The Changing Roles and Competences of VET Practitioners in Denmark
IVET teachers’ perceptions of changes and their implications for teaching
Pia Cort
Simon Rolls
The Danish School of Education
First draft – not for quotation
Since 1989 the Danish initial vocational education and training system has undergone major
changes. The system has been reformed in 1989, 1996, 2000, 2003 and 2007. Each reform has
introduced new principles – be it financially (taximeter rate), in terms of governance (management
by objectives), organisationally (turning the vocational colleges into independent organisations with
their own governing boards), structurally (individualisation and modularisation) or pedagogically
(responsibility for own learning), just to mention some of the changes.
In each reform, teachers have been involved in the reform implementations, testing the new policies
in practice through innovation and development projects funded by the Ministry of Education.
Teachers have been and still are perceived as important change agents and the guarantee for the
quality of vocational education and training. In Reform 2000, continuous professional competence
development was an important element in the reform implementation and teachers developed new
practices e.g. in connection with their new role as a “contact teacher” i.e. supervisor for the students
in the basic course. 1 The political aim has been to ease the implementation by making the teachers
“owner[s] of the reform process” (Cort, Gottlieb, Magnussen, & Maaløe, 2003) and facilitate
adjustments in the reforms according to the results of the many reform activities, some of which
have been systematically evaluated by external consultants and researchers.
Teachers in initial vocational education and training have had to deal with almost 20 years of
continuous change, however how do the teachers themselves regard change? What are perceived to
be the major changes from a teacher perspective and how do they view the implications for the
teacher roles, the teacher functions and the need for teacher competence development. The aim of
this paper is to consider these questions on the basis of qualitative interviews with teachers in initial
vocational education and training, both within the commercial and the technical training
programmes.
Background and data
The paper is part of an international research project which aims to compare how teachers and
trainers in vocational education and training experience changes in teacher roles, functions and the
1
I shall not go into a full description of the Danish VET system (please see Cort, 2003, 2008; Cort & Wiborg, 2009;
Juul, 2005; Koudahl, 2006), however the Danish initial vocational education and training programmes are an
amalgamation of school-based and dual training. The basic course through which most of the students enter is schoolbased and aimed at qualifying the students for entry into the main course. The main course is basically an
apprenticeship during which the students spend 2/3 of their training in a company and a number of periods at a
vocational college, which include practical training in a workshop.
1
needs for competence development. As part of this research qualitative interviews were carried out,
which focused on the teachers’ ‘biographies’, their perceptions of the main changes and the
implications of these changes for teachers and trainers and their need for competence development.
In Denmark, twelve interviews were carried out with teachers and trainers in initial, continuous, and
further vocational education and training within the sectors of electrical engineering and commerce.
The interviews were semi-structured and aimed at defining important themes and perceptions
among the teachers. In this paper, focus is on teachers in initial vocational education and training
and their perceptions of changes and their implications for teaching. The paper is based on four
interviews with teachers, two focus group interviews and two individual interviews, as well as three
expert interviews with teacher trainers. From this small sample, it is not possible to generalise but to
provide a basis for further research.
The paper is structured on the basis of a model developed in a Cedefop study on challenges to
teachers and trainers (Cort, Volmari, & Harkonën, 2003). The model was not used as a framework
for the interviews, but in the data analysis, the themes of the study were recurrent and it was
therefore chosen to categorise the outcomes of the interviews. In the original model (see below), the
themes were given equal weight as changes influencing teacher roles and competences; however,
during the analysis it proved necessary to modify the model in order to capture teacher perceptions
of the more important changes influencing their work.
Organisational
changes
National
reforms
New target
groups
Changing
learning
paradigms
VET
Teachers
Changing
roles
Globalisation
Europeanisation
IT
development
Labour market
developments
Figure 1
National reforms
As stated in the introduction, the Danish initial vocational education and training system has
undergone numerous reforms during the last 20 years: reforms which have aimed to make the initial
2
vocational education and training system more attractive, more efficient, more inclusive, more
responsive to labour market demands, more innovative, and of a higher quality in terms of output.
Vocational education and training is in Denmark – like in most other European countries – part of a
higher skills and social inclusion strategy which is to ensure both global competitiveness and
national cohesion (Brown, Green, & Lauder, 2001; Cort, 2009; Presidency Conclusions: Lisbon
European Council 23 and 24 March 2000, 2000). The policy has led to numerous changes in the
initial vocational education and training programmes: changes which the teachers point to in the
interviews as having had a profound impact on their roles and functions. The connection between
policy and practice seems to be close – the discrepancy between policy and practice is by no means
as deep as might have been anticipated taking concepts such as “resistance to change”, “path
dependency” and “organisational inertia” into consideration. The teachers seem to have become
change agents although they are not uncritical of the policies through which they are governed:
In general, this sector has been overburdened with reforms. We have got used to
having new reforms every second year, but it causes frustrations when the reforms,
our everyday reality, and our own norms for how young people should behave collide.
(AH, male teacher at BEC commercial college)
The teachers point to the fact that it may be difficult to reconcile the different values and
rationalities inherent in the reforms with both their professional and personal standards. There
seems to be a certain level of ambiguity built into the teacher role.
Changes in governance and financing
In the 1989 reform, the status of the vocational colleges was changed. The colleges became
independent public organisations, and instead of a fixed budget, their finances were to be based on a
combination of fixed grants and taximeter rates based on trainee intake and completion rates. The
intention was to make the colleges more market-oriented, more competitive and more professional
in their overall management (Cort, 2008). The 1989 reform has influenced the teachers’ selfperception. To some, it meant the introduction of a rationalistic, instrumental way of thinking:
The main paradigmatic change took place in 1991 when the taximeter system was
introduced. This turned the teachers into wage earners. The first 10 to 12 years, the
teachers corrected an assignment until it was done – and did not consider time. When
the taximeter rate was introduced, time became an important factor: if 15 minutes
were set aside for correcting an assignment, that would be the time spent on the
assignment. That is the only defence we have as teachers against all the extra tasks.
(AH, male teacher at BEC commercial college)
The statement from AH is central. In a sense, he describes how teaching turned from being a
“vocation” to being a “job”. He does not describe the time registration system in detail, but when
we planned the interviews, we experienced time as an important barrier; the teachers wanted
remuneration for taking part in the interview and, in general, time constraints were a recurrent
theme among the teachers.
The teachers also point to a changing perception of the students as a consequence of the shift in
financing structures – they become customers whose needs have to be met in order to attract them
to and retain them within the college.
3
Well, the power is with the customers… if we are to talk marketisation. (AH, male
teacher at BEC commercial college)
The idea of vocational education and training as a market is one which creates tensions between the
teachers and the management. The teachers think that management is sometimes more concerned
with the finances than with the content of the educational programmes. The perception of the
colleges competing in a market economy and vying for customers is put forward by many of the
teachers – some are critical of this development, whereas others see it as an opportunity for the
individual college to develop its own distinct strategy – in terms of which students the college
wants to attract and what kind of teacher competences it wants to develop.
New target groups: The 95 % policy objective
The main aim of Reform 2000 was to make the initial vocational education and training
programmes more inclusive. The problem was – and remains – that almost 20 % of a youth cohort
never completes an education programme at upper secondary level. Since the mid 1990s, successive
governments have set the objective that 95 % of a youth cohort complete education at upper
secondary level. In terms of the weakest group of young people, vocational education and training
is identified as playing a major role in achieving this objective. The policy has resulted in a number
of initiatives aimed at attaining this objective: the introduction of the contact teacher scheme,
increased supervision, mentoring, bridge building between basic schooling and initial vocational
education and training. In the interviews with the teachers, this policy is something which is
critically assessed by the teachers. The teachers perceive the role of the teacher as being
transformed into a role as a social pedagogue or social worker. This is especially true of the basic
course to which there is free access:
In the main course, the changes are not substantial. It is the basic course where the
main changes have taken place. Here we have become social pedagogues and not
teachers […] (AH, male teacher at BEC commercial college)
Several of the respondents point to a decrease in the proficiency level due to the policy objectives of
95 % and to the fact that young people in general opt for general upper secondary education:
More and more young people are drawn to the academic subjects, so those entering
vocational education are often more disadvantaged than was previously the case.
(KM, male teacher at TEC technical college)
.
The entry of new target groups seems to be more challenging to teachers in commercial training
than teachers in technical training. This difference may stem from the fact that technical training
includes training in a workshop and is more practical in scope than the commercial training
programmes. Research has shown that students in vocational education and training often prefer
practical training in the workshops (Juul, 2005; Larsen, 2006).
In terms of teacher role, the 95 % policy objective is perceived by the teachers as responsible for a
shift in focus from conveying professional/subject knowledge to teaching the students how to
behave. One respondent refers to it as “nursing” and many teachers lament this development as they
base their [professional] identity on teaching and on a body of subject/professional knowledge.
4
The teachers also point to the fact that they may have problems meeting the requirements which
arise from taking in more disadvantaged young people. They often have to deal with social,
psychological and personal problems, and the lines between teaching and social care become
blurred. The introduction of mentoring schemes exemplifies this trend. The teachers not only have
to facilitate the students’ learning processes, but also have to deal with the students not being able to
arrive on time in the morning, having problems at home, having problems with friends, etc. The
teachers do not feel qualified to handle these problems.
The teachers recognise mentoring as an important initiative to prevent students from dropping out;
however, they also see a danger in the mentoring role. The division between teachers’ work and
private life is in danger of becoming blurred as some of the students demand almost constant
supervision and mentoring. This may lead to burn out among dedicated teachers, and has indeed
done so according to the interviews. In some cases, it leads to an exit from initial vocational
education and training and entry into continuous vocational education and training. In the
interviews with teachers in the continuous vocational education and training programmes, some of
them had made this move in order to escape the unmotivated students who were “hanging from the
curtains”.
The teachers point to an inconsistency in the overall policy. On the one hand, the 95 % policy
objective has led to the introduction of new “weaker” target groups in the vocational education and
training programmes, and on the other hand, the programmes have become more theoretical at the
same time:
One thing is that the students are academically weaker, but the education [to become
an electrician] has become a lot more theoretical than previously. (KM, technical
teacher at TEC)
The above quote encapsulates one of the paradoxes in the Danish vocational education and training
policy: on one side, vocational education and training is considered an important element of a high
skills strategy, which is to ensure national competitiveness in an increasingly globalised world; and
on the other hand, vocational education and training is afforded a key role in social inclusion
strategies (Brown, et al., 2001; Cort & Wiborg, 2009). For the teachers, these strategies pull in
different directions in terms of teacher roles.
Organisational changes
The 1996 reform of the commercial training programmes shifted focus from subjects to
competences and introduced the concept of ‘holistic thinking’ (helhedstænkning) or
transdisciplinary thinking in the vocational education and training system. Helhedstænkning implied
that the teachers had to cooperate across subject boundaries and think in competences instead of
subjects. As a consequence, teamwork became important to make this shift possible. It would be an
obvious conclusion that this would be perceived by the teachers as an intrusion into their freedom of
methods or teacher autonomy as it is a rupture with the traditional teacher role where the teacher
was “king (or queen) of the classroom”. However, this is not the way it is articulated among those
who were interviewed. The teachers perceive team work as a positive development:
5
The team work is a help to combat stress as we can support each other. (AH, male
teacher at BEC commercial college)
The teams also provide a safe forum for problem solving, collegial supervision and knowledge
sharing. Working in teams has added new functions to the teachers’ tasks. They spend more time on
planning, coordinating, and holding meetings.
What is interesting in the interviews is that the teachers do not mention the new regime of quality
assurance and evaluation which has become compulsory in vocational education and training. One
of the teachers points to quality assurance as a future trend
In general I expect more bureaucracy, everything will have to be documented and be
stated on a piece of paper. But I also think, or at least hope, that there will be greater
focus on the pedagogical side of things. (KM, male teacher at TEC technical college)
However, since 1996 systematic quality assurance has been an important element in the national
vocational education and training policy and all colleges are to evaluate their educational offers and
publish these evaluations on their websites. One teacher mentions that:
Quality assurance has an important impact on the teachers’ work. The evaluation
concerns both the team and the individual teacher. (AH, male teacher at BEC
commercial college)
He does not go into greater depth regarding its impact. However, the general complaint about time
constraints could be connected with the quality assurance schemes which focus on output and value
for money in a national context, and it may be this shift in focus which introduces time as a more
constraining factor had than hitherto been the case. In a sense, teaching has to be more productive
and effective (see Wolf, 2002, p. 246-248).
