AMERICAN FILM: THE FORMULATION OF THE CLASSICAL STYLE
I. THE CLASSICAL NARRATIVE
A. CAUSE & EFFECT
1. Primitive period (1894-1908), most common framing was the long shot
a. Impossible to see facial expressions & small gestures
b. Presented “too much” for the viewer to look at
2. With the classical model, this changed
a. Multiple lines of action
b. Narrative material was broken down
c. Editing, camera distance, inter-titles, acting articulated cause & effect
3. CAUSE & EFFECT & REALISM
a. Basis of cause & effect narrative was compositional unity
b. Reality has accidents & coincidence; not the classical narrative
c. Realism was important for the mise-en-scène
4. The classical film begins in medias res
a. Begin in middle of action; we learn about characters & previous events
through exposition
b. In primitive film, we learn little about characters or events before film
began
B. THE PSYCHOLOGICALLY BASED CHARACTER
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1. Film turned toward literature for characters with multiple traits
a. These character traits were necessary to motivate action
b. Characters have only traits needed for the narrative
c. “Realistic” traits will motivate some later action or event
2. SUBJECTIVITY
a. With increase in length & complexity, additional traits added
b. By 1915, mental subjectivity seen in some films
i. Earlier films had included subjectivity
ii. Usually only as basis for entire film or when absolutely necessary
c. With classical film, portions of objective narrations could be subjective
3. OTHER WAYS TO PERSONALIZE CHARACTERS
a. By 1909, most important characters were given names
b. By the mid-1920s, they were also given “tags”
c. The star system also helped to personalize characters
4. CHARACTER GOALS
a. Characters in primitive films reacted to events; in classical films have
clear goals
b. Goals met with obstacles
C. CHARACTER & TEMPORAL RELATIONS
1. As films became longer, plots initially covered more story time
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a. But generally showed only “high points”
b. Temporal gaps marked with inter-titles
2. With emphasis on character development, films began to cover less time
a. But they had more, if briefer, temporal gaps
b. Sought ways to make the narration less self-conscious
3. This was solved in several ways:
a. Concentrating on character actions & goals
b. Technical devices marked deviations from chronological order
i. Fades or dissolves instead of superimpositions
ii. Also motivated by the narrative
c. The DEADLINE important to structuring temporal progression
D. NARRATION: THE FUNCTIONS OF INTER-TITLES
1. Inter-titles became necessary to tell more complicated stories
2. EXPOSITORY TITLES
a. Common in primitive cinema
i. Summary expository titles
ii. Establishing expository titles
b. In later silent era
i. “LITERARY” inter-title
ii. The “ART” inter-title
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iii. Sometimes used to establish the setting of a scene
iv. Or used non-diegetic images to convey an idea
c. DIALOGUE TITLES (came later in primitive cinema, favored over
expository titles)
3. Expository titles used at beginning of scenes, dialogue titles within scenes
4. INSERTS: Close-ups of letters, newspaper headlines or articles,
photographs, etc.
E. THE “AMERICAN” STYLE OF ACTING
1. 1909-1913, there was shift in acting style in the American cinema
a. More restrained style; emphasized facial expressions & small gestures
b. Made possible by technical improvements in film stocks, lighting
equipment, make-up, etc.; better actors
2. This new acting style helped to bring about the CHC editing style:
a. Close-ups were needed to fully utilize this style of acting
b. This breakdown of space required continuity rules
F. UNITY & REDUNDANCY
1. All of these features appeared in the primitive cinema
a. But not used systematically with conventionalized meanings
b. Might use 1 of these features, & build the narrative around it
2. The classical cinema codified devices, used to create
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unified feature-length films, redundant narratives
II. THE CONTINUITY SYSTEM & SPACE
A. Editing increased as films became longer & more complicated
1. It was a potentially disruptive force
2. It required a system to maintain unity
B. After 1907, industry, trade press & “how-to” books
promoted continuity as essential for a “well-made” film
1. Referred to both narrative continuity & clearly-articulated space & time
2. Continuity then came to refer specifically to editing guidelines
C. ESTABLISHING SHOTS
1. Originally, films consisted of 1 long take with a fairly distant framing
2. Then, consisted of a number of these shots (tableaux)
a. No change in space or time within shots; changes between tableaux
b. Joined by expository inter-titles
3. With multiple shot scenes, these became establishing shots
a. Used to establish the mise-en-scène & show most of the action
b. Came at beginning & end of scene; closer shots pointed out details,
showed expressions, etc.
