conclusion,
inference, or generalization based on this information (Q: After studying
the French, American, and Russian revolutions, what can you conclude
about the causes of a revolution?), or
3. Words typically used: identify motives/causes, draw conclusions,
determine evidence, support, analyze, why.
5. Synthesis: higher order question that asks the student to perform original and
creative thinking. Synthesis questions ask students to:
1. produce original communications. (Q: What's a good name for this
invention? Write a letter to the editor on a social issue of concern to you.
Make a collage of pictures and words that represents your beliefs and
feelings about the issue.)
2. make predictions. (Q: How would the U.S.A. be different if the South had
won the Civil War? What would happen if school attendance was made
optional? What is the next likely development in popular music?)
3. solve problems--although analysis questions may also ask students to
solve problems, synthesis questions differ because they don't require a
single correct answer but instead allow a variety of creative answers.
(How could we determine the number of pennies in a jar without counting
them? How can we raise money for our ecology project?
Words typically used in synthesis questions: predict, produce, write,
design, develop, synthesize, construct, how can we improve, what would
happen if, can you devise, how can we solve.
6. Evaluation: a higher level question that does not have a single correct answer. It
requires the student to judge the merit of an idea, a solution to a problem, or an
aesthetic work. The student may also be asked to offer an opinion on an issue. (Q:
Do you think schools are too easy? Is busing an appropriate remedy for
desegregating schools? Do you think it is true that "Americans never had it so
good?" Which U.S. senator is the most effective? To answer evaluation questions
objective criteria or personal values must be applied. Some standard must be used.
differing standards are quite acceptable and they naturally result in different
answers. This type of question frequently is used to surface values or to cause
students to realize that not everyone sees things the same way. It can be used to
start a class discussion. It can also precede a follow-up analysis or synthesis
question like, "Why?"
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AFFECTIVE DOMAIN of the Taxonomy of Educational Objectives
The Affective Domain addresses interests, attitudes, opinions, appreciations, values, and
emotional sets.
The original purpose of the Taxonomy of Educational Objectives was to provide a tool
for classifying instructional objectives. The Taxonomy is hierarchical (levels increase in
difficulty/sophistication) and cumulative (each level builds on and subsumes the ones
below). The levels, in addition to clarifying instructional objectives, may be used to
provide a basis for questioning that ensures that students progress to the highest level of
understanding. If the teaching purpose is to change attitudes/behavior rather than to
transmit/process information, then the instruction should be structured to progress
through the levels of the Affective Domain:
1. Receiving. The student passively attends to particular phenomena or stimuli
[classroom activities, textbook, music, etc. The teacher's concern is that the
student's attention is focused. Intended outcomes include the pupil's awareness
that a thing exists. Sample objectives: listens attentively, shows sensitivity to
social problems. Behavioral terms: asks, chooses, identifies, locates, points to, sits
erect, etc.
2. Responding. The student actively participates. The pupil not only attends to the
stimulus but also reacts in some way. Objectives: completes homework, obeys
rules, participates in class discussion, shows interest in subject, enjoys helping
others, etc. Terms: answers, assists, complies, discusses, helps, performs,
practices, presents, reads, reports, writes, etc.
3. Valuing. The worth a student attaches to a particular object, phenomenon, or
behavior. Ranges from acceptance to commitment (e.g., assumes responsibility
for the functioning of a group). Attitudes and appreciation. Objectives:
demonstrates belief in democratic processes, appreciates the role of science in
daily life, shows concern for others' welfare, demonstrates a problem-solving
approach, etc. Terms: differentiates, explains, initiates, justifies, proposes, shares,
etc.
4. Organization. Bringing together different values, resolving conflicts among
them, and starting to build an internally consistent value system--comparing,
relating and synthesizing values and developing a philosophy of life. Objectives:
recognizes the need for balance between freedom and responsibility in a
democracy, understands the role of systematic planning in solving problems,
accepts responsibility for own behavior, etc. Terms: Arranges, combines,
compares, generalizes, integrates, modifies, organizes, synthesizes, etc.
5. Characterization by a Value or Value Complex. At this level, the person has
held a value system that has controlled his behavior for a sufficiently long time
that a characteristic "life style" has been developed. Behavior is pervasive,
consistent and predictable. Objectives are concerned with personal, social, and
emotional adjustment: displays self-reliance in working independently, cooperates
in-group activities, maintains good health habits, etc. Terms:
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PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN of the Taxonomy of Educational Objectives
Instructional objectives and derived questions/tasks typically have cognitive/affective
elements, but the focus is on motorskill development. The suggested areas for use are
speech development, reading readiness, handwriting, and physical education. Other areas
include manipulative skills required in business training [e.g., keyboarding], industrial
technology, and performance areas in science, art and music. American education has
tended to emphasize cognitive development at the expense of affective and psychomotor
development. The well-rounded and fully functioning person needs development in all
three domains. In the psychomotor domain, performance may take the place of
questioning strategies in many cases.
1. Reflex movements. Segmental, intersegmental, and suprasegmental reflexes.
2. Basic-fundamental movements. Locomotor movements, nonlocomotor
movements, manipulative movements.
3. Perceptual abilities. Kinesthetic, visual, auditory and tactile discrimination and
coordinated abilities.
4. Physical abilities. Endurance, strength, flexibility, and agility.
5. Skilled movements. Simple, compound, and complex adaptive skills.
6. Nondiscursive communication. Expressive and interpretive movement.
Sample general objectives: writes smoothly and legibly; accurately reproduces a
picture, map, etc.; operates a [machine] skillfully; plays the piano skillfully;
demonstrates correct swimming form; drives an automobile skillfully; creates a
new way of performing [creative dance]; etc.
Behavioral terms: assembles, builds, composes, fastens, grips, hammers, makes,
manipulates, paints, sharpens, sketches, uses, etc. [See Anita Harrow, 1972, for
more detail on the psychomotor domain.]
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Gagne’s Nine Events of Instruction and Learning
Taxonomy
1. Gaining attention - Helps students focus on relevant portions of the learning task
2. Informing learner of lesson objective(s) - Tells students what they are about to
learn
3. Stimulating recall of prior learning - Help students retrieve memories that are
necessary or helpful in achieving new objectives
4. Presenting stimuli with distinctive features - Expose students to information that
they will be learning
5. Providing learning guidance - Provide students with clues to help them
understand and remember what they are to learn
6. Elicit performance - Gives students an opportunity to demonstrate that they have
learned the new information to this point and are ready to proceed to the next part
of the lesson
7. Provide feedback - Give students information about the adequacy of their
responses in the “elicit performance” event
8. Assessing performance -Assess whether the students have achieved the objectives
of the session or unit
9. Enhance retention and transfer -Allow students to review and extend new so that
it is available for subsequent application
Gagné's Taxonomy of Learning Outcomes
Gagné's
Notes
Taxonomy
of Learning
Outcomes
Correlation with Definitions
other taxonomies
External Conditions
Verbal
Declarative
Information Knowledge:
 facts
 concepts
 principles
 procedures
(Bloom)
knowledge,
comprehension
 Draw attention to
distinctive features
by variations in
print or speech
 Present info for
chunking
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 Provide
meaningful context
for effective
encoding
 Provide cues for
effective recall and
generalization of
info
Intellectual
Skills
procedural
knowledge
 discriminations
 concrete
concepts
 defined
concepts
 rules
 higher order
rules
(Bloom)
Application
Analysis
Synthesis
Evaluation
learning
hierarchy: set
of component
skills that must
be learned
before the
complex skill
of which they
are a part can
be learned
 Call attention to
distinctive features
 Stay within limits
of working memory
(7±2)
 Stimulate recall
of previously
learned components
 Present verbal
cues to the ordering
or combination of
component skills
 Schedule
occasions for
practice and spaced
review
 Use variety of
contexts to promote
transfer
Cognitive
Strategies
unique, effective,
creative
strategies; seeing
problems in new
and insightful
ways; finding
solutions to what
others did not see
as a problem
numerous ways
by which
learners guide
their own
learning,
thinking,
acting, and
feeling
 Describe or
demonstrate
strategy
 Provide variety
of occasions for
practice of strategy
 Provide feedback
as to creativity or
originality
Attitudes
related to
motivation;
highlights two of
the three accepted
outcomes of
attitude
formation:
informational,
(Krathwohl,
acquired
Bloom & Masia) internal states
that influence
the choice of
Receiving
personal action
toward some
Responding
class of things,
persons, or
(does not
 Establish
expectancy of
success associated
with desired attitude
 Assure student
identification with
role model
 Arrange for
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behavioral,
emotional
Motor Skills single fluid
motions vs.
complex
procedures;
cognitive skills
involved
include: Valuing, events
Organization,
Characterization
by value)
communication or
demo of choice of
personal action
 Give feedback
for successful
performance/allow
observation of
feedback in role
model
(Simpson)
 Present
verbal/other
guidance to cue
action
 Arrange repeated
practice
 Furnish
immediate feedback
as to accuracy
 Encourage use of
mental practice
precise, smooth
and accurately
timed execution
Perception
of
performances
Set
involving the
Guided Response use of muscles
Mechanism
Complex
Response
Adaptation
Origination
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Roger Kaufman’s Needs Assessment - (Have articles for
this section, check manual)
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Allison Rossett’s Needs Assessment
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Stufflebeam’s CIPP Model
Program Evaluation: Alternative Approaches and Practical Guidelines, pp 98 – 99.
The CIPP Evaluation Model
Stufflebeam (1971; Stufflebeam & Shinkfield, 1985) has been an influential proponent of
a decision-oriented evaluation approach structured to help administrators make good
decisions. He views evaluation as “the process of delineating, obtaining, and providing
useful information for judging decision alternatives” (Stufflebeam, 1973a, p. 129). He
developed an evaluation framework to serve managers and administrators facing four
different kinds of educational decisions.
1. Context evaluation, to serve planning decisions. Determining what needs are to
be addressed by a program helps in defining objectives for the program.
2. Input evaluation, to serve structuring decisions. Determining what resources are
available, what alternative strategies for the program should be considered, and
what plan seems to have the best potential for meeting needs facilitates design of
program procedures.
3. Process evaluation, to serve implementing decisions. How well is the plan being
implemented? What barriers threaten its success? What revisions are needed?
Once these questions are answered, procedures can be monitored, controlled, and
refined.
4. Product evaluation, to serve recycling decisions. What results were obtained?
How well were needs reduced? What should be done with the program after it
has run its course? These questions are important in judging program
attainments.
The first letters of each type of evaluation – context, input, process, and product – have
been used to form the acronym CIPP, by which Stufflebeam’s evaluation model is best
known. Table 6.1 summarizes the main features of the four types of evaluation, as
proposed by Stufflebeam and Shinkfield (1985, pp. 170-171).
Objective
Context
Evaluation
Input
Evaluation
Process
Evaluation
Product
Evaluation
To define the
institutional context,
to identify the target
population and
assess their needs, to
identify opportunities
for addressing the
needs, to diagnose
problems underlying
the needs, and to
judge whether
proposed objectives
are sufficiently
To identify and
assess system
capabilities,
alternative program
strategies, procedural
designs for
implementing the
strategies, budgets,
and schedules.
To identify or predict
in process defects in
the procedural design
or its
implementation, to
provide information
for the
preprogrammed
decisions, and to
record and judge
procedural events
and activities.
To collect
descriptions and
judgments of
outcomes and to
relate them to
objectives and to
context, input, and
process information,
and to interpret their
worth and merit.
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Method
Relation to
decision
making in the
change process
responsive to the
assessed needs.
By using such
methods as system
analysis, survey,
documents review,
hearings, interviews,
diagnostic tests, and
the Delphi technique.
For deciding upon
the setting to be
served, the goals
associated with
meeting needs or
using opportunities,
and the objectives
associated with
solving problems –
that is, for planning
needed changes –
and to provide a
basis for judging
outcomes.
By inventorying and
analyzing available
human and material
resources, solution
strategies, and
procedural designs
for relevance,
feasibility, and
economy, and by
using such methods
as literature search,
visits to exemplary
programs, advocate
teams, and pilot
trials.
For selecting sources
of support, solution
strategies, and
procedural designs –
that is, for
structuring change
activities – and to
provide a basis for
judging
implementation
By monitoring the
activity’s potential
procedural barriers
and remaining alert
to unanticipated
ones, by obtaining
specified information
for programmed
decisions, by
describing the actual
process, and by
continually
interacting with and
observing the
activities of project
staff.
For implementing
and refining the
program design and
procedure – that is,
for effecting process
control – and to
provide a log of the
actual process for
later use in
interpreting
outcomes.
By defining
operationally and
measuring outcome
criteria, by collecting
judgments of
outcomes from
stakeholders, and by
performing both
qualitative and
quantitative analyses.
For deciding to
continue, terminate,
modify, or refocus a
change activity, and
to present a clear
record of effects
(intended and
unintended, positive
and negative).
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Charles Reigeluth’s Elaboration Theory
Elaboration theory (ET) is a model for sequencing and organizing courses of
instruction. Developed by Charles Reigeluth and associates in the late 1970s
(Reigeluth, Merrill, & Wilson, 1978; Reigeluth, Merrill, Wilson, & Spiller, 1979),
ET drew heavily upon the cognitive research on instruction available at the time,
in particular the work of Bruner, Ausubel, and Norman (Merrill, Wilson, &
Kelety, 1981). Since then, Reigeluth has refined the theory by offering detailed
procedures for the planning and design of conceptual (Reigeluth & Darwazeh,
1982), procedural (Reigeluth & Rodgers, 1980), and theoretical instruction (see
Reigeluth and Stein, 1983 for an overview and Reigeluth, 1987 for a detailed
example). ET has been one of the best-received theoretical innovations in
instructional design (ID) in the last 15 years, and is heavily referred to and used
by practitioners and researchers. At the same time, research in cognitive
psychology has continued to shed light on relevant processes of learning and
instruction. Just as models of learning change over time, models of instructional
design also undergo regular changes (Merrill, Kowallis, & Wilson, 1981;
Rickards, 1978). The purpose of this paper is to offer a critique of ET based on
recent cognitive research, and to offer suggestions for updating the model to
reflect new knowledge. We believe ID models should undergo such revisions
every few years to stay current with the growing knowledge base in learning,
instruction, and other areas of research.
Elaboration Theory Basics
ET's basic strategies are briefly summarized below.
1. Organizing structure. Determine a single organizing structure for the course
which reflects the course's primary focus. This organizing structure may be one
of three types: conceptual, procedural, or theoretical. Reigeluth (1987) explains
that "In all the work that has been done on sequencing, elaborations based on
concepts, principles, and procedures are the only three we have found, although
additional ones may be identified in the future" (p. 249). Reigeluth justifies the
use of a single organizing structure by suggesting that "careful analysis has
shown that virtually every course holds one of these three to be more important
than the other two" (Reigeluth, 1987, p. 248). The other two types of content, plus
rote facts, "are only introduced when they are highly relevant to the particular
organizing content ideas that are being presented at each point in the course"
(Reigeluth & Stein, 1983, p. 344).
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2. Simple-to-complex sequence. Design the course proceeding through the identified
structure in a simple to complex fashion, with supporting content added within
lessons. Begin with a lesson containing "a few of the most fundamental and
representative ideas [taught] at a concrete, application (or skill) level..."
(Reigeluth, 1987, p. 248). This first lesson is termed the "epitome"; successive
lessons add successive layers of complexity in accordance with the categories of
the organizing structure.
3. Within-lesson sequencing.
--Follow these guidelines according to the type of organizing structure:
--For conceptually organized instruction "present the easiest, most familiar
organizing concepts first" (p. 251).
--For procedures, "present the steps in order of their performance" (p. 251).
--For theoretically organized instruction, move from simple to complex.
--Place supporting content immediately after related organizing content.
--Adhere to learning prerequisite relationships in the content.
--Present coordinate concepts simultaneously rather than serially.
--Teach the underlying principle before its associated procedure.
4. Summarizers are content reviews (presented in rule-example-practice format),
at both lesson and unit levels.
5. Synthesizers are presentation devices--often in diagram form--designed to help
the learner integrate content elements into a meaningful whole and assimilate
them into prior knowledge. They help make content structure explicit to the
student; examples include a concept hierarchy, a procedural flowchart or
decision table, or a cause-effect model with nodes and arrows.
6. Analogies relate the content to learners' prior knowledge. Effective analogies
will tend to bear strong resemblance to the content; weak analogies will contain
more differences than similarities with the target content. Reigeluth and Stein
(1983) suggest the use of multiple analogies, especially with a highly divergent
group of learners.
7. Cognitive strategy activators. A variety of cues--pictures, diagrams, mnemonics,
etc.--can trigger cognitive strategies needed for appropriate processing of
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material. Reigeluth and Stein (1983) note that these cues for strategy use may be
embedded, such as pictures, diagrams, or mnemonics--indirectly "forcing"
appropriate processing--or detached, such as directions to "create a mental 'image'
of the process you just learned" (p. 362). Continued use of these activators can
eventually lead students to understand when and where to apply various
cognitive strategies spontaneously upon learning materials.
8. Learner control. Reigeluth and Stein (1983) believe that "instruction generally
increases in effectiveness, efficiency, and appeal to the extent that it permits
informed learner control by motivated learners (with a few minor exceptions)"
(p. 362). Learners are encouraged to exercise control over both content and
instructional strategy. Clear labeling and separation of strategy components
facilitates effective learner control of those components. Regarding content,
Reigeluth and Stein (1983) claim that "only a simple-to-complex sequence can
allow the learner to make an informed decision about the selection of content" (p.
363), presumably because content choices will be meaningful at any given point.
Knowledge Representation
Before turning to sequencing concerns, we discuss the notion of content structure
and its epistemological assumptions.
What is Content Structure?
The basic idea of content structure--the way content elements are interrelated--is
a long-accepted notion in educational psychology (e.g., Bruner, 1966). However,
the nature of content structure is ambiguous. Is content structure something
different from people's cognitive structures? Is there an external body of
knowledge with its own logic and form (Ford & Pugno, 1964; Education and the
structure of knowledge, 1964), or can we only meaningfully speak of the structure
of individual understandings? If the distinction between external and internal
structures is sound, what is the relationship between the two? These questions
are substantive because instructional-design theory has been challenged in the
past because of its behavioristic focus on external tasks and lack of attention to
mental structures and the cognitive mediation of learning.
Certainly, a variety of task analyses may be performed that emphasize different
aspects of the task, many of which do not attempt to model cognitive structure
(Jonassen, Hannum, & Tessmer, 1989). The same may be said of content
structures. Content may be categorized, analyzed, and represented in different
ways for different purposes, and need not relate directly to internal cognitive
representations. While different positions may be taken, however, we believe
that content/task analysis, as a basic ID procedure, is most useful when it models
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in external form the structure and process of people's knowledge and skills. Such
a model of internal forms is important as a basis for planning sound instruction.
Typically, the most useful kind of "content structure" is a model of the way
knowledge is thought to be structured in people's minds. Admittedly, an
external model may be a poor approximation of people's knowledge, but it
serves a useful purpose for planning and designing instruction.
How Is Content Structured?
If we accept the notion of content structure as modeled cognitive structure, the
next question becomes, what kinds of knowledge are there, and how are they
structured; that is, how are content elements interrelated? Another way of asking
the question is, how is human knowledge organized? As we might imagine,
there are as many answers to this question as there are models of human thought
and memory, ranging from simple chains of learned behaviors to complex
networks to a refusal to explicitly model human knowledge on the grounds that
it is inherently tacit and ineffable.
Anderson (1990) posits two basic kinds of knowledge: declarative and
procedural knowledge. This distinction is also made by philosophers (Ryle, 1949)
and is influential among educational psychologists (E. Gagné, 1985). The
distinction is also popular with instructional designers (e.g., Gagné, Briggs, &
Wager, 1988). Practicing teachers and designers make common reference to
"knowledge" (declarative knowledge) and "skills" (procedural knowledge). Thus
students may learn about computers, or they may learn how to operate them.
The two forms of knowledge support each other. Some theorists add image
encoding as a separate knowledge type (e.g., Kosslyn, 1980; Gagné, Yekovich, &
Yekovich, in press), but instructional designers have not emphasized imagic
knowledge as an independent learning outcome.
Several theorists add an integrative structure of some sort to accommodate these
knowledge elements into a whole pattern, referred to variously as schema, script,
frame, or mental model (Norman, Gentner, & Stevens, 1976; Johnson-Laird,
1982). Rumelhart and Norman (1981) propose that all knowledge is procedurally
represented, "but that the system can sometimes interrogate this knowledge how to
produce knowledge that," that is, declarative knowledge (p. 343). Simon (1980)
holds a similar view. Tulving's (1985) research suggests at least three types of
memory: (1) procedural memory, with a specialized subset of (2) semantic
memory, with a specialized subset of (3) episodic memory.