New learning paradigms
From teaching to learning
Many of the teachers point to a paradigmatic change in the teacher role from the “petrol station
attendant” teacher, i.e. a behaviourist perception of knowledge being transferred from the teacher to
the student, to the teacher as a facilitator of learning
The teachers have become coaches, i.e. they advise the students who are responsible
for solving the tasks on their own. […] Compared to 20 years ago, the linear thinking
of “filling the students up with knowledge” is out. So are the centralised technical
approaches to teaching: today we go through pages 10 to 20 in our book. (KR,
educational consultant in the secretariat for the trade committees in electricity and
plumbing)
This negative image of “the petrol station attendant” is common in the interviews and an image
which is taken from the many publications developed by the Danish Institute for Educational
Training of Vocational Teachers for the Ministry of Education.
6
Responsibility for own learning
In the reform of the technical training programmes in 2000, a central objective was to make the
programmes more flexible by introducing modularisation and hereby a higher degree of
individualisation. The reform rested on a changing educational paradigm, from teaching to learning,
in which the student becomes more responsible for his or her own learning. The introduction of
“responsibility for own learning” was a major challenge to the teachers, who in the beginning left
the responsibility for learning to the students, but had to realise that the students could not handle
this responsibility. In the interviews, both teachers and experts point to the fact that the teachers had
to adapt the concept to the students and differentiate according to the needs of the individual
student:
What went wrong in 2000 was in the basic course: it was to be responsibility for own
learning. That was the mantra. But we replaced it with co-responsibility for own
learning. That’s what it is about. You cannot expect a student from basic schooling
(folkeskole) to take responsibility for own learning. (KR, educational consultant in the
secretariat for the trade committees in electricity and plumbing)
Differentiation is a key theme in the interviews. The teachers point to differentiation as a method to
deal with student heterogeneity, and at the same time, they also point to the problems of
differentiating. As one teacher states:
In reality, differentiation is almost impossible (LA, female teacher at Niels Brock
commercial college)
This raises the central question of how the teachers actually practice differentiation in teaching - is
there a schism between their rhetoric and their practice?
Changing teaching methods
Central to the interviews is the fact that the teachers point to changes in teaching methods.
Traditional classroom instruction has been substituted with group work, project work, case work.
The methods demand more active participation from students and are closely related to the mantra
of “responsibility for own learning”.
Some of the teachers are sceptical of these new methods and this seems to be a generational issue.
The “older” teachers, i.e. above 50, are sceptical whereas the younger teachers who have been used
to these methods during their own studies embrace the new methods and also the new technologies.
We use group work and project work instead of class room teaching. We often have 2
week projects with 3 or 4 days of theory and then there will be student exercises. Then
the students will have a week to carry out a project, e.g. making a video, making
models, drawing up a report. Some of us older teachers are not so sure that these
methods are as effective as the old methods. (AH, male teacher at BEC commercial
college)
7
The teachers point to a paradox in the introduction of new teaching methods. Politically, these
methods have been introduced in favour of the more disadvantaged students. However, these
students often have problems meeting the requirements in terms of independence, cooperation and
reflection which these methods require. Disadvantaged students often want, and to some extent
need, more teacher-led activities where progression is adapted to their level and their needs.
IT and labour market developments
Whereas the prior themes of new target groups, changing learning paradigms and organisational
changes were closely connected to the reforms, the themes of IT and labour market developments
are hardly brought up in the interviews and mainly not as a part of an overall reform or policy
discourse. The reason why these themes are not brought up may be due to the fact that these
developments are integrated – or should be – into the curriculum by the trade committees. In other
countries, it is important to ensure correspondence between vocational education and training and
the labour market; in Denmark this correspondence is ensured via the trade committees and
therefore the teachers are not so concerned about these issues.
