III. THE BAROQUE PERIOD
Part Outline
Time-Line and Introduction
1. Baroque Music (1600-1750)
Characteristics of Baroque Music
Unity of Mood
Rhythm
Melody
Dynamics
Texture
Chords and the Basso Continuo (Figured Bass)
Words and Music
The Baroque Orchestra
Baroque Forms
2. Music in Baroque Society
3. The Concerto Grosso and Ritornello Form
4. The Fugue
5. The Elements of Opera
6. Opera in The Baroque Era
7. Claudio Monteverdi
8. Henry Purcell
Ground Bass
9. The Baroque Sonata
10. Antonio Vivaldi
11. Johann Sebastian Bach
Bach’s Music
12. The Baroque Suite
13. The Chorale and Church Cantata
The Church Cantata
14. The Oratorio
15. George Frideric Handel
Handel’s Music
Listening Guides in Part III





Brandenburg Concerto No.5 in D Major, by Johann Sebastian Bach: First Movement
Organ Fugue in G Minor (Little Fugue), by Johann Sebastian Bach
Orfeo (Orpheus): Tu se’ morta (You are dead), by Claudio Monteverdi
Dido and Aeneas: Dido’s Lament, by Henry Purcell
Trio Sonata in A Minor, Op.3, No.10, by Arcangelo Corelli
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 La Primavera (Spring), Concerto for Violin and String Orchestra, Op.8, No.1, from The
Four Seasons, by Antonio Vivaldi
 Suite No.3 in D Major, by Johann Sebastian Bach
 Cantata No.140: Wachet auf, ruft uns die Stimme (Awake, a voice is calling us): First
Movement; Fourth Movement; Seventh Movement, by Johann Sebastian Bach
 Messiah: Ev’ry Valley Shall Be Exalted; For Unto Us a Child is Born; Hallelujah Chorus,
by George Frideric Handel
Terms in Part III
affections
basso continuo; figured bass
tutti
fugue
countersubject
pedal point; organ point
augmentation
opera
aria
chorus
prelude
secco recitative
da capo aria
trio sonata
French overture
cantata
terraced dynamics
movement
ritornello
subject
episode
inversion
diminution
libretto
recitative
prompter
Camerata
accompanied recitative
ground bass; basso ostinato
trill
chorale
oratorio
clavichord
concerto grosso
ritornello form
answer
stretto
retrograde
prelude
librettist
ensemble
overture
castrato
da capo
sonata
suite
chorale prelude
III-1. BAROQUE MUSIC (1600-1750)
Objectives
This section opens with a general characterization of baroque style as one that “fills space
— canvas, stone, or sound — with action and movement.” Baroque style is set against a
backdrop of seventeenth-century scientific discovery. The baroque in music is divided into three
periods — early, middle and late — and the general style characteristics of each are briefly
defined. The main body of the section treats in turn each of the following elements of late
baroque style: unity of mood, rhythm, melody, dynamics, texture, the basso continuo, text
setting, the baroque orchestra, and baroque forms.
Discussion Topics
1. Discuss the general characteristics of the baroque, and how the “age of grandeur”
differed from the Renaissance. Consider using the illustrations in the text: compare the calm,
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order, and timeless serenity of Raphael’s Madonna del Granduca with the emotional and
dynamic effect of Peter Paul Rubens’s Adoration of the Magi. In the latter, note that a specific
moment in time is being portrayed, as if the scene were but one frame of a motion picture (see
the discussion of ethos-pathos (classical-romantic) in Section I-11 above, Style). Similar
comparisons can be drawn between Michelangelo’s David and Bernini’s David Slaying Goliath.
The Palace of Versailles is a fine example of “grandiose magnificence,” a characteristic of the
baroque. Other excellent visual examples of baroque style include Artemisia Gentileschi’s Judith
Slaying Holofernes (c.1612-13) and Nicolas Poussin’s The Plague of Ashdod (1630).
Gentileschi, a follower of Caravaggio, captures the emotional intensity and moment in time at
which Judith plunges the blade through Holofernes’s neck (Judith, 12-13). Poussin’s work, one
of the first in which he pays serious attention to the expression of emotions, is based on I Samuel
5, but was probably inspired by a plague in Milan in 1629. In contrast, Rembrandt’s Aristotle
with a Bust of Homer depicts in calm contemplation “the greatest of all philosophers thinking
about the greatest of all poets.”
2. Technology tip: the WebMuseum Baroque summarizes the artistic trends of the Baroque
era with links to specific artists and art works at <http://www.oir.ucf.edu/wm/>. Use a search
engine or the Indiana Worldwide Internet Music Resources site,
<http://www.music.indiana.edu/music_resources>, to locate other Baroque resources of interest.
3. Search for specific composer sites on the WWW Virtual Library: Classical Music:
Composers page, <http://www.gprep.pvt.k12.md.us/classical/composers.html>. Pay a visit to
J. S. Bach’s home page at <http://www.jsbach.org> or Handel’s page at
<http://www.intr.net/bleissa/handel/home.html>. Check out lists of MIDI files at
<http://www.prs.net/> or <http://www.midifarm.com/>.
4. In approaching a new period, it is suggested that representative excerpts of both the old
and new styles be compared, and the workbook has a listening exercise for that purpose.
Josquin’s Ave Maria, for example, could be compared to the opening of Bach’s Wachet Auf, or
the dances from Terpsichore to the Fifth Brandenburg. Be sure to identify the compositions after
discussion, in the hope the students will wish to hear more, and as preparation for when they
study the compositions later in the course.
5. Linda Fairtile (New York Library for the Performing Arts) recommends The Golden
Age as an introduction to the baroque. The video centers around the career of Arcangelo Corelli
and explores the increasing influence of church dignitaries and monarchs. Using original
instruments, it presents madrigals and a lengthy scene from Monteverdi’s Orfeo (Music in Time,
FfH&S ANE718, 60 minutes, color). Other visual aids that can be considered are New Voices for
Man, Age of the Composer (The Music of Man series), or a filmstrip, such as Music and Art in
the Baroque (EAV).
6. Discuss the concept of the figured bass, and its similarity to modern lead sheets. If
possible, bring a sample to class, and illustrate, or discuss, the manner in which a cocktail pianist
or jazz performer chords and improvises on a melody. Explain the importance of the doubling
instrument on the bass line, especially considering the low dynamic level of the harpsichord.
Note the brief example in the text. For a more extended example of basso continuo while
illustrating baroque ornamentation, consider the Schott edition of Corelli’s Op. 5 Sonatas for
violin and continuo. The first volume is extraordinary in that the slow movements of the first six
sonatas contain both the original part and an ornamented version presumed to reflect the
composer’s own performance practice. If you can project one of the pages of the accompaniment
or violin parts, you can show both the virtuosity of which the baroque violinist was capable, and
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the extent to which ornamentation was brought into play in the performance of instrumental
ariosos. You might then compare a recording of one of the sonatas with the edition, to determine
the extent to which the soloist conforms to Corelli’s own performance practice. (Note: there are
several Schott editions available, but only the Bernhard Paumgartner edition has the figured and
ornamented versions.)
7. You may wish to revisit the Online Learning Center’s illustrations of timbre. Discuss
with students the purposeful use of different Basso continuo combinations during the Baroque
era, partly because of different continuo instruments’ respective timbres.
Questions and Topics
1. How does the use of recurrent motivic development in the baroque compare with the
melodic style of contemporary jazz improvisation?
2. Describe some conventions adopted by baroque composers in setting words to music.
3. Describe the elements that comprise figured bass.
4. The growth of the violin family during the baroque period.
5. The development of the orchestra and orchestration during the baroque period.
III-2. MUSIC IN BAROQUE SOCIETY
Objectives
This brief section describes the cultural milieu in which the baroque musician functioned.
His relationship to court, church, town, and commercial opera house is discussed, and the ways
in which he was trained and practiced his profession described.
Discussion Topics
1. Discuss the importance of music to the nobility in the baroque. By way of illustration,
ask how many students have their own radios and/or stereo sets (most likely they all do). Do we
not use modern sound equipment in a manner similar to the nobility, to provide music for
entertainment, relaxation, and dancing? Is not the student with his portable radio like the
nobleman with his traveling orchestra?
2. Paul F. Rice (Morgan State College) recommends the video Music at the Court of Louis
XIV (Man & Music, FfH&S ANE1764, 53 minutes, color) which presents dance music by Lully,
religious music by de Lalande, and miniatures by François Couperin performed in the palace of
Versailles. Using Louis XIV as the epitome of the high baroque, discuss life at Versailles and
other courts. Mention could be made of Les vingt-quatre violons du roi, followed by a discussion
of the size, instrumentation, and performance practices of the baroque orchestra. Some students
may have seen Tous les matins du monde, the film dealing with Louis XIV’s famous gambist
Marin Marais and his teacher, Monsieur de Sainte Colombe. Selections from this film would also
bring the period very much to life for the students.
3. Discuss the social position of the musician as a “high-class servant.” Draw attention to
Bach’s dedication of his Brandenburg concertos mentioned in the text. If you wish additional
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examples to prove this was typical of the times and not just a quirk of Bach’s, see Schutz’s
dedications reprinted in SSR (no. 56). Consider the good features, such as steady employment,
respect, and prestige, as well as the bad.
4. Discuss the life and duties of the court musician, and compare them with those of the
town musicians (Stadtpfeiffer, waits). Include the responsibilities of the music director, and
compare with similar positions today (John Williams, et al., writing and performing their own
music as well as that of others). Stress the constant demand for new music in the baroque period.
5. Here is another opportunity for countering male dominance. The text mentions briefly in
passing Francesca Caccini, Barbara Strozzi, and Elisabeth-Claude Jacquet de la Guerre.
Fascinating details on their lives may be found in WMM. Works by Caccini, Isabella Leonarda,
and Jacquet de la Guerre may be found in HAMW and on CD (Bayer 100078/79). Strozzi’s
Lagrime me is included in NAWM (music and CD). Elaborate on her career as a performer,
composer, and impresario. Two of Jacquet de la Guerre’s twelve biblical cantatas have been
recorded (Leonarda LP1 109). The Suite in D minor from her Pièces de clavecin, containing a
courante, a sarabande, and two gigues, is included in DWM (I:213-18).
Questions and Topics
1. Describe the training of the baroque musician.
2. Describe the process by which musicians obtained jobs during the baroque period.
3. Describe the activities and duties of a musician at a baroque court.
4. Frederick the Great, Quantz, and music.
5. Commercial opera in Venice during the baroque.
6. Handel as businessman.
7. Barbara Strozzi: performer, composer, and impresario in a male-dominated field.
III-3. THE CONCERTO GROSSO AND RITORNELLO FORM
Objectives
This section defines the elements that comprise the multimovement concerto grosso. The
roles of tutti and soloists are described, and the ritornello form is explained and illustrated by the
first movement of Bach’s Fifth Brandenburg Concerto, for which a Listening Outline is
provided.
Discussion Topics
1. Review the concept of terraced dynamics, and the baroque principle of contrast between
loud and soft sounds. Define the concerto grosso, and introduce ritornello form.
2. Use the ChartPlayer to help students recognize the ritornello theme and distinguish
between tutti and ripieno passages. If not possible, review the use of the Listening Outlines, and
then play the ritornello theme. Once the students can recognize the theme, proceed into the first
movement (9:58). Because of the present decibel level of much popular music, it will probably
all sound soft, and it may take several hearings before they are able to hear dynamic and
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instrumental contrasts. When they can distinguish tutti from ripieno passages, continue into the
movement, stressing especially the great (and unusual) harpsichord solo. Mention the difference
in baroque terminology in that flute meant recorder, while the German flute was the modern
flute. If possible, contrast two recordings of the same work, one in which the recorder replaces
the flute as a solo instrument.
3. Review any previous discussions about Bach, especially the dedication quoted in
Section III-2, as a link to the work you are about to present. Some mention should be made of the
other five concertos in the Brandenburg set, either here or in the discussion of Bach’s life and
works in Section III-11 below (which see). If time is insufficient to play any portions, at least
discuss the varied instrumentations with the aim of whetting the appetites of any performers in
the class. Certainly flutists should be interested in numbers 4 and 5, trumpeters in number 2, horn
players in number 1, and so forth. Note that the workbook has a page for them to complete while
listening to one of the other concertos.
4. Nikolaus Harnoncourt and the Concentus Musicus Wien have recorded all six concerti
on video (LAS 3003). Consider showing the complete 5th concerto just for enjoyment, allowing
the students to sit back and imagine they are in a beautiful baroque palace’s music room (the
setting for Harnoncourt’s performance), transporting them back to the era in which the music
was composed.
5. Volume III/2 of the Neue Bach Ausgabe contains the six Brandenburg concertos along
with three facsimiles of the composer’s manuscript. The second and third of the facsimiles
should prove particularly interesting to the student: the second shows the opening of the Fifth
Concerto, while the third contains a copy of the continuo part, with the figures placed above the
bass line.
Questions and Topics
1. Describe the use of the ritornello in the concerto grosso.
2. The workbook has a listening exercise to explore one of the other Brandenburg
concertos.
3. Describe the use of tutti versus soloists in the concerto grosso.
4. Describe the circumstances surrounding the composition of Bach’s Brandenburg
Concertos.
5. Bach in Cöthen.
6. The use of soloists in Bach’s six Brandenburg concertos.
III-4. THE FUGUE
Objectives
In this section a general definition of fugue is presented, the makeup of the fugal
exposition explained, and the form of the fugue as a whole discussed. The following terms,
relating to fugal procedures, are defined: subject, answer, countersubject, episode, stretto, pedal
(or organ) point, inversion, retrograde, augmentation, and diminution. Bach’s Little Fugue in G
Minor for organ is analyzed, complete with Listening Outline.
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Discussion Topics
1. Discuss the form of the fugue, the various terms involved, and ways in which the subject
can be varied. Show how the fugue is one more resolution to the artistic challenge of providing
unity as well as variety. Play or sing the subject of Bach’s Little Fugue as often as necessary for
the students to be able to sing along. In some classes just the first two bars may have to suffice
for the subject. When the students are sure about the subject, challenge them to count how many
complete statements of the subject they hear in the work (4:04; score in NS). You might help
them with the first two or three, especially if you have diagramed the exposition on the board.
The workbook has a listening exercise that can be used to sketch the entrances of the subject and
to indicate episodes. After listening, ask for a show of hands for how many heard four complete
statements, five, etc., as high as you feel necessary. The usual variety of showings will prove to
them how skillful Bach was in presenting the subject, and since the answer is in the text, will
also give you an indication of who reads the assignments.
2. Visually illustrate inversion, retrograde, augmentation, and diminution by means of a
word (such as FUGUE: [upside down], EUGUF, F U G U E, etc.).
3. As another example of a fugue, consider the prelude and fugue in C minor from Bach’s
Well-Tempered Clavier, book 1. Comparison can be made between the harpsichord, piano,
clavichord (Archive 2708006), Swingle Singers (Phillips PHM 200-097), and synthesizer (Col
MS-7194) versions. In each case ask the students to give reasons for their preferences.
4. Discuss the question of transcriptions, comparing them to the original. The workbook
has a research project asking the student to compare Bach’s Little Fugue with two transcriptions.
Beyond the standard orchestral transcriptions, consider a symphonic band transcription (Col M31126), an arrangement for wind quintet, or even a transcription for koto, shakuhachi, guitar,
bass, and drums (RCA VICS-1458).
Questions and Topics
1. Describe the ways in which a fugue subject can be varied.
2. Define and illustrate inversion, retrograde, augmentation, and diminution.
3. Bach’s organ fugues.
4. Bach’s Well-Tempered Clavier.
5. Bach’s own precedent for musical transcriptions.
6. The workbook asks the student to compare the original version of Bach’s Little Fugue
with two transcriptions.
III-5. THE ELEMENTS OF OPERA
Objectives
Since opera originated in the baroque period, this section is designed to introduce the
student to the various conventions of opera as a prelude to the discussion of Monteverdi’s Orfeo.
The text describes the function of all those involved in an opera production: singers, orchestral
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players, conductor, chorus, dancers, supernumeraries, technicians, stagehands, vocal coaches,
and prompters. Also discussed are the relationship between composer and librettist, the
characteristics of serious as opposed to comic opera, and the enormous range of characters to be
found on the musical stage. The basic voice categories are explained, as are the various types of
musical numbers to be found in opera, including the aria, the recitative, and the various types of
vocal ensembles. Also included is a discussion of the functions of the operatic chorus, the
prelude or overture, and the use of dance on stage. The section ends with a discussion of the pros
and cons of opera in translation and the use of supertitles.
Discussion Topics
1. Through informal discussion in class, determine the general attitude toward opera. Why
is it so many of our students have negative opinions? An open discussion should bring out many
valuable points, both from those who have had good as well as bad experiences. (How can an
unprepared visit to the local opera house or traveling troupe by a grade school class possibly
have favorable results?) While the terms are important, they should be secondary to the aim of
exciting and preparing the students for an actual performance.
2. Begin with a dramatic play, movie, or sitcom: are not certain conventions accepted, such
as the passage of time, differences of place, and the invisible fourth wall? In opera the audience
is simply asked to accept one more convention: the characters sing their emotions, rather than
“emote” them. As for the claim that all operas are tragic, note there are many comic ones, but
note also that any list of academy award nominations will have a great number of tragedies
represented. Is tragedy more noble, or more worthy, perhaps, of artistic effort than comedy?
3. If your students are especially interested in theatrical productions, consider MOG’s
filmstrip Backstage at the Met: Creating the Illusion, a behind-the-scenes tour of the
Metropolitan Opera House.
4. Present “a visit to the opera house” by starting at whatever level you feel your students
are. You may have to begin by telling them where operas are given in your area, how to get
there, where to buy tickets, how the prices compare with movie or theater tickets, how to dress
(some may still have the mistaken notion that all patrons of the Metropolitan Opera wear white
tie and tails), the ushers, the program, and finally the seat. Hopefully the above can all be
dispensed with in many classes, but if the students have never seen anything live except a rock or
rap concert, they may need some guidance. Once in their hypothetical seats, discuss the overture
or prelude, the aria, ensemble, chorus, when to applaud, etc. You may wish to discuss the pros
and cons of opera in translation and the use of supertitles, but, as with religion, this can
frequently become a heated and non-productive discussion. Note that the workbook has a page
devoted to preparing for a visit to the opera in the hope of making such a trip a more pleasurable
experience.
5. To add a note of humor, especially if the class is already familiar with opera and most of
the terms covered, you may wish to read excerpts from the commentaries on opera by Joseph
Addison and Benedetto Marcello reprinted in SSR. Although these essays were inspired by opera
as it existed in the eighteenth century, much of their content can apply to opera in any era,
including our own.
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Questions and Topics
1. Describe some of the performers involved in the making of opera.
2. Describe some of the various voice categories used in opera.
3. What conventions are accepted in a dramatic play, movie, or sitcom?
4. Why do some students have negative opinions of opera?
5. Describe some uses of the operatic ensemble.
6. Discuss the controversy surrounding the translation of opera and the use of supertitles.
7. Opera: its prehistory.
8. The workbook has a page to help prepare for a visit to the opera.
9. The economics of opera, past and present.
10. The opera audience, past and present.
11. Ballet in opera.
III-6. OPERA IN THE BAROQUE ERA
Objectives
The origins of opera in the Florentine Camerata are explained, and the early efforts of Peri
and Monteverdi described. The influence of Greek mythology and ancient history on these early
operas is shown. The spread of the public opera house from Venice to Hamburg, Leipzig, and
London is traced, and the colossal and spectacular nature of baroque opera is described. The rise
of the virtuoso singer, the castrato, and the form of the da capo aria are covered.
Discussion Topics
1. Review the Renaissance madrigal, especially its polyphonic treatment of the text.
Discuss the Florentine Camerata and their desire to have a single vocal line follow the rhythms
and pitch fluctuations of speech. To illustrate, ask several students to read any sentence in the
text, using different voice inflections to change meanings. How would they set the sentence to
music? The aims and ideals of the Camerata are expressed in the writings of Pietro de’ Bardi,
Ottavio Rinuccini, Giulio Caccini, and Jacopo Peri, all to be found in SSR. You may wish to
scan these pertinent writings quickly for passages to be read and discussed in class. See also The
Earliest Operas in MWW.
2. In discussing the earliest preserved opera, you may wish to include excerpts from
Euridice by Jacopo Peri (NAWM, music and CD).
3. In discussing baroque opera houses and their elaborate operatic productions, note Pietro
Domenico Olivero’s painting of the interior of the Royal Theater in Turin (p. 117).
4. An example of recitative and da capo aria may be found in MM (no. 44): “Cara sposa”
from Handel’s Rinaldo. The accompanying commentary is most helpful, and both secco and
accompagnato recitative are discussed. There are many CDs of complete operas by Handel, any
of which can be used to illustrate recitative and the da capo aria. Many Handel operas are now
available on video, a better way of placing the aria in its normal context and introducing baroque
opera concepts.
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Questions and Topics
1. Discuss the aims and ideals of the Florentine Camerata.
2. Describe those factors that made Venetian opera a great tourist attraction.
3. Describe the form and function of the recitative and da capo aria combination.
4. Stage machinery in the baroque era and the contemporary opera house.
5. The castrato as a sociomusical phenomenon.
III-7. CLAUDIO MONTEVERDI
Objectives
The career of Claudio Monteverdi is traced, and his contributions to the development of
opera discussed. His techniques of creating music of emotional intensity are described, as are his
new orchestral effects. The plot of Orfeo is outlined, and the recitative Tu se’ morta is discussed
in detail, complete with text and translation.
Discussion Topics
1. The revolutionary aspect of the early baroque can be discussed by reference to the
violent attack on Monteverdi by Artusi, and the reply by Monteverdi’s brother, both found in
SSR. See also The “Second Practice” in MWW.
2. Discuss the Orpheus legend, and its importance throughout history even up to modern
times (perhaps some students have seen the Cocteau film.). Review the Florentine Camerata, and
the elements of baroque opera. Review, if necessary, Italian pronunciation, and set the scene
before playing the recitative Tu se’ morta. The text mentions three climaxes; discuss and see if
the students can hear them in context (2:22).
3. A video of the complete opera is available, and the excerpt can effectively be brought to
life by showing that portion beginning with the festivities just before the messenger arrives with
the tragic news. (Harnoncourt, Monteverdi Ensemble, Zürich Opera; London 440 071 203-3)
Questions and Topics
1. Trace the career of Monteverdi, and explain his importance in the history of music.
2. Monteverdi and the development of the orchestra.
3. Orpheus in baroque opera.
4. The Orpheus legend as set by Peri, Monteverdi, Rossi, Gluck, Pergolesi, Offenbach,
Krenek, and Stravinsky.
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III-8. HENRY PURCELL
Objectives
Purcell’s career and output are described along with his success in handling the English
language. The ground bass, an important variation form in the baroque, is defined. The plot of
his opera Dido and Aeneas is summarized, and the section ends with a discussion of the last act
of the opera, with special attention to the famous “Dido’s Lament” which concludes the work.
The text of the aria, with annotations, is provided in a Vocal Music Guide.
Discussion Topics
1. Briefly discuss Purcell’s life and times, and the text’s statement that he is “called the
greatest of English composers.” Considering the many other English composers, including
Britten discussed in I-2 above, is this claim justified? What of Handel? Does his foreign birth
preclude his being considered an English composer? Can the students relate to a composer so
distant in time from them, or do they simply accept the statement because the text and the
instructor say it is true? How can one develop an appreciation for his music?
2. If you wish to include some of Purcell’s instrumental music, consider his suite from
Abdelazer. The students should recognize the source of the theme of Britten’s Young Person’s
Guide to the Orchestra, and several recordings of the suite are presently available.
3. Review the plot of the opera, and set the stage for the final act. If time permits, play
“Dido’s Lament” and see if the students are aware of the basso ostinato. Having heard the aria
for its dramatic effect, help the students with the form. Write the ground bass on the board (or
use an overheard projector), and help the students follow each repetition. Ask the students to
suggest why the vocal melody tends to make the listener forget the repetitions of the bass pattern.
Show how this again provides unity as well as variety. Ask the students to point out passages
where the beginning of the ground bass is overlapped by the continuing vocal melody (5:03;
music in DWM, I:184-87).
Questions and Topics
1. Discuss the career and musical accomplishments of Henry Purcell.
2. Summarize the plot of Dido and Aeneas.
3. Discuss those elements of the opera that contribute to its great variety.
4. Purcell and the English language.
5. Music for the stage, other than opera, in Purcell’s England.
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III-9. THE BAROQUE SONATA
Objectives
The sonata is defined in this section as “a composition in several movements for one to
eight instruments.” The trio sonata is defined, with Arcangelo Corelli’s Trio Sonata in A minor,
Op. 3, no. 10 discussed as an example.
Discussion Topics
1. In defining sonata, you may wish to introduce two other important terms at this time,
cantata (discussed in section III-13) and toccata. Sonata, from sonare, to sound, a composition
for musical instruments; cantata, from cantare, to sing, a composition for voices with
instrumental accompaniment; and toccata, from toccare, to touch, to finger, a composition for
keyboard, where one touches/fingers the instrument’s keys. Simplistic, but effective, especially
for students with some interest in or familiarity with Italian.
Review the concept of basso continuo, and the practice of having an instrument double the
bass line of the organ or harpsichord. Remind students of the sound of the harpsichord, as in the
Brandenburg concerto covered previously. Discuss also the baroque practice of
interchangeability between upper voices, such as the text’s reference to violins, flutes or oboes.
Using the brief excerpt given in the text, play the bass part as written, and then realize as much
as you can in several different styles of ornamentation. By varying realizations from a bare
minimum to overly ornate, the students should develop an appreciation and understanding of the
importance of the keyboard player in the trio sonata. If you’re able to locate the recording, play
the first movement and ask the students to compare that realization with yours and discuss
differences (the complete sonata, 0:51, 1:13, 0:47, 1:36).
2. Discuss the differences between the sonata da chiesa and da camera. Considering these
differences and that Corelli’s Opus 3 sonatas are examples of the da chiesa form, does the last
movement of the sonata, which the text describes as “dancelike,” meet the standards imposed of
a dignified character suitable for sacred performance?
3. Discuss the development of the violin family, and compare it with the viol family.
Discuss Corelli’s position in the development of violin technique, the importance of chords and
double stops, and the “golden age of strings.” The major violin makers, such as Antonio
Stradivarius, Andrea Guarnerius, and Nicolò Amati, might also be mentioned at this time.
Questions and Topics
1. Describe the overall construction of the baroque sonata.
2. Discuss the instrumental makeup of the trio sonata.
3. Distinguish between the sonatas da camera and da chiesa.
4. The origins of the baroque sonata.
5. Is it appropriate for a sonata da chiesa to have a “dancelike” movement?
6. The baroque sonata in England, France and Germany.
7. Discuss Corelli’s role in the expansion of violin technique.
8. Describe Corelli’s compositional output.
9. Discuss the overall formal plan of Corelli’s Trio Sonata in A minor, Op. 3, no, 10.
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III-10. ANTONIO VIVALDI
Objectives
The career of Antonio Vivaldi is discussed in this section, including his work at the Pietà.
The Spring Concerto from The Four Seasons is analyzed as representative of his output. An
English translation of the original sonnet and a Listening Outline are provided.
Discussion Topics
1. Review the discussion on Corelli, and the rise of the violin family. Discuss Vivaldi’s
work in Venice regarding the development of string technique, and the great variety of
instrumental combinations. The text mentions the revival of his music in the 1950s, and a look at
the number of his works listed in the latest Schwann Opus will quickly bear that out (17 large
columns!).
2. Claudia Jensen (University of Washington) recommends the video Vivaldi for its
recreation of a concert at the Pietà. Substantial excerpts from a wide variety of works are
included, along with biographical details of Vivaldi’s life and musical styles (Films for the
Humanities ANE6075; 104 minutes, color).
3. There are four different videos of The Four Seasons available, including one with
Venetian scenes, one with original instruments, and one with Japanese backgrounds. Without
going too deeply into the arguments pro and con the use of original instruments, a comparison
could result in a lively and thought-provoking discussion.
4. Discuss the concerto analyzed in the text, first within the context of the complete Four
Seasons, and then as the opening work in the set. Be sure to read the translation of the sonnet that
inspired Vivaldi, resulting in works the text refers to as predecessors of romantic program music
(the original Italian text, and the florid dedication to Count Venceslao Marzin, are included in the
Eulenburg edition (1220/3) of the score). Note Botticelli’s La Primavera (p. 66) discussed in
II-2.4 above. As with the Bach discussed earlier, it might prove beneficial to play the ritornello
theme first, then discuss tone painting, finally playing through the complete first movement
(3:38; score in NS). The second and third movements are also included in the brief set (2:32,
3:32). The ChartPlayer can be a great help in presenting the various sections.
5. This chapter’s Performance Perspective focuses on Jeanne Lamon’s interpretation of
Vivaldi’s Spring Concerto. This would be a good time to refer back to discussions centered on
performance practice that you may have had with students as they read Chapter Two’s
Performance Perspective concerning Machaut’s Notre Dame Mass. Using Lamon’s comments as
a starting point, you might engage students in a discussion of what the goals of “historicallyinformed performance” are. For example, Lamon asks “how literally would Vivaldi have wished
[the imitation of birds in the first movement] to be played?” This question is a valuable window
into a discussion of whether honoring Vivaldi’s assumed wishes is an attainable or desirable
goal. If not, what else does historically-informed performance offer modern listeners?
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Questions and Topics
1. Describe Vivaldi’s career and his subsequent position in music history.
2. Describe the concerts of the Pietà.
3. Discuss the form and general character of Vivaldi’s Spring Concerto.
4. The Vivaldi revival in the 1950s.
5. Vivaldi’s music for unusual instruments and combinations.
6. Vivaldi’s concerti grossi: one concerto 300 times?
III-11. JOHANN SEBASTIAN BACH
Objectives
Bach’s career is traced from his birth into a musical family in 1685, through the various
positions he held throughout Germany, to the final years at St. Thomas Church in Leipzig. The
richness of his harmony and contrapuntal inventiveness are described, as are the rhythmic
propulsion and rich symbolism that characterize his output.
Discussion Topics
1. The main biographical details of Bach’s life are presented in this section, so it would be
worth a few minutes to discuss his place in music history in his own time, and contrast it with his
position now (a page is provided in the workbook for biographical details). Some mention might
also be made of his successful sons, and how they overshadowed him near the end of his life.
You might also mention Anna Magdalena, who with four young children to take care of (from
Bach’s first wife) still had to learn to play the harpsichord, resulting in the delightful Notebook,
which should be recommended to any pianists in the class.
2. Review the works already discussed (5th Brandenburg, III-3, Little Fugue, III-4), and
place them within the chronology outlined in the text. The sections following this one, both of
which include music by Bach as examples, may be introduced at this time: the baroque suite (III12) and the chorale and church cantata (III-13).
Questions and Topics
1. The workbook has a page to help with biographical details.
2. Describe the elements of Bach’s style.
3. Trace Bach’s career from birth until 1723, the year he accepted the position in Leipzig.
4. Anna Magdalena Bach and her Notebook.
5. Describe Bach’s duties in Leipzig.
6. The Bach family.
7. Bach’s contemporaries, with special reference to the career of Georg Philipp Telemann.
8. The town musician in Germany during the eighteenth century.
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III-12. THE BAROQUE SUITE
Objectives
The national origins of the various dances that make up the baroque suite are explained, as
are the character of each dance and the binary form they share. Also covered is the nondance
movement that frequently opens the suite, the French overture. Bach’s Suite no. 3 in D major is
examined in detail.
Discussion Topics
1. