CHAPTER 9
Civilization in Eastern Europe: Byzantium and Orthodox Europe
Chapter Outline Summary
I. The Byzantine Empire
A. Emperor Constantine
4th century C.E., Constantinople
Empire divided
capitals at Rome and Constantinople
Greek language
official language from 6th century
B. Justinian’s Achievements
Justinian
attempted reconquest of Italy
Slavs, Persians attack from east
building projects
Hagia Sophia
legal codification
C. Arab Pressure and the Empire’s Defenses
Center of empire shifted to east
Constant external threatened
Arab Muslims
Bulgars
defeated by Basil II, 11th century
D. Byzantine Society and Politics
Emperors resembled Chinese rulers
court ritual
head of church and state
Sophisticated bureaucracy
opened to all classes
Provincial governors
Economic control
regulation of food prices, trade
silk production
Trade network
Asia, Russia, Scandinavia, Europe, Africa
Arts
creativity in architecture
II. The Split Between Eastern and Western Christianity
A. The Schism
Separate paths
Patriarch Michael
1054, attacks Catholic practice
mutual excommunication, pope and patriarch
B. The Empire’s Decline
Period of decline from 11th century
Seljuk Turks
took most of Asian provinces
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1071, Manzikert
Byzantine defeat
Slavic states emerged
Appeal to west brought crusaders
1204, Venetian crusaders sacked Constantinople
1453, Constantinople taken by Ottoman Turks
1461, empire gone
III. The Spread of Civilization in Eastern Europe
Influence through conquest, conversion, trade
Cyril, Methodius, to Slavs
Cyrillic script
A. The East Central Borderlands
Competition from Catholics and Orthodox Greeks
Catholics
Czechs, Hungary, Poland
regional monarchies prevailed
Jews from Western Europe
IV. The Emergence of Kievan Rus’
A. New Patterns of Trade
Slavs from Asia
iron working, extended agriculture
mixed with earlier populations
family tribes, villages
kingdoms
animistic
6th, 7th centuries
Scandinavian merchants
trade between Byzantines and the north
c. 855, monarchy under Rurik
center at Kiev
Vladimir I (980-1015)
converts to Orthodoxy
controlled church
B. Institutions and Culture in Kievan Rus’
Influenced by Byzantine patterns
Orthodox influence
ornate churches
icons
monasticism
Art, literature dominated by religion, royalty
Free farmers predominant
Boyars, landlords
less powerful than in the West
C. Kievan Decline
Decline from 12th century
rival governments
succession struggled
Asian conquerors
Mongols (Tartars)
13th century, took territory
Traditional culture survived
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D. The End of an Era in Eastern Europe
Mongol invasions usher in new period
East and West further separated
Chapter Summary
Chapter Summary. In addition to the great civilizations of Asia and Africa forming during the
postclassical period, two related, major civilizations formed in Europe. The Byzantine Empire, with its
capital in the great city of Constantinople, was based in western Asia and southeastern Europe, and
expanded into eastern Europe. The other was defined by the influence of Catholicism in western and
central Europe. The Byzantine Empire, with territory in the Balkans, the Middle East, and the eastern
Mediterranean, maintained very high levels of political, economic, and cultural life between 500 and 1450
C.E. The empire continued many Roman patterns and spread its Orthodox Christian civilization through
most of eastern Europe, Belarus, Ukraine, and Russia. Catholic Christianity, without an imperial center,
spread in western Europe. Two separate civilizations emerged from the differing Christian influences.
Vladimir and Russian Orthodoxy. A choice confronted the Russian king Vladimir in the late 10th
century: to maintain the traditional religion, or adopt either Catholicism or Byzantine Orthodoxy. His
decision to adopt the religion of the Byzantine Empire was probably easy, attaching the early Russian
kingdom to the sphere of the successful Greek empire. Much more than religion was involved. Alliance
with Constantinople meant being part of a larger commercial world, a gateway to international trade, and
an influx of cultural influences. It also solidified the division between Greek, Orthodox Byzantium, and
Latin, Catholic Western Europe. The Byzantine Empire retained more continuity with the Roman Empire
than did Europe, and a higher level of urban civilization in the postclassical period. Constantinople far
outstripped any European city in this period in size and sophistication. Byzantine influence stretched to
the Balkans, and north into Russia. Significant commonalities existed in the two halves of the former
Roman Empire: spread of Christianity, northern regions coming belatedly into contact with international
trade, and both looking back to a common Roman past. However, the two spheres also remained separate,
developing distinctively, with surprisingly little contact.