Vocational education and training teachers
Why a teacher in initial vocational education and training?
The teachers’ motivations for becoming a teacher are different. For some of the interviewed
teachers, it was not a conscious career move, but rather chance that got them into teaching. Many of
the teachers point to the degree of autonomy and flexibility in teaching as factors which have
attracted them to teaching although “it’s a little less money” (KM, male teacher at TEC technical
college). The interviewed teachers either had a background in a specific occupation or a degree at
university level. All of them had several years of work experience prior to entering teaching – many
of them even at managerial level. Some of the teachers point to work-life balance as a major
attraction: it is possible to combine an interesting and rewarding job with family life. This was an
aspect which both male and female teachers stressed.
They also point to the fact that teaching offers personal satisfaction:
Yes, we’re not in it for the wages. We like to teach and we like to have contact with
the students. And it is great to see when the students develop and learn. It gives you a
sense of meaning, of doing something right (AJ, female teacher at BEC commercial
college)
So, although there seems to be a move away from a perception of teaching as a “vocation”, at its
core there is still an idealistic ethos where it is personal meaning construction and the ability to
make a difference that count rather than economic benefits.
Key competences
When asked about an initial vocational education and training teacher’s key competences, the
answers are remarkably uniform. The teachers point to personality, professional/subject knowledge,
and empathy. As for subject knowledge, some of the teachers also point to a willingness to “step out
of your own professional identity” (LA, female teacher from Niels Brock commercial college) and
learn from other teachers with another background.
8
The manager from the secretariat for trade committees in electricity and plumbing, however,
pointed to a tradition which is closely connected to the technical training programmes: the tradition
of storytelling. Asked about a teacher’s key competences, he said:
Well, the ability to tell a story through their Profession [Fach] – this is motivating for
the students. (KR, educational consultant in the secretariat for the trade committees in
electricity and plumbing)
The teachers have a double identity as teachers and as craftsmen, and an important part of teaching
is to impart a professional identity to the students. This is especially the case in the technical
training programmes which are often founded on a long tradition of craftsmanship.
Initial in-service training
In Denmark, the initial in-service training is currently being reformed. Instead of a dual training
model based on the interaction between theory and practice, a diploma programme is being
introduced. The diploma programme is purely theoretical. This reform is brought up by some of the
teachers who point to the fact that an academisation of the training programme may become a
barrier for some of the teachers with a vocational background and in the end result in recruitment
problems at the colleges. One of the teachers says about the changes:
I don’t feel that twice the amount of pedagogical training will result in teachers who
are twice as good (BRJ, male teacher at TEC technical college)
BRJ points to the fact that technical teachers are craftsmen and feel more attached to their craft than
to studying pedagogical theory. He adds:
It makes me mad just talking about it… it’s a genuine catastrophe. (BRJ, male teacher
at TEC technical college)
He continues by giving the example of a novice teacher whom he is currently supervising: this
novice teacher is a good teacher but he struggles with the theoretical part of the initial in-service
training and with having to write a final thesis.
This is a central part of the national discussion on training of vocational teachers: will increasing
academic requirements make teaching less attractive to skilled workers? And it raises the central
question: what does it require to be a good teacher? The teachers themselves do not point to an
academic qualification as a key competence. How has it become an almost natural requirement in
national and international policies?