A number of psychologists have added the situation or context of use as part of
what gets learned (Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989). Rather than thinking of
expertise as the acquisition of a general schema, they claim that learning and
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expertise are always embedded in a particular physical, social, and cultural
context. Learning is a matter of enculturation, that is, of becoming part of a
community which jointly constructs meaning. Seen in this way, the context of
use becomes part of the "content structure" in need of analysis and representation
for the design of instruction.
As mentioned, there is even some resistance to the notion that human expertise
can be defined by discrete concepts and rules. Dreyfus and Dreyfus (1986) argue
that real knowledge cannot be separated from the person, and that reductionist
attempts to model knowledge explicitly are doomed to failure. In a less radical
but equally compelling position, Bereiter (1991) challenges the idea common in
cognitive science that human thinking is rule-based; instead, he presents an
argument for viewing thinking in connectionist terms as a pattern-matching,
pattern-using activity.
At least since Rousseau, there has been a strain of educational thought opposed
to the classical, rule-based view of learning and cognition. It has often appealed
to biological concepts of growth, emergence, and organicism or to social and
cultural concepts and has emphasized imagination, spontaneity, feeling, and the
wholistic character or understanding....This strain of thought has given rise to
many worthwhile developments in education, such as the...currently popular
whole language movement. (Bereiter, 1991, p. 15)
The connectionist model thus rejects the partitioning of knowledge into discrete
structures (e.g., declarative and procedural), integrating cognitive, affective, and
psychomotor aspects of performance. Bereiter contrasts this wholistic view of
learning with a more rule-based approach:
In contrast to the Rousseauistic tradition is a family of instructional theories in
which rules, definitions, logical operations, explicit procedures, and the like are
treated as central (Reigeluth, 1983). From a connectionist standpoint, this family
of instructional theories has produced an abundance of technology on an illusory
psychological foundation. (Bereiter, 1991, p. 15)
Connectionist theorists would clearly object to ET's discretely dividing
knowledge into concepts, procedures, and theories. Bereiter concludes the article
by suggesting that the "situated" and "embodied" cognitive approaches could
provide a comprehensive alternative that would accommodate elements of both
rule-based and connectionist perspectives appropriately. ET currently does not
provide detailed prescriptions for making instructional sequences "authentic" or
"situated" in a context similar to real-life problems.
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The claim that not all people solve problems by following rules finds support in
research by Papert (1988) and Gillian (1982). Papert explains the two ways bright
10- and 11-year-olds program computers. One way
fits the model of "the logical." Faced with a problem, [the children] subdivide it,
modularize it, deal with the parts one at a time, put them together and make a
program that is clearly logically structured.
But other children demonstrate a different style--one in which a program
emerges...through something closer to the way in which a sculptor or painter
makes a work of art--a process in which the plan of what is to be made emerges
and is refined at the same time as the created object takes form. (p. 12)
Papert says the children who use the "negotiational style are performing at an
intellectual level that is fully as excellent and of high quality as the other
children" (p. 12).
Content Structure as Organizing Structure
Recall that ET suggests using content structure as an organizing and sequencing
device, with three main prescriptions offered. First, courses and lessons should
be organized into components according to the content structure being taught.
This prescription is fairly broad and benign. The second prescription is stronger:
A course's organization should depend on the primary goals of instruction:
conceptual, procedural, or theoretical. If you want learners to have a conceptual
overview of a new subject, subdivide and organize the course's lessons according
to a taxonomy. If your goals are procedural, begin with the simplest version of
the procedure and progressively add more steps and decision points; and if your
goals are theoretical, begin with the most important principles and add
qualifying or extending principles in later lessons. The third prescription is also
strong: Course units should all reflect the primary organizing structure. That is, a
course with a conceptual structure as its primary organizing structure should be
chunked into lessons of concepts within the original conceptual structure. A
procedural course should be chunked into increasingly complex versions of the
overall procedure. The rationale for the latter two prescriptions seems to be that
if the organizing structure entirely reflects the primary course goals it will
enhance meaningful encoding, retention and retrieval.
The first prescription--that course organization should basically reflect content
structure--is consistent with text design studies of access structure. As a rule,
students are aided when text structure somehow reflects underlying semantic
structure (see, however, Mannes & Kintsch, 1987, discussed below). The second
and third prescriptions, though, are much stronger versions of the idea. Again,
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such constraints on designer judgment provide ostensive gains in economy but
questionable payoff. The rationale for a single organizing structure seems to be
based on assumptions that the development of stable cognitive structures, a goal
of ET (Reigeluth, 1983), is best achieved by presenting content in the framework
of a single, top-down organizing structure. As we illustrate in several sections
below (e.g., Ill-structured Domains & Making Content Structure Explicit), there
are many challenges to this assumption.
There seems to be little evidence to draw on in psychology literature to support
such a constrained approach to course organization. Posner and Strike (1976;
Strike & Posner, 1976) reviewed a variety of methods for organizing courses. In
essence, they suggest that a course structure should have a certain "face validity"
to the student; that is, it should have a logical and meaningful connection to
students' prior understanding. The implication of their review is that courses
need some kind of organizing device or logic; the precise kind of organization is
much less important than that it make sense to the learner.
Posner and Rudnitsky (1986) present a somewhat eclectic approach to course
design. Rather than three basic kinds of course structure, they suggest a variety
of orientations: inquiry, application, problem, decision, skill, or personal growth.
Laurel (1991) presents a strong case for organizing computer interactions based
on a theatre metaphor, involving the learner in a stage-like structure. This longer,
looser list seems to leave more room for accommodating different kinds of
course and learning goals, as well as prior knowledge; moreover, following
Posner and Rudnitsky, a course's orientation does not constrain its sequencing
strategy.
We would argue for a revision of ET that relaxes the connection between course
goals and overall content structure. First, course goals can be typed on a broader
basis than the three goals listed by ET. Second, a variety of chunking strategies
may be useful for subdividing lesson elements above and beyond a single type of
content structure. Designers need to guard against rigid conceptions of the
domain and encourage a more dynamic structure for students to access and learn
at various points of instruction.
Ill-structured Domains
Another perspective on the structure of knowledge raises additional concerns
about ET. Spiro and colleagues (Spiro, Feltovich, Coulson, & Anderson, 1989;
Spiro & Jehng, 1990) became frustrated in their attempts to apply ID principles in
teaching complex and ill-defined domains. This, according to Spiro, can partly be
attributed to the fact that most ID principles are based on research using
introductory subject matter. As expertise increases, however, the "content"
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becomes less easily defined, more conditional and problematic, and much more
difficult to capture using traditional representational modes. As a consequence
Spiro and colleagues have proposed a dynamic view of knowledge, which they
call cognitive flexibility theory. According to this theory, in complex and ill-defined
domains, a person generally cannot retrieve an intact schema from memory;
instead, schemas combine or recombine in response to the requirements of each
particular situation. Spiro and colleagues have developed an instructional
approach to facilitate knowledge acquisition in complex and ill-defined domains,
criss-crossing the domain with mini-cases to provide multiple perspectives
which can later be reassembled. They recommend the use of multiple analogies
and cases to prevent the development of oversimplifications and misconceptions
common among students (Spiro, Feltovich, Coulson, & Anderson, 1989).
A key feature of cognitive flexibility theory is its view of the subject matter. At
least for advanced knowledge levels, content structure cannot simply be
captured, analyzed, and used to organize courses. Advanced knowledge is
variable, dynamic, and ill-defined; students in turn need a variety of perspectives
and experiences to appreciate its complexity and subtlety. Students will tend to
oversimplify and overgeneralize when presented single analogies or discrete
procedures and rules. Moreover, students' misconceptions are fairly robust and
resistant to change (Spiro et al., 1989, 1990). This dynamic view of the subject
matter seems at odds with ET, which assumes that the designer will organize
instruction based on a well-defined content structure.
ET's strong typing of knowledge categories--conceptual, procedural, and
theoretical--is one of its most theory-laden prescriptions. Constraints on
knowledge representation might be justified if there were some kind of
consensual agreement among researchers, yet precisely the opposite is the case.
According to one survey of educational literature in language and cognition,
twenty-five distinct categories of knowledge were identified (Alexander,
Schallert, & Hare, 1991). Philosophers and humanistic theorists have even more
widely diverging views about the nature of knowledge and expertise (e.g.,
Schon, 1987; Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986; Winograd & Flores, 1986). This is a far cry
from ET's three basic knowledge types! Indeed, the overwhelming finding
concerning knowledge representation seems to be that there is no single right way
to represent knowledge, even for a given context or instructional purpose. Even if a
course were thought to be primarily "conceptual" in purpose, a number of
diverse outcomes are associated with "conceptual" learning (Tessmer, Wilson, &
Driscoll, 1990; Wilson & Tessmer, 1990). ET's use of conceptual, procedural, and
theoretical structures achieves parsimony in its procedures, but at a high cost to
validity and fidelity to current models of learning and knowledge.
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Sequencing Issues
ET suggests that instruction proceed from highly simplified representations to
gradually more complex content. While this prescription is perhaps amenable in
well-structured domains, where expertise is clearly defined, it is problematic in
ill-structured domains. For example, if the primary content structure is
procedural, ET would identify the various paths through a given procedural
network, then begin with the simplest version of the procedure; subsequent
elaborations would merely add complexity to the basic procedure. But ET does
not provide for the possibility, or even desirability, of two learners learning
mutually exclusive procedures. Recall that Papert (1988) found that student
programmers engage in mutually exclusive styles (logical vs. negotiational).
Also, Resnick (1983) has shown that math students construct more sophisticated
procedures than those taught in class. Thus an instructional design that depends
entirely on a single representation of structure could possibly limit students'
personal constructions of meaning from the content.
A number of theorists support the basic sequencing precepts of ET. Bunderson,
Gibbons, Olsen, and Kearsley (1981) suggested that instruction be geared around
a series of work models, each progressing in complexity. Learners then "work"
and solve problems within a current level of work model until a mastery level of
performance is reached; they are graduated to the next level, which builds upon
the prior level. This is similar in some ways to White and Frederiksen's (1986)
approach that builds instruction around a series of increasingly complex
qualitative mental models. However, their approach begins with students'
intuitive mental models, forcing students to confront their misconceptions and
develop increasingly more sophisticated and correct mental models. White and
Frederiksen have applied their simple-to-complex sequencing strategy to the
design of intelligent tutoring systems, as well as more traditional computerbased simulations.
Microworld Design
Burton, Brown, and Fischer (1984), anticipating "situated cognition" (see
discussion above) used skiing as a basis for studying the design of learning
environments which they called "increasingly complex microworlds." Helping
novice performers "debug" their skills is a key goal of microworlds: "The
appropriate microworld can transform 'nonconstructive bugs' into 'constructive
bugs,' ones that can be readily learned from" (Burton, Brown, & Fischer, 1984, p.
140).
Burton and colleagues point to three primary design variables of skill-based
microworlds:
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1. equipment and tools used in performing the skill;
2. the physical setting in which the skill is performed;
3. the specifications for correctly performing the task.
The authors' notion of microworld design shares one key design feature with ET,
that of performing the simplified whole task whenever possible:
Within each microworld that a beginning skier goes through, a particular aspect
of the skill is focused on. But this skill is not executed in isolation. The student
must still do simplified versions of many other skills required to ski.
Simplifications of other interacting subskills let the student learn not only the
particular subskill but also how it is used in the context of the entire skill. (p.
150).
However, they differ from ET in their emphasis on the means of simplification.
Burton and colleagues encourage simplifications of all three design variables, but
within real-world contexts. They simplify equipment by recommending the use
of short skis rather than long ones. They recommend simplifying the physical
setting by finding a downhill slope that feeds into an uphill slope so the learner
can learn to glide without having to learn at the same time to stop. They also
simplify the task itself by asking the novice to practice gliding rather than
traversing. Thus a variety of means of task simplification are available that go
beyond what we normally think of as content structure (see also Wilson, 1985).
Functional Context Training
Montague (1988) provides evidence for the effectiveness of "functional context
training," a spiraling method which begins with familiar objects about which
learners have intuitive knowledge and moves to progressively more complicated
but still familiar objects. For example, an introductory course for electronic
technicians uses concrete and familiar objects for instruction, starting with a
flashlight and proceeding to a table lamp, a curling iron, an AC adaptor, and a
soldering iron. Instruction is situated in realistic settings; it integrates several
domains of knowledge at once: problem solving, basic electricity/electronics
knowledge, mental models of devices, language processing, and mathematics.
The sequencing emphasis for the functional context approach is to move from
simple-familiar toward more complex-familiar. This is similar to ET. The
approach differs from ET in its emphasis on fidelity to job conditions and incontext training. Also, rather than elaborating upon a single epitome, they use a
series of concrete cases or analogies, each drawing attention to different aspects
of the subject area.
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Cognitive Apprenticeships
Collins, Brown, and Newman (1989) have described their idea of the "cognitive
apprenticeship." Like Montague (1988), they provide numerous
recommendations for integrating instruction with realistic performance. Their
specific recommendations for sequencing content, however, are similar to those
of ET in many ways: (1) increasing complexity, (2) increasing diversity, and (3)
global before local skills. The third recommendation requires a short explanation.
Collins et al. suggest scaffolding as a way to support lower-level skills while the
student thinks about larger problems. "In algebra, for example, students may be
relieved of having to carry out low-level computations in which they lack skill to
concentrate on the higher-order reasoning and strategies required to solve an
interesting problem....The chief effect of this sequencing principle," they explain,
"is to allow students to build a conceptual map, so to speak, before attending to
the details of the terrain" (p. 485). This idea of supporting performance and
helping students develop clear mental models is implicit in ET and certainly
consistent with its principles (cf. Wilson, 1985, 1985-86).
Collins cites Schoenfeld's (1985) math research as a cognitive apprenticeship. He
has developed an approach for teaching college-level math that employs a
number of innovative instructional strategies. The method focuses on guiding
students to use their current knowledge to approach and solve novel problems.
The instructor models problem-solving heuristics, including the inevitable false
starts and dead ends; the process of math problem solving is shown to require
creativity and flexibility. It is noteworthy that Schoenfeld sequences lesson plans
around carefully selected cases that build on each other in a simple-to-complex
fashion. These cases are selected to bring out certain features to be learned; class
discussions and problem-solving activities are flexible within the overall
structure of the ordered cases.
Cascaded Problem Sets
Schank and Jona (1991) present a sequencing approach they call cascaded problem
sets, one of several possible teaching architectures they recommend, including
case-based learning, incidental learning, simulation, and directed exploration.
Cascaded problem sets rely on many assumptions similar to those of ET;
however, instead of beginning with the simplest case, Schank begins at the end and
then works backward. In essence, Schank is saying, "We don't presume to know just
what a beginning student already knows; we prefer to give an overall picture of
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the final task by starting at the end, then work backwards to find a realistic
starting place depending on the student's initial competency level."
The idea is to build a problem space whereby each problem relates to each other
problem with respect to the extra layer of complexity that it entails. In other
words, "if you can't solve Problem A, you certainly can't solve Problem B" means
that B is logically above A. Between A and B would be some information that B
entails that A does not. Below A would be something simpler than A that
perhaps does not entail the knowledge common to A and B. As students have
trouble with one problem, they move down the cascade of problems by learning
about the issues that one would need to know to solve the problem they were
having trouble with. (Schank & Jona, 1991, pp. 20-21, italics added.)
Another difference with ET is that Schank considers task components as part of
the cascaded problem set. "A problem must be broken down into its constituent
parts. Each constituent would itself be a problem, and it too would have
constituent parts....For example, at the bottom of a cascade of algebra problems
would be basic arithmetic" (Schank & Jona, 1991, p. 20). This parts analysis seems
more reminiscent of Gagné's learning hierarchies than ET's meaningful spiraling.
In either case, the idea of cascaded problem sets is clearly derivative of wellestablished instructional-design principles, including work on computeradaptive testing, even though the authors do not cite previous work on the
problem.
Middle-out Sequencing
ET's conceptual structures are sequenced from the top down, that is, from the
most general conceptual category down to the most detailed sub-category in a
taxonomy. We have criticized this approach elsewhere (Wilson & Cole, in press
a) for its failure to accommodate learners' prior knowledge. Our basic point is,
why teach the concept 'vertebrate' before 'cow' to a small child, just because it
happens to be higher in a conceptual hierarchy? Lakoff (1987) makes a similar
point; he reviews a large body of literature suggesting that in normal settings,
people tend to classify and think about objects at a "middle level," not too general
and not too detailed. Rosch (Rosch, Mervis, Gray, Johnson, & Boyes-Braem, 1976)
gives the term 'basic categories' to this level of natural perception. For example,
people tend to think in terms of dogs (basic level) rather than animals
(superordinate level) or retrievers (subordinate level). Similarly, 'chair' is more
psychologically basic than 'furniture' or 'rocker.' Rosch suggests that most of our
knowledge about the world is organized at this level; most attributes pertaining
to category membership are stored at this middle level. She also suggests that
this basic level of category is:
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--The highest level at which category members have similarly perceived overall
shapes.
--The highest level at which a single mental image can reflect the entire category.
--The highest level at which a person uses similar motor actions for interacting
with category members.
--The level at which subjects are fastest at identifying category members.
--The level with the most commonly used labels for category members.
--The first level named and understood by children. (Lakoff, 1987, p. 46)
If people organize their knowledge primarily around these basic-level categories,
then it seems unreasonable to insist on proceeding in a strict general-to-detailed
order down a taxonomy. A more defensible strategy would start from learners'
prior schemas, then proceed both up and down the taxonomy into new territory,
as increasingly difficult but authentic tasks require. Tessmer (1991) terms this a
"middle-out" sequencing strategy, where instruction begins at a middle level of
generality, gradually adding both superordinate and subordinate detail. This
alternative sequencing strategy represents a significant revision of ET's design
prescriptions.
Sequencing for Conceptual Change
A line of cognitive research investigates instructional interventions that try to
link up with learners' preconceptions and schemas about the world (e.g., Siegler,
1991); this body of research is sometimes referred to as conceptual change
literature. Some researchers (e.g., Case & Bereiter, 1984; Resnick, 1983; White &
Frederiksen, 1986) have directly challenged models that order instruction based
on subject matter logic and neglect learners' existing conceptions. Preexisting
conceptions may be a help or a hindrance to new learning; misconceptions and
"buggy" procedures can often interfere with the assimilation of new skills and
knowledge. Case (1978) developed an instructional model in which the teacher
directly confronts learners' misconceptions; after learners see clearly the
inadequacy of their existing conceptions, they become ready to acquire new
models, and will tend to integrate the new knowledge more directly into their
current structures. The general strategy for conceptual change is :
1. Learners must become dissatisfied with their existing conceptions.
2. Learners must achieve at least a minimal understanding of an alternate way of
conceptualizing the issue.
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3. The alternative view must appear plausible.
4. Learners must see how the new conceptualization is useful for understanding
a variety of situations. (based on Bransford & Vye, 1989)
Whereas an ET-style lesson might proceed smoothly through a content structure,
conceptual-change lessons proceed in fits and starts, working from student
misconceptions, failing, trying again, beginning false starts, retreating from dead
ends, each time elaborating upon students' schematic understandings (cf. also
Schoenfeld, 1985). The "elaboration" is not on an external content structure, but
rather on an internal representation.
Thus the conceptual change literature emphasizes the dynamic nature of
learning. Two observations are particularly relevant here. First, learners'
understandings result from the interplay of their prior/existing knowledge and
the current instructional situation (e.g., Mayer, 1980). Second, we cannot
anticipate students' emergent mental models; they may be riddled with "bugs" or
more sophisticated than a course's terminal objective (e.g., Resnick, 1983).
Instructional design must accommodate this dynamic, often chaotic situation
(e.g., Jonassen, 1990; Winn, 1990).
A number of conceptual-change researchers draw heavily on Vygotsky's notion
of a "zone of proximal development," wherein children can perform tasks with
the help of adult "scaffolding" and assistance (Wertsch, 1985). Vygotsky's
approach would sequence tasks so as to keep learners engaged in tasks that
stretch them to go beyond their present level of expertise, but which can be
performed with social support and appropriate tools and information resources.