The Byzantine Empire. The Byzantine Empire, once part of the greater Roman empire, continued to
flourish in the eastern Mediterranean base after Roman decline. Although it inherited and continued some
of Rome’s heritage, the Byzantine state developed its own form of civilization.
The Origins of the Empire. In the 4th century C.E., the Emperor Constantine established a capital at
Constantinople. Rule of the vast empire was split between two emperors, one ruling from Rome, one from
Constantinople. Although Latin served for a time as the court language, from the 6th century Greek
became the official tongue. The empire benefited from the high level of civilization in the former
Hellenistic world and from the region’s prosperous commerce. It held off barbarian invaders and
developed a trained civilian bureaucracy.
Justinian’s Achievements. In the 6th century Justinian, with a secure base in the east, attempted to
reconquer western territory, without lasting success. These campaigns weakened the empire as Slavs and
Persians attacked the frontiers, and also created serious financial pressures. Justinian rebuilt
Constantinople in classical style; among the architectural achievements was the huge church of Hagia
Sophia. His codification of Roman law reduced legal confusion in the empire. The code later spread
Roman legal concepts throughout Europe.
Arab Pressure and the Empire’s Defenses. Justinian’s successors concentrated upon the defense of
their eastern territories. The empire henceforth centered in the Balkans, and western and central Turkey, a
location blending a rich Hellenistic culture with Christianity. The revived empire withstood the 7thcentury advance of Arab Muslims, although important regions were lost along the eastern Mediterranean
and the northern Middle Eastern heartland. The wars and the permanent Muslim threat had significant
cultural and commercial influences. The free rural population, the provider of military recruits and taxes,
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was weakened. Aristocratic estates grew larger, and aristocratic generals became stronger. The empire’s
fortunes fluctuated as it resisted pressures from the Arabs and Slavic kingdoms. Bulgaria was a strong
rival, but Basil II defeated and conquered it in the 11th century. At the close of the 10th century, the
Byzantine emperor was probably the strongest ruler of the time.
Byzantine Society and Politics. Byzantine political patterns resembled the earlier Chinese system. An
emperor, ordained by god and surrounded by elaborate court ritual, headed both church and state. Women
occasionally held the throne. An elaborate bureaucracy supported the imperial authority. The officials,
trained in Hellenistic knowledge in a secular school system, could be recruited from all social classes,
although, as in China, aristocrats predominated. Provincial governors were appointed from the center, and
a spy system helped to preserve loyalty. A careful military organization defended the empire. Troops
were recruited locally and given land in return for service. Outsiders, especially Slavs and Armenians,
accepted similar terms. Over time, hereditary military leaders developed regional power and displaced
better-educated aristocrats. Socially and economically, the empire depended upon Constantinople’s
control of the countryside. The bureaucracy regulated trade and food prices. Peasants supplied the food
and provided most tax revenues. The large urban population was kept satisfied by low food prices. A
widespread commercial network extended into Asia, Russia, Scandinavia, western Europe, and Africa.
Silk production techniques brought from China added a valuable product to the luxury items exported.
Despite the busy trade, the large merchant class never developed political power. Cultural life centered
upon Hellenistic secular traditions and Orthodox Christianity. Little artistic creativity resulted, except in
art and architecture. Domed buildings, colored mosaics, and painted icons revealed strong links to
religion.
The Split Between Eastern and Western Christianity. Byzantine culture, political organization, and
economic orientation help to explain the rift between the eastern and western versions of Christianity.
Different rituals grew from Greek and Latin versions of the Bible. Emperors resisted papal attempts to
interfere in religious issues. In 1054, the Patriarch Michael attacked Catholic practices more strenuously,
raising contentious issues that separated the churches. The conflict resulted in mutual excommunication
by the Patriarch and the Roman pope. Even though the two churches remained separate, they continued to
share a common classical heritage, and informal contact persisted.