CPD
The teachers in general point to many possibilities for CPD at the colleges. The CPD strategies vary
from college to college: at the four colleges we visited; only one college had a clear CPD strategy
which was based on the teams and the competences needed within the teams. At the other colleges,
it seemed to be more a matter of ad hoc, voluntary CPD:
9
If I see a course which is interesting and relevant, it is possible to attend. There are no
problems in attending. (AH, male teacher at BEC commercial college)
However, most of the teachers pointed to “learning-by-doing” as the most important way of
handling changes. To a question about having the necessary competences to meet the challenges
that he faces in the job, one of the teachers answers
Gradually, yes, but not when I started… Even though… I’m not really sure why, but
it’s like, the more you practice it, the better you become at it. (KM, male teacher at
TEC technical college)
In one of the interviews, a teacher questions the strategy of making teacher training the key element
in solving problems of quality and drop-out
There is an assumption that continuing professional training will solve all the
problems and this is not the case. (AH, male teacher at BEC commercial college)
He denaturalises the discourse on teacher training and for me the quote gave cause for reflection:
has education become a belief rather than a substantiated fact? Although, we have supposedly
moved on from a “petrol station attendant” way of thinking, is it the case that we still believe that, if
we pour enough knowledge into teachers, it will solve problems within the education system – and
within society at large? Undoubtedly, there is a correlation between teacher training and the quality
of education; however, there are other factors which influence quality: the school environment, the
proficiency level of the students entering, funding i.e. resources available, working conditions, etc.
Changing roles
The teachers paint a picture of a system in constant flux. They have to adapt to changes and this is
on the one hand perceived as challenging, but on the other hand also as rewarding. The teachers’
perception of changes in the teacher role does not deviate much from the global discourse on
changes in teacher roles: from teaching to learning; from classroom instruction to student-centred
approaches; from teacher to coach, facilitator of learning, mentor, consultant etc. However, the
teachers also point to the fact that there is still “a fair amount of classroom teaching”. In this
respect, it could be interesting to observe practice and not just talk about it.
Many of the teachers speak the discourse of the Ministry of Education and use many of the same
concepts and terms to describe changes and changing roles. At one of the commercial colleges, the
teachers talk about changes and their change of roles in the language of the many publications
issued in connection with the reforms. At another commercial college, the teachers also speak the
discourse, although with a critical perspective, the policy changes have made teaching – especially
in the basic course – difficult. One cannot help thinking that these are self-fulfilling prophecies. The
national policy discourse provides a space of possibility within which all of the actors can speak
and, although there is room for conflicts and paradoxes within the discourse, it is difficult to deviate
and return to a previous discourse (e.g. the behaviourist petrol station attendant) or promote a
discourse which goes beyond the space of possibility (Andersen & Kjær, 1996).
10
Conclusions
Teacher roles in Denmark have changed over the past 20 years and they have changed due to
changing policies reflecting the overall global discourse of competitiveness and social cohesion.
The connection between policy and practice has become tighter despite the global tendency to
devolve power to the individual vocational college. The reform initiatives depend on the teachers
and their active implementation of policy into practice and, through increased quality assurance and
top-down funded and objective-managed development projects, the teachers have become active
participants in the changing of their own practice.
The teachers point to the themes which were presented in the Cedefop study on Professionalisation
of VET teachers; however different weight is given to the themes and some themes seem to be
dependent on others. National reforms and their impact on teachers is the main theme, which in a
sense is not surprising as the teachers work in a public system which is regulated and governed
through national policies. However, it provides an impression of a top-down, highly centralised
system where national policies dictate pedagogical approaches and forms of organisation, which is
paradoxical as the colleges are meant to be independent institutions which adapt their practice to
local context and needs.
Working conditions are a factor which was not included in the Cedefop model. The teachers point
to time constraints in particular as a factor which frames them as teachers and their capacity to teach
and deal with changes. The subtle change seems to be towards increased control of teachers and
their work: a trend which is mirrored internationally where attempts to regulate teachers and
teaching more narrowly have been of increased interest since the 1980s (see Ball, 1990).
Globalisation and internationalisation are hardly mentioned in the interviews. Nonetheless,
globalisation is a major driving force behind the national reforms. In 2003, the National
Globalisation Council was set up with the objective to come up with a strategy for how Denmark
could deal with the challenges of globalisation.
If we modify the original model around which this paper has been structured, we can create a
revised model as seen below. This revised model reflects the factors which are beyond teachers’
sphere of influence (globalisation and national reforms) and the factors which the teachers may
transform and adapt to practice in the vocational college. Time constraints have been added as a
constraining factor which frames the teachers’ work.
11
Time constraints
New target
groups
Globalisation
Europeanisation
National
reforms
Changing
learning
paradigms
Organisational
changes
IT
development
VET
Teachers
Changing
roles
Labour market
developments
Figure 2
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