In line with Vygotsky's zone of proximal development, Newman, Griffin, and
Cole (1989) think of tasks as something accomplished by groups of people. They
contrast their approach with traditional instructional design. Following
traditional ID,
First, the tasks are ordered from simple or easy to complex or difficult. Second,
early tasks make use of skills that are components of later tasks. Third, the
learner typically masters each task before moving onto the next. This conception
has little to say about teacher-child interaction since its premise is that tasks can
be sufficiently broken down into component parts that any single step in the
sequence can be achieved with a minimum of instruction. Teacherless
computerized classrooms running "skill and drill" programs are coherent with
this conception of change. (Newman, Griffin, & Cole, 1989, p. 153)
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The authors contrast this task-analysis approach with a more teacher-based
approach where simplicity is achieved by the social negotiation between teacher
and learner:
The teacher and child start out doing the task together. At first, the teacher is
doing most of the task and the child is playing some minor role. Gradually, the
child is able to do more and more until finally he can do the task on his own. The
teacher's actions in these supportive interactions have often been called
"scaffolding,"...suggesting a temporary support that is removed when no longer
necessary....There is a sequence involved...but it is a sequence of different
divisions of labor. The task--in the sense of the whole task as negotiated between
the teacher and child--remains the same. (p. 153)
This sequencing method is less analytic and formal than ET, yet the end product
of the social interaction is usually a simple-to-complex sequencing of "content."
This approach, like the skiing example above, offers a more flexible view of
content and ways of simplifying instruction.
Internal Reflection-in-Action Processes
Schon's (1983, 1987) reflective practitioner model sees professionals--doctors,
lawyers, architects, teachers, etc.--as embodying personal theories of practice.
These personal theories are much more important than academic theories or
representations of expertise. When professionals (or aspiring professionals)
encounter a problem in everyday work, much of their response is routinized, but
there is nonetheless an element of on-the-spot reflection and experimentation.
Schon describes a typical learning sequence of reflection-in-action:
--First we bring routinized responses to situations. These responses are based on
tacit knowledge and are "spontaneously delivered without conscious
deliberation." The routines work as long as the situation fits within the normal
range of familiar problems.
--At some point, the routine response results in a surprise--an unexpected
outcome, positive or negative, that draws our attention.
--The surprise leads to reflection-in-action. We tacitly ask ourselves "What's
going on here?" and "What was I thinking that led up to this?"
--Through immediate reflection, we re-examine assumptions or recast the
problem in another way. We may quickly evaluate two or three new ways to
frame the problem.
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--We engage in an "on-the-spot experiment." We try out a new perspective or
understanding of the situation, and carefully note its effects. The cycle of routine
performance--surprise--interpretation--experiment is repeated as needed.
(adapted from Schon, 1987, p. 28)
Schon rejects the validity of traditional academic formulations of expertise. The
traditional discipline--its theories, concepts, models, etc.--simply does not
capture the personal expertise needed to reason and evaluate in a professional
capacity. By extension, we could argue that instructional designers simply cannot
capture, represent, and teach the "content structure" really needed for expertise.
That expertise lies embedded within the expert practitioner, and can only be
acquired through extended opportunities of practice in authentic settings, with
appropriate coaching, mentoring, and other guidance with feedback. The
guidance is less in the form of general principles and rules, and more in the form
of contextualized reasoning based on the specifics of a case. Because the domain
is ill-structured, the practitioner cannot always routinely activate an intact
schema; instead the practitioner must assemble a new schema, combining and
recombining knowledge from many cases in memory.
Viewed differently, the reflective-practitioner model provides a convincing
portrait of the way that general models of instructional design relate to the
everyday practice of ID professionals. There is a growing indication that
instructional designers do not apply formal models in a lock-step fashion.
Indeed, ID models often fail to capture expert designers' knowledge and skill.
This common problem between theory and practice is aggravated when the
"prescriptive" ID models are represented in a highly technical and rigidly
proceduralized fashion. We return to this point in the recommendation section
below.
Putnum (1991) reports some interesting research in which he observed how
consultants grew in their expertise in using Schon's reflective practitioner model
with teachers. Putnum notes:
Many of us who seek to engage people in significant learning experiences
disparage formulas, rules, or recipes for action as superficial....Novices are likely
to misuse rules and recipes; they have not developed the know-how to use them
correctly.
Yet well-intentioned learners do search for rules and recipes, especially early in a
learning process. As one participant said after a workshop on promoting
organizational learning, "If you could only give us a list of the eight things to say,
that would be really helpful in getting started." This person was not naive; he
understood that a handful of recipes was not a substitute for genuine mastery.
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The difficulty is that a new theory of practice cannot be acquired whole. Yet if it
is acquired piecemeal, the pieces are likely to be used in ways that violate the
whole. (p. 145)
Schon's model includes several techniques that Putnum calls "recipes." In a
general sense, "a recipe is a formula, a set of instructions, for designing action"
(Putnum, 1991, p. 147). In his research, Putnum studied a particular kind of
recipe, a question fragment ("What prevents you from...?") used as a technique in
consulting situations. Putnum reports that consultants seemed to progress
through stages of competence in their use of these fragments:
1. Novices use recipes as "one-liners" or invariant procedures. "Lacking
experience in the theory of practice from which the recipe was drawn, novices
may get themselves in trouble they cannot get themselves out of. Nevertheless,
they may feel a sense of success at having done what they are 'supposed to do,'
what they believe an expert might have done. At the same time they may feel
some discomfort or chagrin at imitating or 'being a parrot'" (Putnum, 1991, p.
160).
2. The novice gradually shifts orientation from the recipe itself to broader
strategies and concepts. Still, "learners may remain caught in a kind of tunnel
vision, concentrating intently on the mechanics of implementing the new
strategy. It is therefore difficult to respond flexibly to the [dynamic feedback] of
the situation" (p. 160).
3. Eventually, learners become able to "respond to surprising data by reframing
the situation, stepping out of their original perspective to take account of
another." Learners' attitudes about recipe-following also shift: "Rather than
feeling successful simply by using a recipe, they may consider whether that
usage was pro forma or genuine" (p. 161).
Putnum points to three positive functions of recipes that serve to counterbalance
the negative effects of their misuse by novices. First, they serve to elicit useful
data in practice situations. That data can then serve as feedback to learners in
improving their practice. Second, recipes tend to have memorable phrases which
can serve as hooks or mnemonics to aid performance. Thus a recipe may act as a
retrieval cue to activate an appropriate schema for a given situation. Third, the
concrete, memorable nature of recipes also can aid problem encoding and
reflection. Students often organize their reflective thoughts around preexisting
recipes.
The reflective practitioner model is relevant to ET because it highlights how
learners themselves construct and organize meaning in a basically simple-to-
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complex way. Novices take what they can from the content. Then, given
authentic performance opportunities and appropriate coaching and reflection,
surface-level imitation proceeds to a kind of problem solving based on deeper
understanding of the situation. As Resnick (1983) stated, "Effective instruction
must aim to place learners in situations where the constructions that they
naturally and inevitably make as they make sense of their worlds are correct as
well as sensible ones" (p. 31). Rather than being "presented" the content structure,
learners construct the content for themselves through reflective processes. Thus a
simple-to-complex progression may occur, even if the external "content" remains
the same: the same recipe comes to mean something entirely different to an
experienced practitioner.
Making Content Structure Explicit
ET suggests that content structure be made explicit to students through various
synthesizers and organizers. This approach is in line with most research on text
design (e.g., Jonassen, 1982, 1985). However, findings of Mannes and Kintsch
(1987) and McDonald (1988), challenge the conventional wisdom about
organizing devices and synthesizers. They found that presenting students an
outline consistent with the text structure fostered memory-level encoding but
impeded far transfer of the material to problem-solving tasks. This finding may
be related to Smith and Wedman's (1988) comparison between instruction
sequenced according to ET prescriptions and Gagné-style learning hierarchies.
They found that students made more meaningful elaboration upon the learning
hierarchy sequenced material, even though the ET materials were more
meaningfully ordered and presented. It seems possible that highly structured
and clearly ordered materials may allow superficial encoding precisely because
of their easy access structure.
These possible negative effects of explicit teaching of structure may be related to
the reported negative effects of constant knowledge-of-results feedback for
motor learning tasks (Salmoni, Schmidt, & Walter, 1984): When the student has
to do less work to make sense of things, less learning may occur. Salmoni et al.
distinguish between immediate performance in instruction and delayed
performance as a measure of learning. They suggest that certain instructional
strategies may result in a performance decrement during practice, but that on a
retention task, the strategies may result in learning gains. Thus the possibility
may be entertained that ordering instruction in a too facile way could result in
minimal dissonance and could ironically result in shallow processing of material
by students (Wilson & Cole, 1991 b). Salomon and Sieber (1970) provide some
evidence for this interpretation. They hypothesized "(a) that a randomly spliced
film arouses states of uncertainty which in turn lead the learner to extract
information concerning possible interpretations of [the] film, and (b) when the
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film is well organized, it provides a structure for remembering details" (Salomon,
1974, p. 394). This is an area that is threatening to key concepts in instructional
design; there is an obvious need, however, for further research before strong
claims can be supported.
Constructivism has recently gained prominence as a philosophy of cognitivism;
ID theorists currently are exploring implications for practice (e.g., Educational
Technology, May and September 1991). A constructivistic approach to instruction
is reflected in Harel and Papert's (1990) teaching of fractions through Logo.
Students' learning of fractions was reinforced by their designing computer
lessons which taught something about fractions. Through the process of
designing the lessons, students came to understand the procedures and concepts
of fractions at a deeper level than a control group. Their knowledge of Logo
programming, fractions, and problem-solving skills significantly exceeded those
of both a Logo-programming group and a control group. (The design group,
however, took proportionately longer on task.) The fractions study reflects a
growing emphasis among cognitive researchers in design and composition
activities as a method of learning new knowledge (Harel, 1991). An analogy
might be the student journalist who learns a lot about both street crime and
writing by doing a series of stories on the subject. Currently, ET does not directly
address the issue of building instruction around design activities.
Constructivistic/connectionistic approaches also tend to stress coaching
environments (Burton & Brown, 1979; Rossett, 1991) and inquiry-learning
strategies (McDaniel & Schlager, 1990; Collins & Steven, 1983). The conditions of
appropriate use of a variety of alternative sequencing strategies go beyond ET
prescriptions and need to be more clearly articulated for instructional designers
to be able to make appropriate design decisions.
Recommendations
As cognitive psychology continues to shed light on the process of learning, we
are forced to reexamine the assumptions and prescriptions of various theories of
instructional design, including ET. We have explained what we believe are some
of the stronger challenges to ET. Following are some of the clear implications for
change, which we believe may require a radical restructuring of ET, particularly
if it is to serve the needs of instruction in complex and ill-defined domains:
1. Deproceduralize the theory. In its current form, ET is less a theory and more of a
design procedure. Explicit steps are provided for designing and sequencing
instruction. This procedural approach has two problems associated with it: (a)
the procedural prescriptions often go far beyond our knowledge base about
learning and instructional processes, and are often at odds with that knowledge;
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and (b) instructional designers tend to follow models in a principle-based,
heuristic manner in spite of detailed procedural specifications (Taylor, 1991;
Wedman & Tessmer, 1990; Nelson & Orey, 1991; Schon, 1983). ET should be
reformulated into a set of guiding principles referenced more clearly to learning
processes. A principle-based formulation will allow practicing designers to adapt
the concepts to a greater variety of instructional situations.
The key principles of a revised version of ET seem to be:
--All subject matters have an underlying content structure, i.e., how people relate
constructs together meaningfully. This structure, however, is personally
idiosyncratic and dynamic, particularly in complex domains.
--The modeled structure of the content should be taken into account in
organizing and sequencing courses and lessons. Overall sequence should
generally proceed from simple to complex, allowing for the great variety of ways
to move toward increasing complexity.
--The content structure should ultimately be made explicit to the student. The
specific mechanisms (e.g., direct instruction versus inquiry methods) should be
determined by the instructional situation (learner characteristics, goals, setting,
need for efficiency, etc.).
2. Remove unnecessary design constraints. A number of ET prescriptions constrain
designer options without a demonstrable return in the form of instructional
effectiveness. Examples include
--the use of three primary structures (conceptual, procedural, and theoretical),
--tying together the primary course goal and primary organizing structure, and
--using a single structure as a basis for organizing the entire course.
These prescriptions make ET's application more standardized and parsimonious,
but they also preclude a number of alternative organization schemes that follow
the "spirit" of ET but not the "letter." Again, a principle-based formulation of ET
could more easily accommodate variant schemes.
3. Base organization and sequencing decisions on learners' understandings as well as
the logic of the subject matter. An assumption implicit in ET is that the simplest,
most general concepts in a subject are also the closest to learners' prior
understanding. We have shown this assumption to be unfounded. An alternative
emphasis would be to add these heuristics:
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--Move from familiar to less familiar content.
--Use content with high interest and perceived relevance (Hidi, 1990).
--Create and then take advantage of the "teaching moment" (Bransford & Vye,
1989) when learners are receptive and prepared for new ways of looking at
things. Induce cognitive conflict, e.g., by presenting an anomaly (Perkins, 1991),
then help learners accommodate new information into their existing schemas.
--Respond to emergent mental models, encouraging learners to confront their
misconceptions.
--Wherever possible, ground instruction in an authentic performance setting.
Make heavy use of immediate, concrete situations, tools, problems, and forms of
feedback.
5. Assume a more constructivist stance toward "content structure" and sequencing
strategy. An objectivistic view of content is that it is "out there"; a constructivist
view claims that content is in people's minds, generated through a process of
social negotiation, and can only be loosely modeled externally (Cunningham,
1991). We can only hope to approximate an accurate representation of true
expertise; much of an expert's knowledge is tacit and ineffable, resistant to
reduction and analysis. On this view, a designer's understanding of the content
can guide selection of learning experiences, but cannot directly control learning
outcomes in a direct, engineered way.
Author Notes
This paper will be published in Educational Technology Research and
Development under the title, A critical review of elaboration theory. Please send
requests for reprints to Brent Wilson, University of Colorado at Denver, Campus
Box 106, P.O. Box 173364, Denver CO 80217-3364.
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Elaboration Theory - Charles Reigeluth
Overview:
According to elaboration theory, instruction should be organized in increasing order of
complexity for optimal learning. For example, when teaching a procedural task, the
simplest version of the task is presented first; subsequent lessons present additional
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versions until the full range of tasks are taught. In each lesson, the learner should be
reminded of all versions taught so far (summary/synthesis). A key idea of elaboration
theory is that the learner needs to develop a meaningful context into which subsequent
ideas and skills can be assimilated.
Elaboration theory proposes seven major strategy components: (1) an elaborative
sequence, (2) learning prerequisite sequences, (3) summary, (4) synthesis, (5) analogies,
(6) cognitive strategies, and (7) learner control. The first component is the most critical as
far as elaboration theory is concerned. The elaborative sequence is defined as a simple to
complex sequence in which the first lesson epitomizes (rather than summarize or
abstract) the ideas and skills that follow. Epitomizing should be done on the basis of a
single type of content (concepts, procedures, principles), although two or more types may
be elaborated simultaneously, and should involve the learning of just a few fundamental
or representative ideas or skills at the application level.
It is claimed that the elaboration approach results in the formation of more stable
cognitive structures and therefore better retention and transfer, increased learner
motivation through the creation of meaningful learning contexts, and the provision of
information about the content that allows informed learner control. Elaboration theory is
an extension of the work of Ausubel (advance organizers) and Bruner (spiral curriculum).
Scope/Application:
Elaboration theory applies to the design of instruction for the cognitive domain. The
theoretical framework has been applied to a number of settings in higher education and
training (English & Reigeluth, 1996; Reigeluth, 1992). Hoffman (1997) considers the
relationship between elaboration theory and hypermedia.
Example:
Reigeluth (1983) provides the following summary of a theoretical epitome for an
introductory course in economics:
1. Organizing content (principles)- the law of supply and demand
a) An increase in price causes an incease in the quantity supplied and a decrease in the
quantity demanded.
b) A decrease in price causes a decrease in the quantity supplied and an increase in the
quantity demanded.
2. Supporting content - concepts of price, supply, demand, increase, decrease
Practically all principles of economics can be viewed as elaborations of the law of supply
and demand including monopoly, regulation, price fixing, planned economies.
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Principles:
1. Instruction will be more effective if it follows an elaboration strategy, i.e., the use of
epitomes containing motivators, analogies, summaries, and syntheses.
2. There are four types of relationships important in the design of instruction: conceptual,
procedural, theoretical and learning pre-requisites.
References:
English, R.E. & Reigeluth, C.M. (1996). Formative research on sequencing instruction
with the elaboration theory. Educational Technology Research & Development, 44(1),
23-42.
Hoffman, S. (1997). Elaboration theory and hypermedia: Is there a link? Educational
Technology, 37(1), 57-64.
Reigeluth, C. & Stein, F. (1983). The elaboration theory of instruction. In C. Reigeluth
(ed.), Instructional Design Theories and Models. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum Associates.
Reigeluth, C. (1987). Lesson blueprints based upon the elaboration theory of instruction.
In C. Reigeluth (ed.), Instructional Design Theories in Action. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum
Associates.
Reigeluth, C. (1992). Elaborating the elaboration theory. Educational Technology
Research & Development, 40(3), 80-86.
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David Merrill’s ID2
Component Display Theory - David Merrill
Overview
Component Display Theory (CDT) is built directly upon Gagne’s principal assumption
that there are different kinds of learned outcomes and that different internal and external
conditions are necessary to promote each type of learning (Merrill et al, 1991b). CDT
extends Gagne’s outcome classification system, by separating content type and
performance level outcomes.
Description
CDT thus classifies learning along two dimensions as follows;
1. Content (facts, concepts, procedures, principles)
2. Performance (remembering, using, finding)
Component Display Theory (Merrill)
CDT describes the instructional strategy in terms of strategy components including
primary presentation forms, secondary presentation forms and interdisplay relationships
(relating the level of performance and type of content to the presentation forms).
Four primary presentation forms are specified;
1.
2.
3.
4.
Rules (expository presentation of a generality)
Examples (expository presentation of instances)
Recall (inquisitory generality)
Practice (inquisitory instance).
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Secondary presentation forms include prerequisites, objectives, helps, mnemonics, and
feedback.
CDT proposes that instruction is more effective to the extent that it contains all necessary
primary and secondary presentation forms. A complete lesson, therefore, would consist of
an objective followed by some combination of rules, examples, recall, practice, feedback,
helps and mnemonics appropriate to the subject matter and learning task. CDT suggests
that for a given objective and learner, there is a unique combination of presentation forms
that results in the most effective learning experience. Learner control is a significant
aspect of the CDT framework. Learners can select their own instructional strategies (for
content and presentation) to meet their own preferences and styles.
Four principles of instruction with CDT are described as follows;




Instruction will be more effective if all three primary performance forms
(remember, use, generality) are present.
Primary forms can be presented by either an explanatory or inquisitory learning
strategy.
The sequence of primary forms is not critical provided they are all present.
Students should be given control over the number of instances or practice items
they receive.
Use/Application/Limitation of the Model
Merrill considers his work on Component Display Theory as an example of first
generation instructional design (Merrill et al, 1990). Most of the first generation
instructional design work is based on the early work of Gagne and his conditions of
learning. However, first generation designs exemplify a number of shortcomings (Merrill
et al, 1991a);

Lack of precision (required for automation of instructional development and
delivery activities).
 Lack of prescription regarding how to organize and sequence course materials
 Teaching of pieces, but not integrated wholes.
 Lack of consideration of interactive technologies which enable learners
participate in the learning process as active rather than passive members.
Second Generation Instructional Design (ID2) offers the precision that is needed for
instruction automation. Such automation enables the teaching of integrated, whole bodies
of knowledge and skills (as opposed to teaching individual elements of knowledge and
skills). ID2 also provides a prescription for the selection of interactive instruction
strategies as well as for the selection of sequences and organizations of instructional
transactions. Merrill’s Second Generation Instructional Design Instructional Transaction
Theory (ITT) is the name given to this Second Generation Instructional Design.
Visit the ID2 official website.
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ID ID ID2 RESEARCH GROUP RESEARCH GROUP RESEARCH GROUP
http://www.id2.usu.edu/Papers/5LearningStyles.PDF
M. David Merrill
E-229 Department of Instructional Technology
Utah State University
Logan, Utah 84322-2830
435 797-2698 FAX 435 797-3851
E-mail merrill@cc.usu.edu
3 August, 2000
5LearningStyles.doc 3 August 2000
Instructional Strategies and Learning Styles: Which takes
Precedence?
M. David Merrill
Utah State University
To be published in:
Robert Reiser and Jack Dempsey (Eds.) (In Press). Trends and Issues in Instructional
Technology.
Prentice Hall.
There is pretty general agreement that "Individuals differ in their general skills, aptitudes,
and preferences for processing information, constructing meaning from it, and applying it
to new situations." (Jonassen & Grabowski, 1993). Keefe (1979) defines "… learning
styles [as] the composite of characteristic cognitive, affective, and physiological factors
that serve as relatively stable indicators of how a learner perceives, interacts with, and
responds to the learning environment." There is currently much discussion of learning
styles in both the popular and academic press. One author suggests that "The aim
of learning style research is to find clusters of people who use similar patterns for
perceiving and interpreting situations. Based on this information, we should be able to
adjust educational environments to make them more efficient and successful places."