The Empire’s Decline. A long period of decline began in the 11th century. Muslim Turkish invaders, the
Seljuks, seized almost all of the empire’s Asian provinces, removing the most important sources of taxes
and food. The empire never recovered from the loss of its army at Manzikert in 1071. Independent Slavic
states appeared in the Balkans. An appeal for western European assistance did not help the Byzantines,
and indeed, crusaders led by Venetian merchants sacked Constantinople in 1204. Italian cities, secured
special trading privileges. The greatly reduced empire struggled to survive for another two centuries
against western Europeans, Muslims, and Slavic kingdoms. In 1453, the Ottoman Turks conquered
Constantinople and by 1461 the empire had disappeared.
The Spread of Civilization in Eastern Europe. The Byzantine Empire’s influence spread among the
people of the Balkans and southern Russia through conquest, commerce, and Christianity. In the 9th
century, the missionaries Cyril and Methodius devised the Cyrillic script for the Slavic language,
providing a base for literacy in eastern Europe. Unlike western Christians, the Byzantines allowed the use
of local languages in church services.
The East Central Borderlands. Both eastern and western Christian missionaries competed in eastern
Europe. Roman Catholics, and their Latin alphabet, prevailed in the Czech region, Hungary, and Poland.
Competition in this area between western and eastern influences was long-standing. A series of regional
monarchies with powerful, landowning aristocracies developed in Poland, Bohemia, and Lithuania.
Eastern Europe also received an influx of Jews from the Middle East and western Europe. They were
often barred from agriculture, but participated in local commerce. They maintained their own traditions,
and emphasized education for males.
The Emergence of Kievan Rus’. Slavic peoples from Asia migrated into Russia and eastern Europe
during the period of the Roman Empire. They mixed with and incorporated earlier populations and later
invaders. The Slavs worked iron and extended the amount of land under cultivation in Ukraine and
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western Russia. Political organization centered in family tribes and villages, organized ultimately into
regional kingdoms. The Slavs followed an animist religion, and had rich traditions of music and oral
literature. Scandinavian traders during the 6th and 7th centuries moved into the region along its great
rivers and established a rich trade between their homeland and Constantinople. Some won political
control. A monarchy emerged at Kiev around 855 under the legendary Danish merchant, Rurik. The
loosely organized state flourished until the 12th century. Kiev became a prosperous commercial center.
Contacts with the Byzantines resulted in the conversion of Vladimir I (980–1015) to Orthodox
Christianity. The ruler, on the Byzantine pattern, controlled church appointments. Kiev’s rulers issued a
formal law code. They ruled the largest single European state.
Institutions and Culture in Kievan Rus’. Cultural, social, and economic patterns developed differently
from the western European experience. Kiev borrowed much from Byzantium, but it was unable to
duplicate its bureaucracy or education system. Rulers favored Byzantine ceremonials and the concept of a
strong central ruler. Orthodox Christian practices entered Russian culture: devotion to divine power and
to saints, ornate churches, icons, and monasticism. Polygamy yielded to Christian monogamy.
Almsgiving emphasized the obligation of the wealthy toward the poor. Literature, using the Cyrillic
alphabet, focused on religious and royal events, while art was dominated by icon painting and illuminated
religious manuscripts. Church architecture adapted Byzantine themes to local conditions. Peasants were
free farmers, and aristocratic landlords (boyars) had less political power than similar westerners.
Kievan Decline. Kievan decline began in the 12th century. Rival princes established competing
governments while the royal family quarreled over the succession. Asian invaders seized territory as trade
diminished due to Byzantine decay. The Mongol invasions of the 13th century incorporated Russian lands
into their territories. Mongol (Tartar) dominance further separated Russia from western European
developments. Commercial contacts lapsed. Russian Orthodoxy survived because the tolerant Mongols
did not interfere with Russian religious beliefs or daily life as long as tribute was paid. Thus when
Mongol control ended in the 15th century, a Russian cultural and political tradition incorporating the
Byzantine inheritance reemerged. The Russians claimed to be the successors to the Roman and Byzantine
states, the “third, new Rome.”