4. By late teens, establishing shot functioned as in continuity editing system
a. 1 shot among many, established mise-en-scène
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b. Scene itself consisted of a number of closer shots
c. Establishing shot appeared again only if mise-en-scène changed
d. Placement varied; not always at the beginning of the scene
D. ANALYTICAL EDITING
1. IN THE PRIMITIVE ERA
a. Cut-ins used rarely, in limited ways & for limited reasons
i. Most often medium shots, from same angle as establishing shot
ii. They were used to:
a) Show facial expression
b) Show details not visible in the establishing shot
c) To indicate POV
d) To limit space for special effects
b. Cut-ins avoided if possible; actors moved closer to camera
2. BY THE MID-TEENS
a. The cut-in became much more common
b. No longer had to be motivated by POV, a specific detail of information
i. It could be from any angle
ii. It could just give a better vantage point
c. Increase in film length & editing made cut-in more acceptable
d. By 1917, cut-in a staple of continuity editing system
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E. SCREEN DIRECTION & THE 180° RULE
1. Originally, no editing, therefore no problem
a. Later, 1-D sets & backdrops made it impossible to violate rule
b. Audience conceived of as if it were a theater audience
2. With analytical editing & 3-D sets, the tradition continued
a. Breaks in continuity occurred, but relatively rare
b. They occurred due to:
i. Shots taken out of continuity without script girls
ii. The lack of formal guidelines
F. MULTIPLE SPACES
1. CONTIGUOUS SPACES joined by character movement, eyeline match,
shot/reverse shot system
2. NON-CONTIGUOUS SPACES
a. Most often articulated using crosscutting
b. Could compress time; important with short films
c. Later, used to expand time; important with longer films
G. SPACE & THE SPECTATOR’S ATTENTION
1. Attention of viewer guided using the other elements of film style
2. STAGING IN DEPTH
a. Actors began to move toward the camera
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b. After this, actors began to be placed more in depth
c. Helped bring the viewer into a 3-D space
3. SETTINGS & DEPTH
a. Painted backdrops had advantages, but lacked verisimilitude
b. As soon as studios could afford 3-D sets, they did so
c. Late 20s, efforts to eliminate difference between location & studio shots
d. 3-D sets allowed for more extensive analytical editing
4. DEEP FOCUS CINEMATOGRAPHY
a. During most of silent period, efforts to achieve greatest depth of field
b. But only 2 planes were in deep focus (middle ground & background)
c. Deep focus made staging in depth possible
d. However, lighting was needed to draw this attention
5. LIGHTING FOR CLARITY & DEPTH
a. During teens, movement away from even, overall illumination & towards
selective lighting
b. An effort to motivate light as coming from diegetic sources
c. Hollywood refined backlighting, creating “rim” lighting
6. FRAMING AS A GUIDE FOR THE SPECTATOR
a. CENTERING; classical cinema centered important narrative information
b. Camera movement began as a way to center action in frame (reframing)
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c. It began to serve other functions also:
i. Tracking & panning to follow actions
ii. Panning & tilting to reveal or conceal information
d. With increased planning of shots, camera movement not as necessary
III. FORMULATION OF THE CLASSICAL STYLE: STABILITY AFTER 1917
A. By mid-20s, CHC style reached a high degree of stability
B. REASONS FOR THIS STABILITY
1. A number of models to follow in making films in classical style
2. Young filmmakers in the 1920s had films as their models
3. An informal apprenticeship program developed
4. Trade papers, instructional manuals, etc. perpetuated style
5. Trade organizations also helped to perpetuate CHC style
6. Adherence to “quality filmmaking” rewarded by audiences & studio heads
C. CONTEMPORARY RECOGNITION OF STANDARDIZATION
1. Standardization was regarded as a positive force
2. Early years regarded as a separate era
3. Progress “halted” now that “near perfection” had been attained
4. After this point, changes in CHC style relatively small
a. Minor changes such as increased graphic continuity
b. The assimilation (& “taming”) of other styles
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