(O'Connor, 1999). In this paper we explore the relationship between instructional
strategies and learning styles. Here are a couple of questions you might consider while
reading the following material. Do different learners have different learning mechanisms?
Which is most important in determining an appropriate instructional strategy for a given
instructional goal: the content to be taught or the learning style of the learner?
It is our position that: "There are known instructional strategies. The acquisition of
different types of knowledge and skill require different conditions for learning (Gagné,
1985). If an instructional experience or environment does not include the instructional
strategies required for the acquisition of the desired knowledge or skill, then effective,
efficient, and appealing learning of the desired outcome will not occur." (Merrill, et al,
1996) Gagné’s position has been called content-by-treatment interaction (Jonassen &
Grabowski, 1993) or I would prefer content-by-strategy interaction. This position
suggests that the goals of instruction are primary in determining an appropriate
instructional strategy for a particular instructional goal. Many research studies have
demonstrated that, regardless of the learning style of the student, when the goal of
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the instruction, as measured by tests that are consistent with this goal, are consistent with
the strategies used to teach this goal, then learning is optimal. (See Merrill, 1994). When
the instructional strategies used are inconsistent with the goal of the instruction, then
there is a decrement in learning. In a recent paper we outlined a few of the appropriate
strategy requirements for some common different kinds of instructional goals (Merrill,
1998). An examination of much of the available training material demonstrates that much
of our current training materials include instructional strategies that are inconsistent with
the goals of the instruction. Inconsistent instruction is ineffective instruction regardless
of learner style. Wait a minute, I can hear you think, it is obvious that learning styles
make a difference. How? Where? If not in the essential elements of instructional
strategy, where? Gardner argues for different kinds of intelligence (Gardner, 1983). He
argues that some persons are strong in one kind of intelligence while another person is
stronger in another kind of intelligence. That if ID2 Research Group my strength is in
bodily-kinesthetic intelligence I might learn to dance very well while having trouble
learning mathematics or science. Isn’t this a case where learning style (Gardner
intelligence type) makes a difference? Of course it makes a difference, but, not in the
fundamental components of the instructional strategy. This difference might be
characterized as a learning-style-by-content interaction. A given person might have
learning mechanisms and physical abilities that favor the content of one domain of
learning over another. However, the content types suggested by Gagné and myself do not
refer to subject domains but rather to kinds of outcomes that are likely to occur within
every domain. Each of the different types of intelligence may still require the learner to
acquire a concept, learn the parts of an entity, learn a procedure, or understand a process.
It is these fundamental types of outcome that determines different instructional strategies
in a content-by-strategy interaction. Whether a learner’s strength is logico-mathematical
or bodily-kinesthetic when learning a concept within that domain it is still necessary
to have a definition, examples, non-examples, and to practice identifying previously
unencountered examples in order to acquire the concept. Isn’t it necessary to modify an
instructional strategy for a student learning a concept from a subject domain that is not
his or her strength? Yes. It may be necessary to increase the number of examples, to
make the representation of these examples more manipulative rather than symbolic, or to
increase the amount and kind of attention-focusing learner guidance. However, these
modifications are all elaboration of the fundamental components of an instructional
strategy appropriate for, and consistent with, the teaching of a concept. The modification
of the strategy to accommodate for a student's domain preference is secondary to the
fundamental content-by-strategy consistency required for effective instruction.
Ruth Clark (1998) suggests four different instructional architectures (receptive, directive,
guided discovery, and exploratory) that I would call instructional style. Receptive
instruction is characterized by a lecture or an Internet site where the student is merely
provided with information. Directive instruction is characterized by a computer-based
tutorial where information is presented, the student responds, feedback is provided and
this tutorial learning cycle is repeated. Guided Discovery is characterized by a computer
simulation that allows the student to manipulate some device or environment.
Exploratory instruction is characterized by an open learning environment in which the
student is provided a rich, networked database of information, examples, demonstrations,
and exercises from which the student can select whatever is appropriate to their current
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needs and mental models. Clark suggests that there is an interaction among student
characteristics and instructional architecture. For example she suggests that a
directive instructional style is more appropriate for novice learners while a guideddiscovery instructional style may be more appropriate for more experienced learners, and
an exploratory instructional style is best for expert learners. Consistent with learning
style, Jonassen and Grabowski (1993) cite studies that show that cognitive-constricted
learners do better with a directive style while cognitive-flexible learners do better with a
guided discovery or exploratory style. Surely this suggests that learner style requires
adjustment in instructional strategy? The answer is yes and no. Like different domains
each of these instructional styles include all of the types of learning outcomes, that is,
each of these styles can be used to teach concepts, procedures, and processes. Within
each instructional style the essential components of a consistent strategy must be present.
A concept requires a definition, examples, non-examples, and practice in identifying
unencountered instances. In a receptive style the definition and contrasted examples and
non-examples must be present or the learner will not effectively and efficiently acquire
the concept. The receptive style is often an incomplete, and therefore inconsistent, style
since it often does not include appropriate practice. In the directive instructional style the
definition, examples, and non-examples are presented directly to the student and the then
the student is given appropriate practice. In a guided-discovery instructional style the
learner may have more freedom in exploring a situation to find the appropriate examples
and non-examples. However, in a guided-discovery instructional product if there are not
contrasted non-examples available, or if the student does not have the opportunity to
practice identifying instances of the concept, there will be a decrement in learning. In
exploratory situations learning is often less effective because many students are not
skilled in finding the necessary components of the appropriate instructional strategy.
They may fail to find appropriate examples or they may fail to engage in appropriate
practice, thereby causing a decrement in their learning. When a given instructional
architecture results in ineffective learning it is not the architecture that is inappropriate
for the learning style of an individual student, but rather that the particular
implementation of that architecture failed to include all of the instructional strategy
components required to teach a given instructional outcome. Each of these architectures
may be set in individual or collaborative learning environments. Fielddependent learners
do better in group-oriented or collaborative situations. Field-independent learners do
much better in individualized learning situations than do field-dependent learners.
However, whether a student is field-independent or field-dependent or whether the
learning environment is individual or collaborative, a given instructional goal still
requires all of the strategy components that are consistent with this goal for the learning
to be effective. The design of an instructional strategy includes a number of important
instructional decisions including selecting content segments, sequencing these segments,
selecting appropriate instructional transactions, sequencing these individual transactions,
and configuring a given transaction for a given architecture and for a given student. As a
student engages each of the instructional transactions in an instructional environment
these transactions can be arranged so as to adapt in real time, during the instruction, to the
individual learning needs of each student. Each of these various instructional decisions
are subject to aptitude (learning style)-by-treatment (strategy) interactions. Within each
of these decisions the content by-strategy interaction is primary and the learning-style-by-
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strategy interaction is secondary. In other words, the adjustment in strategy necessitated
by different learning styles takes place within the framework of the fundamental
requirements of an instructional strategy that is appropriate for and consistent with a
given instructional goal. Let me very briefly illustrate some other possible learning-styleby-strategy interactions. These are representative interactions and not a complete list by
any means. (See Jonassen and Grabowski, 1993 for a more complete elaboration of these
and other learning-style-by-strategy and learning-style-by-content interactions).
Content sequence. Cognitive-restricted and serialist learners learn better from
content arranged in a logical sequence and prefer to learn each topic in order. Cognitiveflexible or holist learners learn better when they are able to select which topic to study
next and to review each topic to get a whole picture before studying each topic in detail.
Note however, that when the detail study comes each type of learner must engage in the
instructional strategy that is appropriate for and consistent with the instructional goal.
Transaction Sequence. Holist learners prefer an inductive-sequence where they are
presented examples and demonstrations first prior to figuring out a definition or seeing
the steps listed. Serialist learners prefer a deductive-sequence where they see the
definition or list of steps first prior to seeing examples or a demonstration. Nevertheless,
both the inductive and deductive sequence of transaction components must still contain
all the components of the appropriate and consistent strategy or there will be a decrement
in learning.
Transaction Configuration. Instruction is characterized by the representation of
the content information included and by the addition of information, directions, and
learner guidance that enhances the students’ ability to acquire the information presented.
It is in the area of learner guidance where learning-style-by-strategy interactions may also
play a significant role. Visual learners learn best when information is presented in graphic
form. Verbal learners prefer textual presentations or lectures. Haptic learners prefer
information they can manipulate. Nevertheless visual, verbal or haptic learners must still
have all the components of an appropriate and consistent instructional strategy even
though these components may have different forms of representation.
Concept Instruction. In learning a concept all learners need to see examples and
non-examples. However, holist learners tend to have a problem with
undergeneralization, they need to see more divergent examples to promote generalization.
Serialist learners tend to have a problem with overgeneralization, they need to see more
matched example non-example pairs to facilitate their ability to discriminate among
examples and non-examples. Both of these types of learners need examples and nonexamples
as these are essential components of a concept instruction strategy. However, each type
of learner requires a different emphasis in the relationships among these instances.
We conclude with the following:
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Learning style is secondary in selecting the fundamental components of instructional
strategy appropriate for and consistent with a given learning goal. However, learning
style should be considered in selecting instructional style and adjusting the parameters of
a given instructional strategy.
In conclusion:
We have suggested that a student must engage in those activities (conditions of learning)
that are required for them to acquire a particular kind of knowledge or skill. These
activities can be directed by an instructional system (live or technology-based) or they
can be engaged in by the student on their own. However, (a) too many instructors do not
know these fundamental instructional strategies, consequently much of what passes for
instruction is inadequate and does not adequately implement these fundamental learning
activities. (b) Most students are unaware of these fundamental instructional (learning)
strategies and hence left to their own are unlikely to engage in learning activities most
appropriate for acquiring a particular kind of knowledge or skill. We have suggested that
(a) there are certain fundamental learning activities that are necessary if a student is to
efficiently and effectively acquire a particular kind of knowledge or skill. (b) These
fundamental learning activities cut across subject matter domains. (c) A learner can
engage in these fundamental learning activities in a wide variety of delivery systems
(ranging from live instruction to exploring the internet), in a wide variety of instructional
architectures (receptive, directive, guided discovery, or exploratory), and in a wide range
of social contexts (individual study to highly interactive cooperative learning
environments). (d) Finally, these learning activities can be suggested, directed, coached,
monitored, or promoted by an instructional system or these learning activities can be
initiated by the learner themselves.
If a learner (whatever the context of learning) does not engage in the learning activities
that are appropriate for, and consistent with, a given kind of knowledge or skill then there
will be a decrement in the learning effectiveness, efficiency and appeal. Do we know all
the answers for these fundamental learning activities? NO! That is the role of a science of
instruction and a technology of instructional design, to continue to explore and find these
fundamental principles. Do we know some of these fundamental learning activities?
YES! Do we use what we know? SELDOM!
Bottom line. Appropriate, consistent instructional strategies are determined first on the
basis of the type of content to be taught or the goals of the instruction (the content-bystrategy interactions) and secondarily, learner style determines the value of the
parameters that adjust or fine-tune these fundamental learning strategies (learning-styleby-strategy interactions). Finally, content-by-strategy interactions take precedence over
learning-style-by-strategy interactions regardless of the instructional style or philosophy
of the instructional situation.
References
Clark, Ruth (1998). Building Expertise: Cognitive Methods for Training and Performance
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Improvement. Washington D.C.: International Society for Performance Improvement.
Gagné, Robert M. (1985). The Conditions of Learning: and Theory of Instruction. 4th Edition. New
York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Gardner, Howard (1983). Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. New York: Basic
Books.
Jonassen, David H. & Grabowski, Barbara L. (1993). Handbook of Individual Difference, Learning,
and Instruction. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.
Keefe, J. W. (1979) Learning style: An overview. In NASSP's Student learning styles: Diagnosing
and proscribing programs (pp. 1-17). Reston, VA. National Association of Secondary School
Principles.
Merrill, M. D. (1994). Research support for Component Display Theory. In M. D. Merrill,
Instructional Design Theory. Educational Technology Publications.
Merrill, M. David, Drake, Leston, Lacy, Mark J., Pratt, Jean A. & ID2 Research Group (1996).
Reclaiming Instructional Design. Educational Technology, 36(5), 5-7.
Merrill, M. David (1998). Instructional strategies that teach. CBT Solutions, November/December,
1-11.
O'Connor, T. O. (1999) Using Learning Styles to Adapt Technology for Higher Education. Center
for Teaching and Learning, Indiana University web site URL: www.isu.indstate.edu/ctl/styles.
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Malcolm Knowles’ Adult Learning Theory
http://adulted.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?site=http://www.newhorizons.org/crfut
%5Fknowles.html
Malcolm Knowles, Ph.D.
There is a dream I have had for a long time-a lifelong
learning center in every community. I just dreamed it once
again. The calendar on my bedroom wall showed that it was
January 1, 2001 A.D., and the surroundings in my dream
place me in Anyplace, U.S.A. (Later dreams put me down in
villages and cities all over the world.)
I saw people of all ages going into and coming out of the
center, which had lettering over its door: "Main Street
Lifelong Learning Center." This suggested to me that there
were similar centers in other parts of the town -- perhaps
within walking distance of every citizen. I joined a family
group consisting of a four-year-old boy, a fourteen-year-old
girl, a mother and father in their mid-thirties, and a
grandmother in her late sixties, and I entered with them.
We were greeted by a receptionist who referred each
individual to a small office in a wing of the building labeled
"Learning Skill Assessment Laboratory." I chose to
accompany (invisibly) the four-year-old boy. When he
entered the little office he was greeted by a charming young
lady who invited him to sit by her and she explained that the
purpose of their meeting was to help him get ready to take
charge of his own learning with the support of the staff of the
Center. She gave him a few assessment exercises designed to
determine the levels of his skills in planning and carrying out
learning projects and gave him a form showing his ratings on
eight skill dimensions (his "Learning Skill Profile"). She
congratulated him on having achieved the appropriate level
of skill for four-year-olds in all dimensions, and referred him
to a helper who served as educational diagnostician in
another office down the hall.
While we were waiting in the lounge area for an educational
diagnostician to become available I was able to check out
with the other members of the family what their experience
had been and learned that each of them showed some
weakness in one or two learning skills and had been given
corrective exercises to work on at home. They were given
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the following learning skills inventory:
SKILLS OF SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING
1. The ability to develop and be in touch with
curiosities. Perhaps another way to describe this skill
would be "the ability to engage in divergent
thinking."
2. The ability to perceive one's self objectively and
accept feedback about one's performance
nondefensively.
3. The ability to diagnose one's learning needs in the
light of models of competencies required for
performing life roles.
4. The ability to formulate learning objectives in terms
that describe performance outcomes.
5. The ability to identify human, material, and
experiential resources for accomplishing various
kinds of learning objectives.
6. The ability to design a plan of strategies for making
use of appropriate learning resources effectively.
7. The ability to carry out a learning plan systematically
and sequentially. This skill is the beginning of the
ability to engage in convergent thinking.
8. The ability to collect evidence of the accomplishment
of learning objectives and have it validated through
performance.
The educational diagnostician, another charming young lady,
greeted our four-year-old boy warmly and started asking him
questions about what he would like to be able to do when he
was five years old. I could see that she was being guided in
her questioning by a list of "competencies for performing life
roles" lying on her desk (and reprinted here). As she talked
with him it became clear that he had aspirations "to get ready
for school," to "get along better with the kids," and to "have
a little more fun." She then gave him a few simple exercises
to perform to assess his level of knowledge and skill for
performing the roles of learner, friend, and leisure-time user.
She noted the results of the exercises on a form and gave it to
him to take to the next helper, an educational planning
consultant, in another wing of the building.
While we were waiting in the lounge area I had a chance to
check out with the other family members what had happened
to them. The fourteen-year-old girl had identified some
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competencies for the role of learner (i.e. being a self, friend,
citizen, and family member) that she wanted to work on. The
mother was most concerned with improving her
competencies in the role of family member, worker, and
leisure-time user; the father, in the roles of worker and
leisure-time user; and the grandmother, in the roles of learner
(she felt that she had sort of "stagnated" in this regard) and
leisure-time user (she wanted to learn to play the piano).
COMPETENCIES FOR PERFORMING LIFE ROLES
ROLES
COMPETENCIES
Reading, writing, computing, perceiving,
conceptualizing, imagining, inquiring,
Learner
aspiring, diagnosing, planning, getting help,
evaluating.
Being a Self
Self-analyzing, sensing, goal-building,
(with a
objectivizing, value-clarifying, expressing,
unique selfaccepting, being authentic.
identity)
Loving, empathizing, listening, collaborating,
Friend
sharing, helping, giving constructive
feedback, supporting.
Caring, participating, leading, decision
making, acting, being sensitive to one's
Citizen
conscience, discussing, having perspective
(historical and cultural), being a global
citizen.
Maintaining health, planning, managing,
Family
helping, sharing, buying, saving, loving,
Member
taking responsibility.
Career planning, using technical skills,
accepting supervision, giving supervision,
Worker
getting along with people, cooperating,
planning, delegating, managing.
Knowing resources, appreciating the arts and
Leisure-time
humanities, performing, playing, relaxing,
user
reflecting, planning, risking.
I accompanied our four-year-old boy into the office of the
educational consultant, who gave me the impression of being
a kindly retired schoolteacher. After some get-acquainted
talk with the boy, he looked at the forms filled out by the
learning skills assessor and the educational diagnostician.
After further discussion it was agreed that the learning
project the boy would like to start with was "getting ready
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for school" and that his first objective was "Finding out what
school is like." The consultant pulled a form headed
"Learning Plan" from his desk and they began filling it out
together. The form had five columns; the first one headed
"What Are You Going to Learn?" (Learning Objectives), in
which they wrote, "To find out what school is like." The
second column was headed "How Are You Going To Learn
It?" (Resources and Strategies), and in this one they wrote
"Talk to three first graders and three kindergartners"; "Visit
Miss Smith's first grade class for two days," (which the
consultant arranged); and "Have my sister read Johnny Starts
to School to me" (a copy of which the consultant gave the
boy). The third column, headed "Target Date," had the
notation "Christmas." The fourth column, headed "Evidence
of Accomplishment", had the notation, "Give an oral report
(tell) to my sister, mother, father, and grandmother." The
fifth column, headed "Verification of Evidence," had the
notation, "They agree that I have the picture." The consultant
thanked the boy for his cooperation and gave him a card with
the date on it for a return visit after Christmas to plan his
next learning project.
I met the rest of the family in the lounge area and they
proudly showed me their learning plans. The sister's plan
called for her to strengthen her interpersonal relations skills,
and she was scheduled to enroll in a teen-age human
relations training group at the Y.W.C.A. for three months.
The mother's plan called for her to start learning about career
planning by participating in a career-planning workshop at
the community college. The father's plan had as its first
objective, "To develop knowledge and skill in computer
programming," and he was to be linked up with a volunteer
tutor who was a member of a local computer-networking
group. And, sure enough, the grandmother had been enrolled
in a beginners' piano class at the local conservatory.
When I awoke from this dream I realized that my personal
dream-giver had graced me with a bare snapshot of a vision
of a transformative model of education for the future-a conceptualization of a community as a system of learning
resources; truly, a learning community in which continuing
learning throughout life is a basic organizing principle for
the whole enterprise. As I let my mind wander I could
visualize a community in which every individual, every
organization, and every institution was perceived as a
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resource for learning.
I could visualize this system of resources being managed by
a coordinating body representative of the various categories
of individuals, organizations, and institutions. But the heart
of this system-the entity that made it work-was the network
of community learning centers. They were the depositories
of information about all of the learning resources in the
community (in electronic data banks). They housed the
specialists-learning skills assessors, educational
diagnosticians, educational planning consultants-and support
staffs that linked all citizens of the community of all ages to
appropriate learning resources and gave them the skills and
support necessary to use them effectively for lifelong
learning.
This dream that I have had for so long is becoming a reality
as new kinds of community learning centers are being
developed in every part of our country and other countries as
well. These are the new forms of education that are emerging
from a society in the process of transformation. They are
themselves "learning systems" that are capable of bringing
about their own continuing transformation-truly responsive
to a learning society!
About: Malcolm S. Knowles
Dr. Malcolm Knowles concluded his book Andragogy in Action by noting that "We are
nearing the end of the era of our edifice complex and its basic belief that respectable
learning takes place only in buildings and on campuses. Adults are beginning to demand
that their learning take place at a time, place, and pace convenient to them. In fact, I feel
confident that most educational services by the end of this century (if not decade) will be
delivered electronically . . . . Our great challenge now is to find ways to maintain the
human touch as we learn to use the media in new ways."
His quest for finding these new ways has led to his development of a self-directed,
andragogical model of learning and of the conception of community learning centers as
new kinds of educational facilities where lifelong learning can take place. Indeed
intergenerational learning is a common element in many of the programs where his
dreams are materializing, and which are encouraging self-directed learning at all ages.
In 1960 he developed a new graduate program in adult education at Boston University,
and during the next fourteen years he applied the principles of adult learning in his
laboratory. He put much of what developed in his book The Modern Practice of Adult
Education: Andragogy Versus Pedagogy.
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Dr. Knowles is Professor Emeritus of Adult and Community College Education at North
Carolina State University. Since his retirement from North Carolina State University in
1979, he has been an active consultant to business and industry, government agencies,
educational institutions, religious institutions, and volunteer groups throughout the world.
Inclusive Adult Learning Environments
Susan Imel 1995
I've just changed completely from when I first (entered school). I used to take this little
African body and force it into this European square peg. And you know, it didn't work. I
kept trying to do it and trying to change who I was and tried to fit in. . . . When I finally
decided to be the person that I am, I started feeling more comfortable. (Taylor 1995, p.
84).
Ever since Malcolm Knowles (1970) introduced the concept of learning climate, adult
educators have been aware of how the environment affects learning. As reflected in the
words of the returning woman student quoted here, however, adults may still find some
learning environments to be inhospitable. Rather than learners trying to change who they
are so that they will "fit in," adult educators must create learning environments in which
all learners can thrive. Following an overview of changing conceptions of adult learning
environments, this ERIC Digest describes what it means to create an inclusive learning
environment, examines some related issues, and presents some guidelines for structuring
inclusive learning environments.
Adult Learning Environments: Changing Conceptions
In introducing the concept of learning environment, Knowles (1970) suggested that
activities conducted prior to and during the first session could "greatly affect it" (p. 270),
including promotional materials and announcements; activities designed to assess learner
needs prior to the event; physical arrangements; and the opening session, including
greeting, learning activity overview, introductions, and treatment by the instructor. More
recently, adult educators are recognizing that factors in the learning environment related
to psychological, social, and cultural conditions also exert a powerful influence on the
growth and development of learners (Hiemstra 1991).
Current discussions on learning environments have broadened to include the need to
confront issues of sexism and racism (Hayes and Colin 1994), interlocking systems of
power and oppression (Tisdell 1993b), and social justice (Shore et al. 1993).
This broader understanding of factors that affect learning is leading adult educators to
consider how they can create environments that address "issues of power that are inherent
in cultural diversity, whether that diversity is based on nationality, race, class, gender,
sexual orientation, disability or some other factor" (Merriam 1993, p. 58).
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Developing Inclusive Learning Environments
How can inclusive learning environments be created? Tisdell (1995) suggests that a
learning environment needs to attend to inclusivity at three levels. A truly inclusive
learning environment should "(1) reflect the diversity of those present in the learning
activity itself in the curriculum and pedagogical/andragogical style; (2) attend to the
wider and immediate institutional contexts in which the participants work and live; and
(3) in some way reflect the changing needs of an increasingly diverse society" (p. 4).
Because learners "do not live in a vacuum" (ibid.), addressing institutional and societal
levels is important, but the most significant level is the selection of appropriate materials
and methods that address the characteristics of learning group members.
Addressing the diversity of learners by selecting appropriate curriculum and course
content is a critical aspect of inclusiveness. The understanding that all groups-including
those that are dominant-have culture or ethnicity must form the basis for the curriculum
(Shore et al. 1993). The knowledge base of all groups needs to be represented in the
curriculum (hooks 1994).
Although "many groups share in the subordinate social status and selective discrimination
that `minorities' often implies, each cultural group has its own history, values, and
customs" (Ross-Gordon 1993, p. 53), and each must be considered in choosing resources
and learning activities. It is a mistake, for example, to assume that general information on
women also applies to women of color.
Based on recent research and theory building, a different conception of pedagogy is
emerging, one that is appropriate for an inclusive learning environment. Termed "new
pedagogy" by Taylor and Marienau (1995), this way of teaching is more inclusive and it
incorporates (1) the validity of the student's experiences as well as support for the
emerging self as a focus of education;
(2) the contextual nature of knowledge, including the relationship between the learner
and his or her knowledge base; and
(3) the notion that learning can be a transformative process. The new pedagogy employs
diverse practices such as reflective journal writing, storytelling, role playing, small group
discussion, and metaphor analysis (Caffarella 1992), and it addresses the learning styles
and preferences of groups represented in the learning activity.
No one definition or prescription for inclusiveness will fit every learning environment.
What happens in any learning environment in terms of inclusiveness will depend on the
adult educator's personal experiences with various systems of privilege and oppressions,
the educational context, and the participants and their characteristics (Tisdell 1995).
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Some Related Issues
Working toward the goal of creating an inclusive learning environment may give rise to
some issues, especially those related to power and control. At the most basic level are the
traditional-but unequal-power relations that exist between learners and teachers. In
conventional educational settings, teachers and learners have expectations about their
roles; the teacher is seen as the source of knowledge and consequently is ascribed power;
the learner is perceived as the receiver of the teacher's knowledge, sometimes described
as an empty vessel waiting to be filled. However, inclusive learning environments work
to "dismantle ways of operating . . . that unnecessarily privilege teachers' formal
knowledge and experience" (Shore et al. 1993, p. 12), and this power shift can be
unsettling for both teachers and learners.
Power relations between and among learners are also likely to change as the environment
becomes more inclusive. Groups of learners or individuals who may have felt silenced
previously will feel freer to become part of the discussions and to challenge existing
truths and biases. As differences are recognized and more voices are heard, the notion
that a learning setting should be a "safe harmonious place" will be tested (hooks 1994, p.
30).
The need to maintain a balance between being learner centered (placing learners at the
center of a learning activity) and learner positive (providing positive experiences for the
learner) can also be an issue in inclusive learning environments. Related to questions of
power and control, this issue refers to the need to examine the extent to which being
"learner centered" may diminish the efforts to be inclusive. Although learner
centeredness is a hallmark of adult education, and "may help resolve some of the
authority issues inherent in . . . teacher-centered programming," it tends to make
"invisible certain kinds of relationships among students, among workers, and among
students and workers . . . [especially those based on] differences in race, sex, class
background, abilities, sources of income, immigration status, and so on" (Lloyd, Ennis,
and Atkinson 1994, p. 25). Tisdell (1993a) shows how the dissonance between being
learner centered and learner positive might occur in a description of how one teacher's
efforts to create a learner-centered classroom were thwarted; after the teacher yielded her
power and control to the learners, a group who considered themselves the enlightened
dominated the class and effectively silenced other learners.
Because a primary goal of inclusive learning environments is to equalize power between
teachers and learners and among learners in the learning setting, issues related to power
and control are the most complex. Acknowledging and discussing these issues can be a
first step in addressing them.
Creating Inclusive Learning Environments: Some Guidelines
As noted earlier, depending on the instructor, the learners, and the context, each learning
environment will differ in terms of inclusiveness (Tisdell 1995). Although these
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variations make it impossible to be prescriptive about creating inclusive learning
environments, the following suggestions can be used to guide their development:
Acknowledge that all individuals bring multiple perspectives to any learning situation
as a result of their gender, ethnicity, class, age, sexuality, and/or physical abilities
Recognize that since identification with social groups is multiple and complex, [a
learner's] claimed identity will be in response to many contextual factors that position the
individual politically
Reflect the experiences of learners, both as individuals and as members of particular
social groups, and value these experiences through their use as the basis of learning and
assessment (Shore et al. 1993, p. 3)
Pay attention to the power relations inherent in knowledge production
Be aware that participants are positioned differently in relationship to each other and
to the knowledge being acquired
Acknowledge the power disparity between the teacher/facilitator and the students
(Tisdell 1995, p. 90)
References
Caffarella, R. S. Psychosocial Development of Women: Linkages to Teaching and
Leadership in Adult Education.
Information Series no. 350. Columbus: ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, Career, and
Vocational Education, Center on Education and Training for Employment, The Ohio
State University, 1992. (ED No. 354 386).
Hayes, E., and Colin, S. A. J., III, eds. Confronting Racism and Sexism. New
Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, no. 61. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass,
1994.
Hiemstra, R. "Aspects of Effective Learning Environments." In Creating
Environments for Effective Adult Learning, edited by R. Hiemstra, pp. 5-12. New
Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, no. 50. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass,
Summer 1991.
hooks, b. Teaching to Transgress: Education as the Practice of Freedom. New York:
Routledge, 1994.
Knowles, M. S. The Modern Practice of Adult Education. New York: Association
Press, 1970.
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Lloyd, B.-A.; with Ennis, F. and Atkinson, T. Women in Literacy Speak: The Power
of Woman-Positive Literacy Work. Toronto: Canadian Congress for Learning
Opportunities for Women; Halifax: Fernwood Publishing, 1994.
Merriam, S. B. "Multiculturalism and Adult Education: Questions to Guide Our
Research." PAACE Journal of Lifelong Learning2 (1993): 57-60.
Ross-Gordon, J. M. "Multicultural Issues in Adult Education: Where We've Come
from, Where We Are Now, Where We're Going." PAACE Journal of Lifelong Learning 2
(1993): 43-56.
Shore, S.; Black, A.; Simpson, A.; and Coombe, M. Positively Different: Guidance for
Developing Inclusive Adult Literacy, Language, and Numeracy Curricula. Canberra,
Australia: Department of Employment, Education, and Training, 1993. (ED No. 371 112)
Taylor, K. "Speaking Her Mind: Adult Learning and Women's Adult Development."
In Learning Environments for Women's Adult Development: Bridges toward Change,
edited by K. Taylor and C. Marienau, pp. 83-94. New Directions for Adult and
Continuing Education, no. 65. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, Spring 1995.
Taylor, K., and Marienau, C. "Bridging Practice and Theory for Women's Adult
Development." In Learning Environments for Women's Adult Development: Bridges
toward Change, edited by K. Taylor and C. Marienau, pp. 5-12. New Directions for Adult
and Continuing Education, no. 65. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, Spring 1995.
Tisdell, E. "Feminism and Adult Learning: Power, Pedagogy and Praxis." In An
Update on Adult Learning Theory, edited by S. B. Merriam, pp. 91-103. New Directions
for Adult and Continuing Education, no. 57. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1993a.
Tisdell, E. "Interlocking Systems of Power, Privilege, and Oppression in Adult Higher
Education Classes." Adult Education Quarterly 43, no. 4 (Summer 1993b): 203-226.
Tisdell, E. Creating Inclusive Adult Learning Environments: Insights from
Multicultural Education and Feminist Pedagogy. Information Series no. 361. Columbus:
ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, Career, and Vocational Education, Center on Education
and Training for Employment, The Ohio State University, 1995.
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Distance Education
http://www.cde.psu.edu/de/what_is_de.html
What is Distance Education?
Distance education is planned learning that normally occurs in a different place from
teaching and as a result requires special techniques of course design, special instructional
techniques, special methods of communication by electronic and other technology, as
well as special organizational and administrative arrangements.*
Distance Education provides students around the world with:






the flexibility of challenging, often self-paced, learning anytime, anywhere;
the competitive advantage that helps build security in an ever-changing global
business environment;
opportunities for career advancement through professional development courses
and degree programs;
outstanding learner support resources including advising, access to the University
libraries, and technical support;
a quality education otherwise unobtainable to students who cannot go to
traditional centers of education.
Michael Moore, director of The American Center for the Study of
Distance Education, Penn State, from the text Distance Education: A
Systems View, co-authored by Greg Kearsley [California: Wadsworth
Publishing Company, 1996], 2.
They Blazed the Trail for Distance Education
http://www.uwex.edu/disted/gooch.htm
by James Gooch
In this paper on trends in continuing education the author, who was formerly program information director
for outreach services at the University of Wisconsin in Madison, reviews delivery systems that have made
distance education possible and practical. The review begins with the introduction of correspondence study
classes for off-campus students in 1891 and extends to todays computerized and satellite-delivered systems
that make extension classes available to adult students worldwide.
Today's much discussed distance education movement is not a new phenomenon. The
University of Wisconsin and other major universities have utilized correspondence study
courses since the 1890s to provide off-campus learning opportunities for millions of
adults.
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During the 1960s, more than 70 years after the United States borrowed from Oxford and
Cambridge Universities the concept of offering extension classes, a team of Wisconsin
Extension consultants helped Great Britain develop off-campus teaching systems needed
to establish the British Open University. It was also during the 1960s that UW Madison
and University Extension specialists helped Kenya improve its schools by using a
combination of broadcast and correspondence study systems -- another example of
distance education!
During the 1980s and early 1990s several factors focused new attention on distance
education. An increasing number of adults found they needed refresher courses to keep
up with the knowledge explosion and many preferred not to return to campus. Computers
and space satellites had also made it practical for universities to package and deliver adult
education programs to students thousands of miles from the campuses.
Outreach educators with the most experience in utilizing a variety of delivery systems
were in the best position to apply the new space-age technology. To appreciate this fact,
one need only to look at the telecommunications system Wisconsin uses to deliver
extensions programs today, then step back in time and view the state's achievements in
public broadcasting, in developing home study courses, and the innovative application of
telephone networks for offering university classes away from campus.
Also of interest is the methods Wisconsin used to package and market extension
programs and the use of a special team to help campus faculty utilize media for teaching
continuing education classes.
Before we dig up the deep taproots that made the University of Wisconsin famous as a
distance education institution, let's look at some of the people who led the University into
the information age. Luke Lamb was lured from public broadcasting in Oregon in 1968 to
head University Extension's communications division which included broadcast and print
media services, photo media, and audiovisual support. Ron Bornstein directed his WHA
radio and television units and helped establish Wisconsin as a national pacesetter in pubic
broadcasting. Bornstein would later take a leave to help rescue an ailing National Public
Radio system and then return to serve as a UW System senior vice president.
An Extension Program and Staff Development unit also helped implement program
delivery methods during the 1965-1982 period. This unit was headed by Patrick Boyle
who was later to become chancellor of UW-Extension.
Extension went through a major reorganization in 1982 when most outreach
programming was assigned to UW System campuses. Lamb continued to direct a
telecommunications team that supported outreach programming at the UW System's 13
degree-granting universities and 13 two-year centers.
Now let's look at the birth of some of the program delivery systems that ushered in
today's distance education movement.
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Pioneers in Radio and
Television Broadcasting
Doug Bradley describes the birth of WHA Radio in the following excerpt from a 1992
feature on the station's 75th anniversary:
"Terry is wasting his time with a plaything," whispered colleagues of UW
physics professor Earle M. Terry in 1917. Undaunted, Terry and his
students transmitted music and voice with the help of handmade vacuum
tubes, and Station 9XM started experimental radio broadcasts from
Science Hall that year. Then in January of 1922, 9XM was granted a new
license and call letters -- WHA. And in the decades to follow, WHA
helped spark a run of innovations that would change public broadcasting
forever.
Wisconsin citizens have always considered WHA Radio to be the friendly open door to
their University, its faculty and knowledge base. The station has earned many awards. In
1937 it was presented the first of 50 Ohio State awards. The station has also won many
Peabody and Gabriel awards.
Since its early beginnings with "School of the Air", WHA Radio has continued to
broadcast educational courses in a variety of formats. "College of the Air" and later
"University of the Air" offered listeners a chance to hear UW professors discuss a wide
array of topics. Since creation of the UW System in 1971, WHA Radio has worked with
all System campuses to produce audio credit courses, many of which have been
distributed nationally. As of the late 1980s, 200 faculty were appearing on informational
and WHA short course programs each year, and many more participated in popular "callin" shows.
As of 1992, WHA Radio, licensed to the UW System, was an AM service broadcasting
news and information to a 16-county area of south central Wisconsin. WERN-FM,
licensed to the Station Educational Communications Board (ECB), was providing music
and arts programming to the same listening area. Both services were also being heard
across the state as part of Wisconsin Public Radio, a service jointly offered by UWExtension and ECB.
WHA-TV began broadcasting in 1952 from improvised studios in the old Chemical
Engineering Building on the Madison campus. After starting with a schedule of only two
and a half hours of programming daily to a very small audience, WHA-TV, as of 1987,
was broadcasting 18 hours a day to an 18-county area in south central Wisconsin,
northern Illinois and eastern Iowa. The station had become a major producer of local,
statewide and national general educational programming, focusing on cultural,
performing arts, sports, and public affairs themes. Many of WHA-TV's productions were
also being carried throughout Wisconsin over a Wisconsin Public Television network.
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Since its early developmental years, WHA-Television worked with UW-Madison and
other System campus faculty to make credit and non-credit instruction and community
improvement services available to citizens throughout the state and nation. A review of
awards earned indicates the station met its goals. In 1969 WHA-TV became the nation's
first public television station to receive an "Emmy" from the National Academy of
Television Arts and Sciences. The honor went to the film, "Pretty Soon Runs Out," part
of the series "The Inner Core: City Within a City," which featured urban neighborhoods
in Milwaukee. Other honors have included Gabriel Awards, the Dupont-Columbia Award
for Broadcast Journalism, Ohio State and Chicago Film Festival Awards. WHA-TV has
ranked among the top five public broadcasting stations in viewer-ship since 1975.
As of 1991, telecourses were being offered to adult viewers on both WHA-TV and WHA
Cable 33, which is a service of WHA-TV. WHA-TV has continued to offer credit and
non-credit courses developed by UW System campuses and from the state's Vocational,
Technical, and Adult Education (VTAE) system. The station also cooperates with the
Educational Communications Board to offer Instructional Television (ITV) and provide
daytime learning opportunities for elementary and high school students statewide.
As of 1994, many UW-Madison and other UW System outreach programmers were
effectively utilizing UW-Extension's expanded telecommunications services. The UWMadison College of Engineering was videotaping courses which made it possible to earn
credits towards a master's degree without going to campus. Several campus colleges had
joined with the UW-Madison outreach office, Extension Telecommunications Division,
and the State Educational Communications Board to purchase a satellite uplink so the
university could deliver instruction worldwide. The UW-Madison colleges of education
and engineering and the UW hospital were also using a form of televised microwave
delivery known as Instructional Television Fixed Service (ITFS) to bring programs to
professionals at their work sites.
Independent (correspondence) Study
Although today's sophisticated program delivery systems are dramatic, it's important to
review the early beginnings of correspondence study since home study is still combined
with the new telecommunications services to provide a package for distance learning.
Correspondence study has been an important component of the University of Wisconsin
outreach program delivery system since 1891.
In 1906 University of Wisconsin President Charles Van Hise asked Henry Legler,
secretary of the State Library Commission, to act temporarily as Extension secretary,
without extra compensation. He also appointed two full-time University staff members to
carry out the chief work of Extension--Frank Hutchins as field organizer, and W. H.
Lighty as director of correspondence work.
In 1907, Louis E. Reber took office as Extension's first Director and under his leadership,
along with that of Hutchins and Lighty, the University Extension mechanism began to
take shape.
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Lighty continued in office until 1937 and is given much credit for developing a strong
and stable correspondence study unit and for utilizing the UW pioneer radio station,
WHA, for educational purposes. UW-Madison's 125th year report, published in 1975,
states that correspondence study continued to be the backbone of Extension in the late
1930s, although after Lighty's retirement in 1937 a new director was not named until the
early 1940s.
A 1989 history of Continuing Education in Engineering illustrates how some of the larger
outreach departments have utilized "home study" courses since early in the century and
how faculty members have taken advantage of new technology to better serve their
correspondence study students.
Excerpts from the 1989 engineering outreach report follow:
"George A. Hool, who headed Extension's Department of Civil and
Structural Engineering from 1908 to 1927, was a prolific writer. He and
several other extension engineers contributed their accumulated
experience to the development of correspondence courses. By 1911, the
two largest units in the correspondence study department were
engineering, with seven staff members, and business administration, with
three staff members devoting full-time working with home study
students."
The 1989 report also quoted from a 1911 engineering extension department report which
stated that:
"Those who would belittle correspondence study contrived chants such as:
Pooh! Pooh! Harvard!
Pooh! Pooh! Yale!
I got my education through the mail!"
It was apparent that the early extension-engineering students who completed
correspondence courses were among the best members of university classes when they
came to campus. As so-called factory or job training correspondence courses grew in
popularity, a movement to provide more comprehensive training developed, culminating
with legislation in 1911 that provided for local "continuation schools" in cities of more
than 5,000. Many of these schools later became part of the state's vocational education
system.
Of the 18 correspondence course texts in use before World War I, 16 were engineeringrelated. Advertising for these courses invited road laborers, foremen, inspectors, high
commissioners, engineers, and government officials to enroll and take advantage of the
benefits of correspondence study, including increased chances for promotion. Some of
the 1911 correspondence study ads pointed to Abe Lincoln, Thomas Edison and Henry
Ford as examples of men who had succeeded via the home study route.
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During World War II, University Extension staff members shifted a large part of their
efforts to war-related projects. The United States Armed Forces Institute (USAFI),
established in Madison in 1942 with funding from the U. S. Department of Defense,
became an integral part of the Extension correspondence study operation.
L. H. Adolfson, named correspondence study director in 1944 and later dean of
University Extension, continued the development of strong academic departments to
support credit programs in correspondence study, as well as at the emerging University of
Wisconsin two-year study centers.
The 1958 University Extension annual report indicated the important role played by the
correspondence study unit as it continued to offer university and high school courses and
was also developing courses for more than 250,000 service men and women continuing
their education through the USAFI contract.
Under a "What it does" heading, the 1958 report stated that the University of Wisconsin
Correspondence Study unit:
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Offers nearly 450 courses in nearly 150 areas of learning
Teaches 12,000 active students annually
Gives personal instruction on more than 80,000 written assignments
Cooperates with the Foreign Service Institute of the U. S. Dept. of State to teach
Immigration Law & Visa Operations to foreign service officers
And contracts with the United States Armed Forces Institute (USAFI) to develop
and teach 200 correspondence courses on the high school and university level and
provide instruction for over 300,000 USAFI assignments
Indicating that the unit was an early innovator in making educational use of film and
television, extension leaders reported in 1958 that their Correspondence Study staff had
developed and produced 12 TV kinescopes on American Government at the request of
training officers in the Department of Defense and also continued to offer TVcorrespondence study courses over commercial TV channels in the State.
The Independent Study unit (the name of the unit was changed in 1965) has remained
among the top five university correspondence study departments in the nation.
The enrollment has remained relatively constant over the years, excluding the 1942-1974
period when home study courses were provided for thousands of members of the armed
services. (The U.S. Defense Department disbanded the USAFI unit in 1974.) A 1980-81
report by Independent Study Director Donald Kaiser showed an enrollment total of
10,327, with 5,068 enrolled for university credit, 3,463 for continuing education credit,
and 1,796 enrolled for high school credits. It was during the 1980s that Kaiser worked
with Extension and UW-Madison faculty and Extension media specialists to develop
audio-print packages to enhance correspondence study activity. This
Annenberg/Corporation for Public Broadcasting project resulted in special home-study
packets utilized in other states, as well as Wisconsin. A 1993 report by Independent
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Study director Sylvia Rose showed correspondence course enrollments had increased to
11,908, with 7,889 enrolled for university credit, 2,020 for continuing education credit,
and 1,688 for high school credit.
As indicated earlier, the extension-engineering department was active in correspondence
study programming from 1906 through the early 1960s. However, the introduction of a
new engineering professional development degree program in 1965 added a new
dimension for independent study courses since the post-baccalaureate program was
designed to permit engineers to continue their education without leaving their home
communities. The engineering department also led the way during the 1980s in
supplanting printed study guides with new program delivery systems and techniques such
as a portable videotape production studio, videocassette courses, and teleconferencing
courses -- including some that are satellite delivered to multiple locations.
To supplement other home study options, departments such as pharmacy and nursing also
started in the 1960s to use audiocassette packets made up of notebooks containing
recorded instruction, along with printed study guides. Extension Pharmacy Department
head Melvin Weinswig reported in the October, 1978, issue of Extension News that taped
continuing education courses had been used by more than 15,000 pharmacists and allied
health professionals nationwide during the previous five years. Some inserted the
cassettes into their car's tape decks so they could listen to the latest lesson while enroute
to the office.
World's Biggest Partyline Creates Statewide Classroom
It was in November of 1965 when a telephone network was introduced to make
continuing education programs available to Wisconsin physicians in their home
communities. Dr. Thomas C. Meyer of the UW Continuing Medical Education
department at Madison had earlier contacted Dean Theodore Shannon of the University
Extension Division to appeal for such a service to save travel time for physicians.
When the service was initiated in 1965, a telephone company operator in Madison
activated the network by simply calling each location 15 minutes before program time.
Participants used standard desktop speaker phones to hear the programs and ask questions
or make comments.
Program expansion soon made the use of conventional telephone lines and relying on
operator assistance inadequate. In early 1966, UW-Extension leased a network of private,
or dedicated, telephone lines from the Wisconsin Telephone Company. This provided
exclusive educational use and 24-hour accessibility for Extension's new Educational
Telephone Network (ETN).
When the UW department of postgraduate medical education initiated use of the
"telephone circuit" in 1965, the following objectives were listed:

Offer instruction of the highest caliber and at a reasonable cost
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Incorporate topics directly applicable to clinical practice
Reduce substantially the amount of time a physician must be absent from the
responsibilities of a practice in order to participate in a continuing education
program
Somewhat similar goals could be stated 23 years later (in 1988) when 346 programs were
designed to reach 23,250 doctors, engineers, nurses, lawyers, farmers, business people,
and social workers over the Educational Teleconference Network. (Although still
utilizing the telephone system, the name of the Educational Telephone Network had been
changed to Educational Teleconference Network.) UW continuing education programs
accounted for just under 50 percent of these 1988 ETN programs. Nearly 17 percent were
used for UW credit courses, 11 percent for public service announcements, and 24 percent
were programs used by university and state agency staff for administrative
communications.
In addition to the large Educational Teleconference Network, UW-Extension's
Instructional Communications System (ICS) was by 1988 providing production and
duplication services that ranged from studio and editing services, to duplicating of more
than 80,000 audiocassettes. These special services were partly responsible for changing
the unit's name to ICS during the 1980s. But the original educational telephone network,
often referred to as "ETN, the world's biggest party line," has remained a key program
delivery component of the unit.
By 1989, the 23rd year that continuing education, credit, and public service programs
were delivered to Wisconsin's 72 counties via ETN, the network connected 169 dedicated
sites and five fixed dial-up sites.
Forty-seven UW departments, state agencies, and nonprofit groups sponsored 1,949
hours of ETN programming during the 1988-89 fiscal year. Largest ETN users during
that year were 4-H & Youth Development, 194 hours; Family Living Education, 172
hours; Library & Information Studies, UW-Madison, 143 hours; and Allied Health, UWMadison, 120 hours.
Many refinements and new technologies were added to the basic ETN system by 1991.
Managed by Extension's Instructional Communications systems, these services included:
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WisLine, a telephone conference call service that could link from three to 68
locations, anywhere in the world
WisView, a distance education delivery system combining audio teleconferencing
with a computer-based display of charts, text, and color pictures
Videoconferencing and an electronic bulletin board that provides information on
upcoming national satellite videoconferences
Audio production and duplicating services which include narrators, studios,
editing, mixing, audio cassette, cartridge, and reel-to-reel duplications
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Electronic publishing, an "audio text" service providing horticultural, food
preservation, and food safety information accessible from a telephone to
consumers in metropolitan areas
Packaging and Marketing
Extension Programs
How could Extension and campus faculty best utilize available program delivery and
media support systems to assure success of their outreach classes and services?
What administrative and support arrangement would be most effective in helping
outreach faculty "package and market" their programs? And how could media managers
and marketing specialists best help instructors reach and serve their adult students,
without infringing on the tenured faculty's responsibility for determining course offerings
and curricula?
These issues had long challenged outreach administrators and staff. A 1979 service needs
survey conducted by the UW-Extension Office of Program Information indicated great
variation in the value which extension administrators, programming faculty, and county
Extension agents placed on direct mail, newspaper features, and broadcast media
announcements for promoting the institution's image and program enrollments.
The 100 programming faculty, 60 county agents, and 12 Extension administrators
responding to the survey showed that 75 percent of the administrators looked to media
coverage to enhance the image of their institution. In contrast, more than 50 percent of
the programming faculty were most interested in the impact which publicity and
promotion had on enrollments in their classes and programs.
When asked for their judgment as to the most effective methods for announcing programs
or services, 73 percent of the programming faculty rated direct mail first, 27 percent
chose newspapers or broadcast announcements.
The survey indicated that large Extension programming departments, such as
Engineering and The Management Institute, were less dependent on media
announcements since faculty planned programs years in advance and had well-defined
client groups that could be reached by direct mail. Departments offering programs on
social issues, health concerns, communications, and liberal studies were most dependent
on print and broadcast media support for enrollments. Many of their programs had been
developed to meet a new and timely public concern or interest and effective direct mail
lists were difficult to assemble and maintain.
It should be noted that until 1965, when several UW Madison campus outreach units
were transferred into a freestanding University Extension institution, the University's
extension services were served by two independent media support offices. The UW
Agricultural Journalism Department provided news and publications support for
programs in agriculture, home economics, and 4-H and youth development. A separate
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media office publicized other extension programs plus learning opportunities at the
University's two-year centers.
After the 1965 creation of a single large statewide outreach unit, Agricultural Journalism
specialists continued to provide media support for all Cooperative Extension Service
programming. A University Extension Program Information Office produced publicity
and publications to support programs in business, education, engineering, law, health
care, communications, liberal studies and the arts, and edited Extension News, an
institutional newsletter published by the University Extension Chancellor. The roles of
these two media support units were to change again when a 1982 decision was made to
return most of extension programming responsibility to the UW System campuses. The
Agricultural Journalism Department ad UW-Madison continued to support the
Cooperative Extension programs, but most other extension programming was promoted
by the various System campus news and publications offices.
Testing an Articulated
Instructional Media Model
A 1964-69 experimental effort called the Articulated Instructional Media (AIM) program
didn't immediately produce dramatic new program packaging and delivery formulas. This
Carnegie-funded project is worth a review, however, since it identified some of the
challenges in putting together a team to help outreach faculty use different classroom
teaching techniques, radio and television, correspondence study, and special audiovisuals to reach and teach adult students. There is also reason to believe that the AIM
program eventually had an impact on the ways in which outreach programming faculty
utilized new technology to promote and improve what has become known as "distance
education." As will be noted later, the program also aided system and campus leaders in
establishing other programs for off-campus students.
The AIM project was first proposed and co-directed by Education Professor Charles A.
Wedemeyer and Journalism and Mass Communications Professor Clay Schoenfeld.
Liberal Studies Professor Robert E. Najem later joined Wedemeyer to co-manage AIM.
A stated purpose was "To effect change at every level of the academic hierarchy, in every
process dealing with the adult part-time learner, so the very special learning needs of
such off-campus students will be met."
The following observations are from a term paper written by Sylvia Rose of UWExtension's Independent Study unit in 1983.

The AIM experiment was based on the assumptions that the articulated instruction
approach was necessary so that more people could continue their education, and
that an articulated program would conserve funds and faculty time, and broaden
and enrich learning opportunities.

It was assumed that a non-resident student could earn credits that would compare
favorably with those accumulated by a resident student. Given faculty and
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administrative support, it was further assumed that a non-resident student could
earn a degree in a special major program. So, in essence, AIM not only offered
individual courses but was also designed to be an off-campus degree program.
Structurally, AIM had its own administrative staff and was introduced in 1964 as
an all-university activity, housed in Extension but reporting directly to the UW
central administration in Madison.
After a year of operation, the staff found that AIM students were not progressing
as rapidly as first expected. In making an analysis of the existing program (largely
correspondence instruction) the staff felt that the policy of allowing the students
complete freedom to move at a self-determined pace without any constraints was
unrealistic. Therefore, a more directed and structured format was established.
Although students were mature, motivated to learn, and willing to discipline
themselves, they were wary of exposing themselves to criticism. They lacked
confidence in themselves as learners in the new methods of learning. Despite
these facts, the AIM dropout rate was consistently below 10 percent, due to
careful screening, counseling, testing, and interviewing.
On July 1, 1966, AIM officially became part of University Extension, a move that
considerably altered the program, according to the following statement issued three years
later by the project co-directors Wedemeyer and Najem.
Initially the program explored ways of offering a credit program to highly motivated,
non-resident students in imaginative new ways. Once the program became a part of the
University Extension, however, it had to adjust to and live in a more constraining
environment. The freedom of experimental exploration was seriously curtailed.
Although there were 150 AIM students at the time, it became apparent in 1966 that, with
a large part of the Carnegie grant expended, AIM would have to narrow its objectives to
offering only freshman and sophomore courses, and place more emphasis on reaching
students via radio, television, and telephone. The focus was also shifted from innovative
campus-based courses, which had been modified for off-campus adults, to courses that
had been designed especially for the independent adult learner by Extension's academic
departments.
AIM experienced some successes and numerous problems before the project was
terminated in 1969. "On the plus side," AIM's co-director Najem recalled during a 1992
interview, "many of today's extension programmers are now using the 'high tech'
communications systems that were promoted by the AIM staff to introduce distance
learning." He also felt that the AIM concept and many of its program delivery techniques
were later adapted by UW System and campus leaders to establish Extended Degree
programs for off-campus students.
AIM concepts were also adapted by educators in England and Australia. Wedemeyer
spent much time consulting with educators in both countries and his writings became a
base for many concepts of the Open University in the United Kingdom during the 1960s.
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Reviewing challenges and problems, Najem said the AIM program was made less
effective when transferred from UW central administration to University Extension in
1966. He thought a great flaw of AIM was the assumption that courses developed for
campus classrooms could be used for individual adult students. It proved to be difficult to
adapt multimedia packages designed for campus use to the teaching packages needed for
the individual learner. Najem found that Extension departments resisted developing
special courses for these individual students, because of the high cost of necessary slides,
tapes, and media equipment.
Another problem existed, recalled Najem, because Extension offered no degrees and
therefore had no system for applying earned credits, as did the UW campuses. "We even
faced some antagonism from some UW administrators who mistakenly felt the AIM
concept might reduce campus enrollments," Najem remembered.
The AIM project may be reviewed by future outreach leaders looking for "right and
wrong" ways to assist extension programmers in carrying out their mission. The
experiment is credited with helping establish guidelines for some continuing education
program fees and for identifying the type of counseling needed to best serve the adult
learner.
A major result of the project, however, may have been to demonstrate how the academic
community and media support staff can best work together to improve adult education
programming. This outcome is discussed in a summary section from the Wedemeyer and
Najem 1969 AIM report.
After pointing out that AIM program direction was handled by tenured faculty while
program implementation has handled by media and technology specialists, Wedemeyer
and Najem concluded there was a need for the two groups to develop more of a team
effort.
They concluded that:
"This advocacy relationship (between media specialists and faculty) can even have
advantages. If both groups are competent, the dialogues that result provide an example of
how a University community should function--probing the purposes of higher education,
the nature of program content, the characteristics of learners, the relevancy of learning
experiences, the means of teaching, the processes of learning, and the validity of tested
results. In such a give-and-take atmosphere, the quality of the performance of the media
and technology specialists is particularly important. The media specialists must make
suggestions, probe, demonstrate, and challenge all along the line. If they feel inferior they
will not follow through adequately and will yield where they should not. However, if they
are inflexible, they may alienate the academic community."
Experiences gained in this team approach to packaging and delivering outreach programs
served the University well during the 1970s and 1980s. Many academic departments at
the UW System campuses had appointed outreach specialists to help faculty develop
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programs and services for so-called non-traditional adult students. And by 1990, faculty
and staff were utilizing old and proven delivery systems, plus computerized and satellitedelivered classes, as they entered what was being referred to as the "distance education"
era. Of course the engineering and business faculty at UW-Madison could recall with
pride that their schools had started the "distance education" movement early in the
century by utilizing a dynamic correspondence study unit.
When Patrick Boyle, a forceful advocate for extension programming, retired as UWExtension Chancellor in August 1993 he was replaced by distance education proponent
Donald Hanna.
UW System President Katharine Lyall said Hanna was selected in part because of his
expertise in using satellite technology and telecommunications for distance education
services at Washington State University.
A governor's commission looking at budgets and roles of governmental and educational
agencies issued a 1995 report which recommended that the UW take a critical look a the
scope and expenditures of its extension services.
Providing an expanded distance education system continued to be a major assignment for
UW-Extension, however. The Governor's budget proposal issued in February 1995
reflected this challenge since it included funds for more space and equipment in Madison
for the additional staff and technology needed to provide distance education services.
As was the case with early home study services, UW System campus and Extension
leaders were proceeding with caution to assure that the new expanding distance education
networks utilized campus resources and didn't replace critical campus contacts between
faculty and students. The existing distance education systems were already being utilized
by UW System campuses, however, as well as an increasing number of Wisconsin public
schools and vocational, technical, and adult education centers.
For a more complete review of continuing education trends at land-grant universities, read
TRANSPLANTING EXTENSION: A New Look at the Wisconsin Idea. The complete text may
be viewed at: http://www.uwex.edu/disted/gooch/longUWEX.pdf.
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Thomas Gilbert’s Leisurely Theorem and Performance
Engineering model (Behavior + Accomplishment =
Performance)
ISPI’s HPT Model: http://ispi.org/services/whatshptmodel.pdf
-----------------------Thomas Gilbert’s Leisurely Theorem:
http://www.personal.psu.edu/faculty/s/j/sjm256/portfolio/kbase/IDD/Corporate/HPTover
view.pdf
More on Tom Gilbert’s Leisurely Theorem, see page 19:
http://www.personal.psu.edu/users/x/q/xqw1/documents/insys551/finalpaper.pdf
----------------------Physics and Human Performance Technology
by Steven J. Austin
http://www.ispi.org/publications/pitocs/piapr98e.htm : see fourth paragraph.
What do Newton's laws of physics and Tom Gilbert's ideas on performance technology
have in common? Plenty, it turns out. Consider Newton's first law-a body at rest will
remain at rest. Basically it states that a performer stays at the same level of performance
unless a net outside force acts on the performance to alter the performance level. How
about Newton's second law-the acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the
resultant force on it and inversely proportional to its mass? Force relates to the ability to
accomplish the movement of something. And acceleration is the change in velocity of a
body, which could be analogous to the change in performance level of a person. Thus,
improved performance equals force needed to accomplish a goal divided by the behavior.
Moreover, Gilbert's second leisurely theorem tells us that the typical performance is
going to expend energy and will not match the performance level of the exemplar.
Something is always working in reverse against all performers to affect the worth of their
final accomplishment. However, the exemplar, by a combination of internal and external
factors, is able to maximize the potential of the performance situation. Thus, Newton's
third law can be related to Gilbert's second leisurely theorem: that typical competence is
inversely proportional to the potential for improving performance, which is the ratio of
exemplary performance to typical performance.

Thomas Gilbert is considered the Father of Performance Technology
o Early training in philosophy then shifted to psychology
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o Doctorate in psychometrics and clinical psychology
o Became interested in Skinner’s work and was invited by Skinner to study
at Harvard
o Taught at University level and worked as a consultant
Used Skinner’s notion of successive approximation – “The best training is always
the shortest training”
o Emphasis on feedback and stimulus – response theory (i.e. data not facts
are the stimulus)
o Stress is on the measurement of behavior
Performance engineering model: Behavior + Accomplishment = Performance
o Verifying an accomplishment:
 Is it measurable (quality, quantity, cost)?
 Is it observable?
 Is it reliable?
Performance engineering
o A method for facilitating exemplary individual performance
o Makes employees responsible for the accomplishments by providing
 Resources
 Freedom to solve work-place problems
 Self-monitoring with established standards
Phases of performance engineering analysis
o Determining desired accomplishments
o Measuring the opportunities for improvement on desired accomplishments
o Selecting the techniques for performance improvement
Application of performance engineering at various levels
o Philosophical (ideas of organization) ethos, values
o Cultural (larger environment in which organization exists) growing form
ethos
o Policy (missions that define purpose) ethos in written form or codification
o Strategic (plans to carry out mission) action plan
o Tactical (specific duties)
o Logistical (support system, resource allocation)
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Ausubell’s Advance Organizer – Session 7, pg2.
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A brief and abstract prose passage (a paragraph) placed before a
lesson
Organizes the new materials by outlining, arranging, logically
sequencing or patterning the main points
Transition statement that bridges learner’s previous knowledge to
new content - linking
Encourages transfer
Builds upon existing schema
Function of Schemata
 aid perception by facilitating selective attention
 aid comprehension and recall by
 providing an ideational scaffolding
for assimilating text and events
 allowing orderly search of memory
permitting inferential construction
and elaboration
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Chucking – Session 7, pg 1.
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Chunking rationale rooted incapacity of working memory
Size of information chunking (7 +- 2)
Utility dependant upon internal coherence of the chunk
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Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
Social Learning Theory (A. Bandura)
Overview:
The social learning theory of Bandura emphasizes the importance of observing and
modeling the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. Bandura (1977)
states: "Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people
had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do.
Fortunately, most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from
observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later
occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action." (p22). Social learning
theory explains human behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between
cognitive, behavioral, an environmental influences. The component processes underlying
observational learning are: (1) Attention, including modeled events (distinctiveness,
affective valence, complexity, prevalence, functional value) and observer characteristics
(sensory capacities, arousal level, perceptual set, past reinforcement), (2) Retention,
including symbolic coding, cognitive organization, symbolic rehearsal, motor rehearsal),
(3) Motor Reproduction, including physical capabilities, self-observation of reproduction,
accuracy of feedback, and (4) Motivation, including external, vicarious and self
reinforcement.
Because it encompasses attention, memory and motivation, social learning theory spans
both cognitive and behavioral frameworks. Bandura's theory improves upon the strictly
behavioral interpretation of modeling provided by Miller & Dollard (1941).
Scope/Application:
Social learning theory has been applied extensively to the understanding of aggression
(Bandura, 1973) and psychological disorders, particularly in the context of behavior
modification (Bandura, 1969). It is also the theoretical foundation for the technique of
behavior modeling which is widely used in training programs. In recent years, Bandura
has focused his work on the concept of self-efficacy in a variety of contexts (e.g.,
Bandura, 1993).
Example:
The most common (and pervasive) examples of social learning situations are television
commercials. Commercials suggest that drinking a certain beverage or using a particular
hair shampoo will make us popular and win the admiration of attractive people.
Depending upon the component processes involved (such as attention or motivation), we
may model the behavior shown in the commerical and buy the product being advertised.
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Principles:
1. The highest level of observational learning is achieved by first organizing and
rehearsing the modeled behavior symbolically and then enacting it overtly. Coding
modeled behavior into words, labels or images results in better retention than simply
observing.
2. Individuals are more likely to adopt a modeled behavior if it results in outcomes they
value.
3. Individuals are more likely to adopt a modeled behavior if the model is similar to the
observer and has admired status and the behavior has functional value.
References:
Bandura, A. (1993). Perceived self-efficacy in cognitive development and functioning.
Educational Psychologist, 28(2), 117-148.
Bandura, A. (1986). Social Foundations of Thought and Action. Engelwood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice-Hall.
Bandura, A. (1973). Aggression: A Social Learning Analysis. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice-Hall.
Bandura, A. (1971). Social Learning Theory. New York: General Learning Press.
Bandura, A. (1969). Principles of Behavior Modification. New York: Holt, Rinehart &
Winston.
Bandura, A. & Walters, R. (1963). Social Learning and Personality Development. New
York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Miller, N. & Dollard, J. (1941). Social Learning and Imitation. New Haven, NJ: Yale
University Press.
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY of Albert Bandura
If you've taken an introductory course in economics, you're
already familiar with the policy planner's dilemma of
deciding whether to allocate limited resources for guns or
for butter. The problem is usually posed to illustrate the
impersonal market forces of supply and demand, profit and
loss. Yet planners are people, and most individuals come to
the war-or-peace decision points of life having already
developed preferred responses. Northwestern psychologist
Donald Campbell calls these tendencies "acquired behavioral
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dispositions," and he suggests six ways that we learn to
choose one option over another.
1. Trial-and-error experience is a hands-on exploration
that might lead to tasting the butter and squeezing the
trigger, or perhaps the other way around.
2. Perception of the object is a firsthand chance to look,
admire, but don't touch a pistol and a pound of butter at
close range.
3. Observation of another's response to the object is
hearing a contented sigh when someone points the gun or
spreads the butter on toast. It is also seeing critical
frowns on faces of people who bypass the items in a store.
4. Modeling is watching someone fire the gun or melt the
butter to put it on popcorn.
5. Exhortation is the National Rifle Association's plea to
protect the right to bear arms or Willard Scott's
commercial message urging us to use real butter.
6. Instruction about the object is a verbal description of
the gun's effective range or of the number of calories in a
pat of butter.
Campbell claims that direct trial-and-error experience
creates a deep and long-lasting acquired behavioral
disposition, while perception has somewhat less effect,
observation of response even less, and modeling less still.
Exhortation is one of the most used but least effective
means to influence attitudes or actions.
Stanford psychologist Albert Bandura agrees that
conversation is not an effective way of altering human
behavior, but he thinks that classical learning theory's
preoccupation with trial-and-error learning is
shortsighted. "Coping with the demands of everyday life
would be exceedingly trying if one could arrive at
solutions to problems only by actually performing possible
options and suffering the consequences."1 His social
learning theory concentrates on the power of example.
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THE SPREAD OF TV VIOLENCE THROUGH MODELING
Bandura's major premise is that we can learn by observing
others. He considers vicarious experience to be the typical
way that human beings change. He uses the term modeling to
describe Campbell's two midrange processes of response
acquisition (observation of another's response and
modeling), and he claims that modeling can have as much
impact as direct experience.
Social learning theory is a general theory of human
behavior, but Bandura and people concerned with mass
communication have used it specifically to explain media
effects. Bandura warned that "children and adults acquire
attitudes, emotional responses, and new styles of conduct
through filmed and televised modeling."2 George Gerbner (see
Chapter 29) was concerned that television violence would
create a false climate of fear. Albert Bandura cautioned
that TV might create a violent reality that was worth
fearing.
Bandura's warning struck a responsive chord in parents and
educators who feared that escalating violence on TV would
transform children into bullies. Although he doesn't think
this will happen without the tacit approval of those who
supervise the children, Bandura regards anxiety over
televised violence as legitimate. That stance caused
network officials to blackball him from taking part in the
1972 Surgeon General's Report on Violence.3 It is doubtful
whether TV sets will ever bear an inscription similar to
that on packs of cigarettes: "Warning: The Surgeon General
has determined that TV violence may turn your child into an
insensitive brute." But if Bandura had been picked as a
member of the research team, the report would have been
more definitive in pointing out the causal link between
television violence and aggressive behavior.
Consider the case of Tyler Richie, a shy 10-year-old boy
who has been raised on a Saturday-morning diet of
superheroes. After school he's absorbed for an hour in
helping Nintendo's Mario Brothers fight their way out of
danger. He then catches the last half of a Rockford Files
rerun on a local station and sees that even mild mannered
James Garner regards violence as the best option when his
Pappie is in trouble. After dinner, Ty laughs at the fake
fighting of roller derby and wrestling on sports cable. He
then slips a cassette of Dirty Harry into the VCR and
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settles back for some hard-core violence. "Go ahead and
make my day," he drawls as Clint Eastwood appears on the
screen.
The combined four hours that Ty spends in front of the
screen represent a typical day for boys in his class at
school. Bandura considers "gentle" Ty a likely candidate to
someday clobber his sister, shoot a prowler, or use
criminal force to get his own way. Social learning theory
postulates three necessary stages in the causal link
between television violence and actual physical harm to
another: attention, retention, and motivation.
Attention: "I Never Thought of That Before"
Because advertising rates are tied directly to a program's
share of the market, television professionals are experts
at gaining and holding attention. Practitioners are
committed to the drawing power of dramatized personal
injury and physical destruction. According to Bandura,
televised violence will grab Ty's attention because it is
simple, distinctive, prevalent, useful, and depicted
positively.
1. Simple. There's nothing very subtle about punching
someone in the face. Drawn-out negotiations and attempts at
reconciliation are complicated, but even a child can
understand a quick right to the jaw. In order to avoid
confusion, the good guys wear white hats.
2. Distinctive . The characters on the screen take risks
that don't fit the ordered pattern of Ty's life. That's why
Action Jackson pays his own way on commercial stations,
while Mr. Rogers' ten-minute sweater change requires a
subsidy on public television. Prosocial behavior like
sharing, sympathy, control of anger, and delayed
gratification appears dull when compared with violent
action sequences.
3. Prevalent . Bandura cites Gerbner's index of violence
(see Chapter 29) to show that television portrays "the big
hurt." Over 80 percent of prime-time programs contain
violent acts. That figure rises to over 90 percent for
weekend cartoon shows. With Nintendo sweeping America and
more than half of the nation's families owning a VCR,
violence on demand is easy to arrange.
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4. Useful. Social critics decry the gratuitous violence on
television, but Bandura denies that aggression is unrelated
to the story line. The scenes of physical force are
especially compelling because they suggest that violence is
a preferred solution to human problems. Violence is
presented as a strategy for life.
5. Positive . On every type of program, television draws in
viewers by placing attractive people in front of the
camera. There are very few overweight bodies or pimply
faces on TV. When the winsome star roughs up a few hoods to
help the lovely young woman, aggression is given a positive
cast.
Using violence in the race for ratings not only draws an
attentive audience, it transmits responses that we, as
viewers, might never have considered before. The media
expand our repertoire of behavioral options far beyond what
we would discover by trial and error and in ways more
varied than we would observe in people we know. The
unthinkable no longer is.
Retention: "I Figured Out What I Was Doing Wrong"
Bandura says it's fortunate that people learn from
vicarious observation, since mistakes could prove costly or
fatal. Without putting himself at risk, Ty is able to
discover that a knife fighter holds a switchblade at an
inclined angle of forty-five degrees and that he jabs up
rather than lunging down. Ty can pick up this bit of
"street smarts" from an admired Harry or a despised
Scorpio, and learning takes place whether the fictional
model is rewarded or punished for his action. We hope that
Ty will never have an occasion to put his knowledge into
practice. It's certainly unlikely that he'll walk out of
the house and immediately mimic the action he has learned;
instantaneous reproduction is uncommon. In contrast to
classical learning theory, Bandura says we can learn novel
behavior without any practice or direct reinforcement for
its consequences. The action will lie dormant, available
for future use, as long as we remember it.
Memory is a cognitive function, so Bandura's theory moves
beyond mere behaviorism. Like most other communication
theorists, he believes that the ability to use symbols sets
humans apart from the limited stimulus-response world of
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animals. "Humans don't just respond to stimuli, they
interpret them."4
Bandura says that we store events in two ways-through
visual images and through verbal codes. Ty may have a vivid
picture in his mind of Clint Eastwood leveling an
unswerving Colt .45 Magnum revolver. If so, repeated
instant mental replays (with Ty in the role of enforcer)
will ensure that he remembers how to point a gun in the
future. The more he exercises the image, the stronger the
memory will be in the future.
Bandura is convinced, however, that major gains in
vicarious learning come when the observer develops a
conscious awareness of the technique involved. These
insights are stored verbally. Ty will take a giant step
toward becoming a dead shot when he can sort out the visual
image of Clint Eastwood into generalized principles:
"Hold the weapon with both hands."
"Don't jerk the trigger; squeeze it."
"Aim six inches low to compensate for the recoil."
Bandura says that learning through modeling is more a
matter of abstracting rules than mimicry. It's not simply
"monkey see, monkey do."
The entire acquisition process described by Bandura is a
spectator sport. That's why television teaches violence so
well. Ty doesn't have to actually do the aggressive
behavior; fantasy rehearsal in his mind will keep the act a
live option for the future. If he ever does point a gun in
anger, the act of force, after years of mental roleplaying, will set his acquired behavioral disposition into
granite. "The highest level of observational learning is
achieved by first organizing and rehearsing the modeled
behavior symbolically, and then enacting it overtly."5
Motivation: "Why Not Do It? It Worked Out Fine for Them"
We observe many forms of behavior in others that we never
perform ourselves. Without sufficient motivation, Ty may
never imitate the violence he sees on TV. Bandura uses the
term motivation to refer to the rewards and punishments Ty
imagines will accompany his use of physical force. Would he
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go to jail for blowing away an enemy, remain anonymous if
he dropped a brick from a highway overpass, or gain status
for punching out a jerk who was hassling a friend? Note
that these questions concern potential outcomes rather than
sanctions already experienced. Bandura cautions that "the
widely accepted dictum that behavior is governed by its
consequences fares better for anticipated than for actual
consequences."6
Most reinforcement theorists recognize that Ty's
expectations for future rewards or punishment come in part
from external sources such as parents, friends, and
teachers. Bandura says that the effects of TV violence will
be greatly diminished if a youngster's parents punish or
disapprove of aggression. He contends that unconditional
love and approval merely encourage self-actualized tyrants.
Yet Ty also shares a responsibility for his own actions.
The latest version of social learning theory places
increasing emphasis on self-regulation. Bandura is
uncomfortable with any form of determinism. He doesn't
believe that people are "buffeted by environmental
stimuli," nor does he accept the notion that they are
"driven by inner forces." He sees external and internal
rewards working together in a "reciprocal determination" to
influence behavior. But social learning theory focuses on
vicarious reward as a third factor which causes acquired
responses to break out into action.
Television models do more than teach novel styles of
conduct. When people on television are punished for being
violent, that punishment reinforces society's sanctions
against acting above or outside the law. But when other
characters in the story accept or applaud the use of force,
that approval weakens inhibitions the viewer may have about
hurting people. Producers, writers, and directors are quick
to argue that action sequences end up by showing that crime
doesn't pay. Armed robbers, rapists, murderers, and
terrorists are brought to justice by the final fade-out.
But Bandura isn't worried about the bad guys glorifying
violence. It's the aggression of the good guys that
troubles him. Crime may not pay on television, but physical
force does.
Consider the potential encouragement of violence offered by
the 1989 motion picture Batman. In the first week of its
release in the United States, over 10 million patrons
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watched the Joker's creative sadism amid squeals of delight
in the theaters. While the average young male in the
audience might have difficulty identifying with the bizarre
Jack Nicholson, Michael Keaton looked like Everyman in his
low-key portrayal of the wealthy young avenger. The
producer, Jon Peters, wanted a story line that would
provide "a great opportunity to have this guy kick some
ass,"7 which Batman does. In the end, Bruce Wayne gets the
satisfaction of avenging his parents' murder, praise from
the grateful mayor of the city, and the adoration of the
adorable Kim Basinger. These vicarious rewards would seem
to justify almost any vigilante action. The filmmakers
would claim that Batman is mere fantasy; Bandura would
probably call it an effective classroom for life.
"YOU BIG BULLY, QUIT PICKING ON THAT CLOWN"
Bandura and his students ran a series of experiments to
study social learning of aggression through television. He
used a three-foot-high inflated plastic Bobo doll as the
potential victim. The clown figure had a heavy sand base
that made it pop back up after being knocked down. Nursery
school boys and girls saw a film in which an adult male or
female model assaulted the clown. The kids themselves then
had a chance to "play" with the Bobo doll without adult
supervision.
Figure 31.1 shows two of the attacks the female model
performed, with typical matching behavior of a girl who saw
the film. Since children in the control group didn't
normally say and do these things, the experiment
demonstrated that the youngsters had acquired the new,
aggressive behavior by watching the film.
Some children saw a version in which the adult model was
rewarded with candy, soda pop, and praise for being a
"strong champion." Others heard the model scolded: "Hey
there, you big bully, you quit picking on that clown." As
the adult retreated, he or she tripped and fell, and then
received a humiliating spanking with a rolled up magazine.
Consistent with social learning theory, Bandura found that
children exhibited more aggression when the adult models
were rewarded for their attack on the Bobo doll than when
they were punished. Yet given enough inducement by the
experimenter, most children were able to copy the hostile
actions. Bandura concludes that reinforcement doesn't
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affect the learning of novel responses, but it does
"determine whether or not observationally acquired
competencies will be put into use." He discovered that the
same antisocial learning took place when the aggressor was
a cartoon character (Herman the Cat), rather than a human
model. In other studies he discovered that removal of
restraint is greatest for boys when the model is male and
greatest for girls when the model is female. Consistent
with traditional gender-based roles, boys were more violent
than girls.
AROUSED OR DRAINED: TWO ALTERNATIVES TO IMITATION
Although Bandura discusses television violence in terms of
modeling, there are alternative interpretations of the
effect that dramatized aggression has on an audience. Dolf
Zillmann and other instigation theorists agree with Bandura
that viewers are aroused when they see simulated violence
on the screen.8 But arousal researchers note that people
also get excited watching suspense, comedy, or sexy bedroom
scenes. If a viewer turns on the set feeling somewhat
angry, the emotions these programs stir up can fuel a fullblown hatred that may spill over into physical aggression.
According to instigation theorists, it's the arousal in the
violent programs that stimulates aggression, not the
imitation processes Bandura emphasizes. Instigation is an
idea which sounds plausible, but an appeal to arousal fails
to explain how viewers learn new techniques. Nor can it
account for a violent action breaking out years after it
was modeled on television.
Favored by media apologists, catharsis theory, on the other
hand, suggests that the depiction of physical force
actually reduces aggression.9 The theory maintains that many
viewers are filled with pent-up anger, hostility, and
tension. Like excess steam vented from a boiler, these
destructive impulses are safely drained off through
exposure to fantasy violence. (The catharsis theory sees
Rambo and psychiatric counselors as serving the same
function.) The notion that violent drama can be healthy
traces back to Aristotle's belief that Greek tragedy served
to purge feelings of grief and fear. The problem with the
catharsis claim is that there is no evidence to support it.
Most efforts to demonstrate that a heavy dose of televised
violence reduces aggression end up showing the opposite.
People may feel better, but they get worse.
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CRITIQUE: A POSITIVE, BUT WEAK, CAUSAL RELATIONSHIP
Bandura states that "theories must demonstrate predictive
power." Social learning theory's claim that fantasy
violence teaches and encourages real aggression tests out
splendidly in the laboratory, where other factors can be
held constant, but only passably in the field. One ten-year
study tracked 460 third-grade boys until they were 19 years
old.10 The young men in the study who had watched a great
amount of televised violence as children were more
aggressive than those who had been occasional viewers.
However, those who were more aggressive as kids showed no
tendency to watch more televised violence when they grew
up. The twin findings support Bandura's claim that fantasy
aggression leads to the real thing. But childhood viewing
habits accounted for only 10 percent of the difference in
later aggression.
Although this 10 percent figure may sound rather small,
even a small effect from media violence can add up to a
significant social problem when a program has an audience
of 30 million people. If only 1 out of every 10,000 viewers
imitates an act of violence, the fictional drama had
produced at least 3,000 new victims.
Social learning theory shares the problem of almost all
reinforcement theories-it doesn't predict what the learner
will regard as positive. Ty may be turned off by the
machismo of John Wayne ("A man's got to do what a man's got
to do"), yet relish the lean intensity of Clint Eastwood.
Forecasting taste is risky business. Bandura's theory is
also vulnerable to the charges of Stuart Hall, which were
presented in the previous chapter. Bandura's research
epitomizes everything in the American media-effects
tradition that Hall disdains. Yet social learning theory is
relevant to many of the crucial cultural issues Hall and
other social theorists discuss.
Modeling clarifies why highly publicized suicides and drug
overdoses (Marilyn Monroe, Ernest Hemingway, Janis Joplin,
John Belushi) are followed by sharp upswings of selfinflicted death.11 It also helps us understand why political
assassinations (Robert Kennedy, Martin Luther King, Jr.,
Malcolm X) occur in clusters. Vicarious observation
explains the spread of Gandhi's innovative tactics of
militant nonviolence to racial and antiwar protest.
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The theory predicts that publicizing airline hijackings and
terrorist kidnappings will result in increased political
violence. It implies that news coverage of urban riots will
promote further disorder when it shows video clips of
joyous looters rather than the human misery of a destroyed
neighborhood.
Social learning theory also has useful observations about
the antisocial results of pornography. Vicarious
reinforcement explains how men can maintain a "rape myth"
in the face of overwhelming evidence that women are angered
and sickened by the mere idea of sexual assault. The
pornographic portrayal of abducted females stirred to
sexual ecstasy by their captors encourages men to hang on
to a dehumanizing rationalization that women secretly want
to be taken by force. Although sexually explicit films are
used beneficially by dysfunction clinics to lower
inhibitions and teach foreplay technique, Bandura warns
that continuous exposure to erotic fantasy may hinder
sexual satisfaction. The simulated wild passion portrayed
in every encounter sets up an unreasonably high expectation
that normal lovemaking can't match.
Bandura doesn't advocate tight artistic censorship or
governmental controls on news reporting, but his concern
with these issues shows social learning theory's usefulness
in matters of death, power, and passion. Bandura doesn't
claim that television is the only way people acquire
behavioral dispositions. But he has established that the
media are an important ingredient in the formative mix. Ty
is learning today; perhaps he will be acting out tomorrow.
QUESTIONS TO SHARPEN YOUR FOCUS
1. Effective modeling requires attention, retention and
motivation. How does cognition play a part in each of these
steps?
2. How do you respond to the claim that television doesn't
promote viewer violence because villains are punished
rather than rewarded for their cruel behavior?
3. If you were designing a further Bobo doll study with
children, what else would you want to explore about
modeling or imitation?
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4. Is it possible that both Bandura's social learning
theory and Zillmann's excitation transfer theory could be
right at the same time?
A SECOND LOOK
Recommended resource: Alexes Tan, "Social Learning of
Aggression of Television," in Perspectives on Media
Effects, Jennings Bryant and Dolf Zillmann (eds.), Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, N.J., 1986, pp. 41-55.
Initial statement: Albert Bandura and Richard Walters,
Social Learning and Personality Development, Holt, Rinehart
and Winston, New York, 1963.
General theory: Albert Bandura, Social Learning Theory,
Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1977.
Later cognative emphasis: Albert Bandura, Social
Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive
Theory, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1986.
Acquired behavioral dispositions: Donald Campbell, "Social
Attitudes and Other Acquired Behavioral Dispositions," in
Psychology: A Study of a Science, Vol. 6, S. Koch (ed.),
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1963, pp. 94-172.
Classic learning theory: B. F. Skinner, Beyond Freedom and
Dignity, Knopf, New York, 1971.
Bobo doll study: Albert Bandura, Dorothea Ross, and Sheila
Ross, "Imitations of Aggressive Film-Mediated Models,"
Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, Vol. 66, 1963,
pp. 3-11.
Longitudinal study: M. Lefkowitz, L. Eron, L. Walker and L.
Huesmann, Growing Up to Be Violent: A Longitudinal Study of
the Development of Aggression, Pergamon, New York, 1977.
Pornography: James Check and Neil Malamuth, "Pornography
and Sexual Aggression: A Social Learning Theory Analysis,"
in Communication Yearbook 9, Margaret McLaughlin (ed.),
Sage, Beverly Hills, Calif., 1986, pp. 181-213.
1. Albert Bandura, Social Learning Theory, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J. 1977,
p. 27
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2. Ibid., p. 39
3. Robert Liebert and Joyce Sprafkin, "The Surgeon General's Report," The Early
Window: Effects of Television on Children and Youth, 3d ed., Pergamon, New York,
1988, pp. 79-107.
4.Bandura, p. 59.
5 Ibid., p. 27
6. Ibid., p. 166
7. "Batmania," Newsweek, June 26, 1989, p. 71.
8. Dolf Zillmann, J.L. Hoyt, and K.D. Day, "Strength and Duration of the Effect of
Aggressive, Violent, and Erotic Communications on Subsequent Aggressive Behavior,"
Communication Research, Vol. 1, 1974, pp. 286-306.
9. Liebert and Sprafkin, pp. 75-77.
10. M. Lefkowitz, L. Eron, L. Walder, and L. Huesmann, Growing Up to Be Violent: A
longitudinal Study of the Development of Aggression, Pergamon, New York, 1977.
11. See Robert B. Cialdini, Influence, 2d ed., Scott, Foresman, Glenview, Ill., 1988, pp.
135-143.
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Clark / Kozma Debate
1- Clark versus Kozma: Does Media Influence Learning?
The Great Debate http://www.academia.edu/462857/The_ClarkKozma_Debate_in_the_21st_Century

In 1983 Richard Clark of the University of Southern California wrote the article
"Reconsidering Research on Learning from Media" in the Review of
Educational Research. The following is a summary of the article:
o Studies of the influence of media on learning have been a fixed feature of
educational research since E.L. Thorndike (1912) recommended pictures
as a labor-saving device in instruction. Most of this research is buttressed
by the hope that learning will be enhanced with some proper mix of
medium, student subject matter and content, and learning task. A typical
study compares the relative achievement of groups who have received
similar subject matter from different media.
o However, the most current summaries and meta-analyses of media
comparison studies clearly suggest that media do not influce learning
under any conditions. Even in the few cases where dramatic changes in
achievement or ability have followed the introduction of a medium, as was
the case with television in El Salvador (Schramm, 1977), it was not the
medium that cause the change but rather a curriculum reform that
accompanied the change.
o The best current evidence is that media are mere vehicles that deliver
instruction but do not influence student achievement any more than the
truck that delivers our groceries causes changes in our nutrition.
o Basically, the choice of vehicle might influence the cost or extent of
distributing instruction, but only the content of the vehicle can influence
achievement.
o While research often shows a slight learning advantage for newer media
over more conventional instructional vehicles, this advantage will be
shown to vulnerable to compelling rival hypothesis.
o In the 1960s, Lumsdaine (1963) and others (e.g. Mielke, 1968) argued that
gross media comparison and selection studies might not pay off.
Lumsdaine (1963) reached few conclusions beyond the suggestion that
media might reduce the cost of instruction due to economies of scale.
o A decade later, Glaser and Cooley (1973) and Levie and Dickie (1973)
were cautious about media comparison studies, which apparently were still
being conducted in large numbers. Glaser ad Cooley recommended using
any acceptable medium as "a vehicle for making available to schools what
psychologists have learned about learning" (p. 855). Levie and Dickie
noted that most media comparison studies to that data had been fruitless
and suggested that learning objectives can be attained through "instruction
presented by any of a variety of different media" (p. 859).
o Media studies, regardless of the media employed, tend to result in "no
significant different" conclusions (Mielke, 1968). It was Mielke who
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o
reminded us that when examining the effects of different media, only the
media being compared can be different. All other aspects of the
treatments, including the subject matter content and method of instruction,
must be identical.
Rival Hypotheses for Claims of Learning Gains from different Media
(Confounding)
 Some studies have shown timesavings in learning with computers.
A plausible rival hypothesis is the possible effects of the greater
effort invested in newer media programs than in conventional
presentations of the same material.
 Uncontrolled Novely Effects with Newer Media. Increased effort
and attention research subjects tends to give to media that are
novel to them. The increased attention paid by students sometimes
results in increased effort or persistence; which yields achievement
gains.
 Editorial Decisions and Distortion of Effect Estimates. There is
also some evidence for the hypothesis that journal editors select
research that finds stronger effects for newer media.
2- "Learning With Media" article by Robert B. Kozma of the
University of Michigan in the Review of Educational Research,
Summer 1991, Vol. 61. No. 2, pp. 179-211.
http://www.ittheory.com/kozma91.htm
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The research reviewed in this article suggests that capabilities of a particular
medium, in conjunction with methods that take advantage of these capabilities,
interact with and influence the ways learners represent and process information
and may result in more or different leaning when one medium is compared to
another for certain learners and tasks.
This article responds to a challenge by Clark 91983) for "...researchers [to] refrain
from producing additional studies exploring the relationship between media and
learning unless a novel theory is suggested" (. 457).
o He extended this challenge after reviewing the existing comparative
research on media and concluding that "...media do not influence learning
under any conditions"
o Rather "...media are mere vehicles that deliver instructional but do not
influence student achievement any more than the truck that delivers our
groceries causes changes in our nutrition"
Kozma views the learner as actively collaborating with the medium to construct
knowledge.
Media Defined: Media can be defined by its technology, symbol systems, and
processing capabilities. The most obvious characteristic of a medium is its
technology: the mechanical and electronic aspects that determine its function and,
to some extent, its shape and other physical features.
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Symbol systems are modes of appearance (Goodman, 1976): text, pictures
Salomon (1974, 1979) suggests that these characteristics should be used to
define, distinguish, and analyze medium because they are relevant to the
way learners represent and process information from the medium.
o The processing capabilities of a medium can complement those of the
learners; they may facilitate operations the learner is capable of
performing or perform those that the learner cannot.
Learning with Books. The most common medium in schools, which includes
text and pictures
o Four studies cited by Kozma. Two will be reviewed here.
 Rusted and Coltheart (1979) examined the way good and poor
fourth graders used pictured text to learn about physical features,
behavior, and habitat of unfamiliar animals. Including pictures of
animals in their environments along with text resulted in better
retention by both good and poor readers over the use of text alone.
It facilitated retention of all information by good readers but only
pictured information (i.e. recall of physical features) by poor
readers. Observation of good readers showed that they spend time
initially looking at the pictures and rarely looked at them once they
started reading. Poor readers, on the other hand, frequently move
back and forth between text and pictures.
 Stone and Glock (1981) obtained similar findings, using more
precise measures, when they examined the reading of second- and
third-year college students. As in the Rusted and Coltheart study
(1979), the data suggest that readers initially use the pictures to
evoke a schema that serves as a preliminary mental model of the
situation. Subsequently, it seems that the text carries the primary
semantic message while the pictures are used to map this
information on to this preliminary mental model.
o An author can use the capabilities of the medium (books) in a way that
complements the learner's skills and deficiencies.
Learning with Television
o Television differs in several ways from books that may affect cognitive
structures and processes. As with books, television can employ pictures,
diagrams, and other representational symbol systems, but, in TV, these
symbols are transient and able to depict motion. Linguistic information in
television can be orthographic, but more often it is oral and, as with
audiotape and radio, transient.
o Salomon (1984) found that a sample of sixth graders rated TV as an easier
medium from which to learn than books. This, and other similar studies,
suggests that the perception students have about a medium and the
purposes they have for viewing (educational or entertainment) influence
the amount of effort that they put into the processing of the message and,
consequently, the depth of understanding of the material.
Learning with Computers
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So far, media have been described and distinguished from each other by
their characteristic symbol systems. Some media are more usefully
distinguished by what they can do with information - that is, their
capability to process symbols. This is the case with computers.
o The computer is also capable of proceduralizing information. That is, it
can operate on symbols according the specified rules.
o Computers facilitate the building of mental models with micro worlds.
Experts in a domain are distinguished from novices, in part, by the nature
of their mental models and how they use them to solve problems. The
processing power of a computer can help novices build and refine mental
models so that they are more like those experts. The computer us able to
symbolically represent entities in ways that might inform mental models.
Learning with Multimedia
o Little research on this because it’s still new.
o Multimedia has been around for a long time, but referred to the use of
several media devices, e.g. slides, video, etc.
o Now it can be integrated into one device, such as the computer or
hypermedia.
Conclusion
o Some students will learn a particular task regardless of the delivery device.
Others will be ale to take advantage of a particular medium's
characteristics to help construct knowledge.
o Various aspects of the learning process are influenced by the cognitively
relevant characteristics of media: their technologies, symbol systems, and
processing capabilities.
o Clark contends that, even if there are differences in learning outcomes,
they are due to the method used, not the medium. With a particular
design, the medium enables and constrains the method; the method draws
on and instantiates the capabilities of the medium,
3- "Media Will Never Influence Learning," by Richard Clark.
ERT&D, Vol. 42, No. 2, 1994, pp.21-29.
http://www.ittheory.com/clark94.htm
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The claim of "no learning benefits" from media has been made and substantiated
many times in the past. Many researchers have argued that media have differential
economic benefits but no learning benefits. For example, in the first Handbook of
Research on Teaching, Lumsdaine (1963) concluded that the benefits of media
were primarily economic and that their use was "to develop the technology of
instructional method" (p. 669).
Mielke (1968) predicted that adequately designed research on the learning
benefits of various media would yield no significant differences between
treatments.
Wilbur Schramm (1977) claimed that learning is influenced more by the content
and instructional strategy in a medium than by te type of medium
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Levie & Dickie (1973) made the same point as Schramm in their chapter on
media and technology research in the Second Handbook of Research on Teaching.
Gavriel Salomon and I concluded the same in our review in the third, and most
recent, Handbook of Research on Teaching (Clark & Salomon, 1986)
Gavriel Salomon and others had argued that is was not the medium which
influenced learning but instead certain attributes of media that can be modeled by
learners and can shape the development of unique "cognitive processes." The
problem with the media attribute argument is that there is strong evidence that
many very different media attributes accomplish the same learning goal.
o The is the Replaceability Challenge: are there other media or another set
of media attributes that would yield similar learning gains. If so, these we
must always choose the less expensive method to achieve a learning goal.
Method versus Medium
o An instructional method is any way to shape information that activates,
supplants or compensates for the cognitive processes necessary for
achievement or motivation (Salomon, 1979). For example, students often
need an example to connect new information in a learning task with
information in their prior experience.
Motivation with Media
o I also claimed that media not only fail to influence learning, they are also
not directly responsible for motivating learning. Here I agree
wholeheartedly with the views of Salomon (1984) and others who draw on
the new cognitive theories which attribute motivation to learners' beliefs
and expectations about their reactions to external events - not to external
event alone. There is compelling research evidence that students' beliefs
about their chances to learn from any given media are different from any
given media are different for different students and for the same students
at different times.
Kulik (1985) found that it is not the computer but the teaching method built into
CBI that accounts for the learning gains in those studies.
4- "Will Media Influence Learning? Reframing the Debate" by
Robert Kozma, ERT&D, Col. 42, No. 2, 1994, pp. 7-19.
http://www.ittheory.com/kozma94.htm
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Perhaps the appropriate question is not do but will media influence learning. If
there is not relationship between media and learning it may be because we have
not yet made one. If we do not understand the potential relationship between
media and learning, quite likely one will not be made. And finally, if we preclude
consideration of a relationship in our theory and research by conceptualizing
media as "mere vehicles," we are likely never to understand the potential for such
a relationship.
In order to establish a relationship between media and learning we must first
understand why we have failed to establish one so far. In large part, the source of
this failure is due to the fact that our theories, research, and designs have been
constrained by vestiges of the behavioral roots from which our discipline sprang.
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Missing in these studies are any mentalist notions or descriptions of the cognitive,
affective, or social processes by which learning occurs. However, we have come
to understand that learning is not the receptive response to instructional delivery.
Rather, learning is an active, constructive, cognitive and social process by which
the learner strategically manages available cognitive, physical, and social
resources to create new knowledge by interacting with information in the
environment and integrating it with information already stored in memory.
Consequently, we will understand the potential for a relationship between media
and learning when we consider it as an interaction between cognitive processes
and characteristics of the environment, so mediated.
Clark believes we need to separate the medium from the media. Kozma believes
this creates and unnecessary and undesirable schism between the two. Media
must be designed to give us powerful new methods, and our methods must take
appropriate advantage of a medium's capabilities.
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Researchers of Instructional Technology and the
research associated with them
People in the IT Field
Education and
Philosophy
John Dewey
Malcolm Knowles
Maria Montessori
Ralph Tyler
Psychology
Howard Gardner
Abraham Maslow
Ivan Pavlov
Sidney Pressey
Jean Piaget
C. Rogers
B.F. Skinner
E.L. Thorndike
John Watson
Management
Frankline Bobbitt
W.W. Charters
Phillip M. Crosby
W. Edwards
Deming
Joseph Juran
Kurt Lewin
Peter Senge
Frederick W.
Taylor
Communication
Edgar Dale
George Miller
Bela Banathy
Instructional
Philosopher of education, pre-cognitivist, pragmatism
Adult Education
Individualized instruction, learner characteristics
Evaluation, objectives
Multiple Intelligences
Needs Pyramids
Behaviorism, salivation experiment with dogs
Behaviorism, teaching machines
Child psychological development (stages), learning styles
Experiential Learning
Behaviorism, programmed instruction, operant conditioning, pigeons
Behaviorism, classical conditioning, stimulus-response, law of effect,
experiment with cats
Father of American Behaviorism
Educational Engineering, Curriculum
Educational Engineering, Curriculum
Total Quality Management
Total Quality Management
Total Quality Management, "Zero Defects", "Do It Right the First
Time"
Social Psychology, genidentity, Organizational Development, Gestalt
Theory practitioner
Learning Organizations
Founder of "systems engineering" Principles of efficiency and
Scientific Management
Cone of experience, media selection
Miller's Magic 7, chunking
Systems approach
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276
Technology
Don Beckwith
Benjamin Bloom
Dale C.
Brandenburg
Robert K. Branson
Leslie Briggs
Jerome Bruner
John Carroll
Richard Clark
Norman Crowder
Ivor Davies
Marcy P. Driscoll
Tom Duffy
Walter Dick
Donald Ely
James Finn
Barbara
Grabowski
Robert Gagne
Robert Glaser
Michael J.
Hannafin
Robert Heinich
Charles Hoban, Jr
David H. Jonassen
Systemic Design
Mastery Learning, Systems Theory, taxonomy of education
objectives
Applying instructional technology to economic development,
research / service activities related to pre-technical training, literacy,
and skills enhancement; specializes in needs assessment, technical
training strategy, and the impacts of technology deployment on work
force issues.
Design and development of large-scale technology-based systems in
education and training.
Principally concerned with the implementation and
institutionalization of technological products and systems in large
organizations.
Learning Theory
Spiraling Curriculum
Model of School Learning
Media comparison
Programmed Instruction
Practice Constraints
Learning, instructional theory, and educational semiotics. Variety of
research interests, currently exploring implications of semiotic theory
for instructional design and performance technology.
Constructivism
Expert systems, contextual analysis
Conditions that facilitate the implementation of educational
technology innovations; cross-cultural transfer of media; history and
philosophy of the field of educational technology; trends in
educational technology.
Audiovisual, conceptualization of the field
Instructional Design for Computer Based Instruction, Generative
Learning
Events of instruction, cumulative learning theory, conditions of
learning, enterprise schema
Criterion-referenced testing
Development of multimedia learning materials. Nature and structures
related to learner-centered open-ended learning environments.
Individualized Instruction, Systems Theory
Audio-Visual Movement
Social construction of knowledge, situated learning and instructional
theories.
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277
Roger Kaufman
John Keller
Donald
Kirkpatrick
Robert Kozma
Needs Assessment
ARCS model of motivation
Evaluation; Measuring Training Results
Research on and development of applications of advanced technology
in science learning (particularly chemistry), media research and
theory, and instructional innovation in higher education.
Robert Mager
Instructional Objectives
David Merrill
Transaction theory, task analysis, Expert Systems, ID
History of IT, models of systematic ID, philosophical and theoretical
Michael Molenda
foundations of IT
James Moseley
Evaluation & needs assessment, performance technology, designing
instruction for older learners, doctoral & general advising.
Gary Morrison
Design of instructional strategies; computer screen design; use of
feedback with various strategies in computer-based instruction;
integration of technology in the K-12 classroom; design and delivery
of distance education.
Plomp, Tjeerd
Educational Technology as a field of study; Evaluation/International
Comparative Research; Information Technology in Education
(Consequences of information technology for the curriculum).
Charles Reigeluth Elaboration theory, systemic change
Robert Resier
Rita Richey
Contextual Analysis, Adult Learning, Systemic Design
Paul Saettler
History of IT
Needs assessment, instructor planning and delivery, & school
Allison Rossett
technology integration.
Teacher planning, integrating technology into schools, learning from
Lenard Silvern
media, and computer software evaluation.
Leonard Scriven Summative & formative evaluation
Cultivating cognitions; pedagogy in the age of computing; design of
Salomon, Gavriel
new learning environments
Rand Spiro
Knowledge acquisition in complex domains; medical cognition;
hypermedia computer technologies for learning; constructive
processes in text comprehension and recall.
Marty Tessmer
Contextual analysis, layers-of-necessity model
John Wedman
Layers-of-Necessity; Training; Instructional Design
Performance
Technology
Joyce Lag
Joe Harless
Human Performance Technology
Pillipe Duchastel
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278
Gloria Gery
Sivasailam
Thiagarajan
Tom Gilbert
Kent Gustafason
Brent Wilson
Misanchuk
Marc Rosenberg
Tolman
Walter Wagner
Electronic Performance Support Systems
Performance Technology; Behavioral Engineering Model
Practice Constraints; Diffusion of Educational Innovations;
Electronic Performance Support Systems
Constructivism, EPSS
Confirmative Evaluation
Performance Technology
Sign learning
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279
Barbara Seels – Visual Literacy – (Handout for this
section)
279
280
Mediated Instruction – (2 Handouts – From Dale to
Delivery Systems: The Problem of Media Selection
Theory & Learning with Media: Restructuring the
Debate)
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281
Mastery Learning
Basic Principles:
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Ninety percent of students can learn what is normally taught in schools at an A
level if they are given enough time and appropriate instruction
Enough time means:
o Time required to demonstrate mastery of objectives
Appropriate instruction means:
o Break course into units of instruction
o Identify objectives of units
o Require students to demonstrate mastery of objectives for unit before
moving on to other units
Grades may be determined by:
o Actual number of objectives mastered
o Number of units completed
o Proficiency level reached on each unit
o Any combination of above
Students can work at own pace if course is so structured, but mastery learning can
be accomplished with group instruction.
Advantages:
1. Students have prerequisite skills to move to next unit
2. Requires teachers to do task analysis, thereby becoming better prepared to teach
the unit
3. Requires teachers to state objectives before designating activities
4. Can break cycle of failure (especially important for minority and disadvantaged
students)
Disadvantages:
1. Not all students will progress at same pace; this requires students who have
demonstrated mastery to wait for those who have not or to individualize
instruction
2. Must have a variety of materials for reteaching:
3. Must have several tests for each unit
4. If only objective tests are used, can lead to memorizing and learning specifics
rather than higher levels of learning
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Diffusion of Innovations (Handouts for this section)
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283
Human Performance Technology – (Handout for this
section)
283