Thinking Historically: Eastern and Western Europe: The Problem of Boundaries. Determining
where individual civilizations begin and end is a difficult exercise. The presence of many rival units and
internal cultural differences complicates the question. If mainstream culture is used for definition, the
Orthodox and Roman Catholic religions, each with its own alphabet, can be used to distinguish East from
West. Political organization is harder to use because of the presence of loosely organized regional
kingdoms. Commercial patterns and Mongol and Russian expansion also influenced cultural identities.
The End of an Era in Eastern Europe. With the Mongol invasions, the decline of Russia, and the
collapse of Byzantium, eastern European civilization entered into a difficult period. Much of Kievan
social structure disappeared, but Christianity and other socio-political and artistic patterns survived.
Western and Eastern Europe evolved separately, with the former pushing ahead in power and crosscultural sophistication.
GLOBAL CONNECTIONS: Eastern Europe and the World. During the postclassical era, the
Byzantine Empire was an active link between the Mediterranean and northern Europe. Russia’s location
opened it to influences from both western Asia and Europe. Because Russia’s main contact with the wider
world was through Byzantium, that empire’s decline, and the Mongol conquest, brought isolation.
KEY TERMS
Justinian: 6th-century Byzantine emperor; failed to reconquer the western portions of the empire; rebuilt
Constantinople; codified Roman law.
Hagia Sophia: great domed church constructed during reign of Justinian.
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Body of Civil Law: Justinian’s codification of Roman law; reconciled Roman edicts and decisions; made
Roman law coherent basis for political and economic life.
Belisarius: (c.505–565); one of Justinian’s most important military commanders during the attempted
reconquest of western Europe.
Greek Fire: Byzantine weapon consisting of mixture of chemicals that ignited when exposed to water;
used to drive back the Arab fleets attacking Constantinople.
Bulgaria: Slavic kingdom in Balkans; constant pressure on Byzantine Empire; defeated by Basil II in
1014.
Icons: images of religious figures venerated by Byzantine Christians.
Iconoclasm: the breaking of images; religious controversy of the 8th century; Byzantine emperor
attempted, but failed, to suppress icon veneration.
Manzikert: Seljuk Turk victory in 1071 over Byzantium; resulted in loss of the empire’s rich Anatolian
territory.
Cyril and Methodius: Byzantine missionaries sent to convert eastern Europe and Balkans; responsible
for creation of Slavic written script called Cyrillic.
Kiev: commercial city in Ukraine established by Scandinavians in 9th century; became the center for a
kingdom that flourished until the 12th century.
Rurik: legendary Scandinavian, regarded as founder of Kievan Rus’ in 855.
Vladimir I: ruler of Kiev (980–1015); converted kingdom to Orthodox Christianity.
Russian Orthodoxy: Russian form of Christianity brought from Byzantine Empire.
Yaroslav: (975–1054); Last great Kievan monarch; responsible for codification of laws, based on
Byzantine codes.
Boyars: Russian land-holding aristocrats; possessed less political power than their western European
counterparts.
Tatars: Mongols who conquered Russian cities during the 13th century; left Russian church and
aristocracy intact.
LESSON SUGGESTIONS
Leader Analysis
Peoples Analysis
Conflict Analysis
Change Analysis
Societal Comparison
Document Analysis
Dialectical Journal
Justinian, Theodora
Byzantines, early Russians
Arab incursions, Catholicism and Orthodoxy
Byzantine Empire: 565-1200
Byzantine Empire and early Russia
Russia Turns to Christianity
The Problem of Boundaries between Eastern and Western Europe
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LECTURE SUGGESTIONS
1. Discuss the nature of Byzantine political organization and culture and how they affected the
development of Eastern Europe. Byzantine political organization was based on a centralized
monarchy supported by a trained bureaucracy educated in classical traditions. Local administrators
were appointed by the central administration. Political ideology focused on the principle of a divinely
authorized monarchy supported by elaborate court ritual. The Byzantines continued the use of Roman
patterns of government as typified by the use of legal codes to organize society. Members of the
military were recruited from the imperial population in return for grants of heritable land leading
eventually to regional control by military commanders. There was a close relationship between the
Orthodox Church and the state, with the emperor as head of church organization. Byzantine culture
expressed itself in religious artifacts (churches, icons, liturgical music). The expansion of Byzantine
culture northward was through the conversion of Kiev to Orthodox Christianity. The Russians also
adopted the concepts of a divinely inspired monarchy with close relations to a state-controlled church.
Church-related art forms came along with Orthodoxy. The Russians, however, were unable to adopt
the Byzantine trained bureaucracy.
2. Compare and contrast the impact of Byzantium on Eastern Europe with the impact of the
Islamic core on Africa and southern Asia. For Byzantine culture, see above. Both civilizations first
spread their influence through missionaries; both civilizations passed on influences that produced
centralized governments supported by the religious organization of the core cultures. Islam had a
much greater impact than did Byzantium. The latter was limited to Eastern Europe while Islam spread
into much of Asia and Africa. Byzantium’s influence was more tenuous since there was less direct
continuity over time because it did not survive the postclassical period. In Russia, Byzantine
influence was interrupted by the Mongol conquest. Islam has endured in all regions until the present.
CLASS DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. Evaluate the significance of the Byzantine Empire to the civilization of Europe.
The Byzantine Empire was the birth place of Orthodox Christianity. This branch of Christianity spread
through Eastern Erie westward, creating an alternative to Catholicism. Russia was also influenced by this
empire, and claimed to be its heir. The Orthodox church and the civilization of Russia are the two most
significant contributions to Europe.
2. Compare the development of civilization in eastern and western Europe.
The West developed around Rome and its empire; likewise, the East branched from the Roman Empire
during its decline. The religions also branched from the Romans. Rome developed by conquest, while
trade was what spread to the East.
3. Compare Orthodox Christianity to Roman Catholicism.
Byzantine culture, political organization, and economic orientation help to explain the rift between the
eastern and western versions of Christianity. Different rituals grew from Greek and Latin versions of the
Bible. Emperors resisted papal attempts to interfere in religious issues. Hostility greeted the effort of the
Frankish king, Charlemagne, to be recognized as Roman emperor. The final break between the two
churches occurred in 1054 over arguments about the type of bread used in the mass and celibacy of
priests. Even though the two churches remained separate, they continued to share a common classical
heritage.
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4. Compare Byzantine and Chinese political organization.
Like in Chinese political organization, Byzantine emperors were held to be ordained by God, being head
of church as well as state. The emperor appointed bishops and passed religious and secular laws, and
elaborate court rituals symbolized the ideals of a divinely inspired, all-powerful ruler.
5. Evaluate the reasons for the decline of the Byzantine Empire.
The Byzantine Empire began to decline after the split between the East and the West. Turkish invaders
pressed in on the eastern borders, eventually annihilating the emperor’s large army. Independent Slavic
kingdoms in the Balkans, such as Serbia, and the Western leaders ignoring the requests for help from the
East further established decline, and eventually the Turks gained complete control.
6. Describe the influence of the Byzantine Empire on the development of Russia.
Princes were attracted to and borrowed several Byzantine ideas, such as the concept that a central ruler
should have wide powers. They also borrowed Byzantine ceremonies and luxury. Orthodox Christianity
penetrated into the culture of Russia and soon traditional practices such as polygamy were replaced with
Christian practices. Russia also adopted Byzantine models in its art and architecture.
7. How did eastern Europe fall behind western Europe in terms of political development?
Soon after the split between the East and the West, eastern Europe declined as Byzantine and Kievan rule
fell. As this was going on, the “barbaric” West was developing its own strengths. Within a few centuries
the dynamism of western Europe eclipsed that of eastern Europe, partially due to the strengthening of
feudal monarchy around 1400, which provided stronger and more effective regional and national
governments in the West.
AUDIO/VISUAL TOOL KIT
Video/Film
Early Christianity and the Rise of the Church. Insight Media
Enigma of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Insight Media
Crusader. Films for the Humanities & Sciences
Byzantium. Films for the Humanities & Sciences
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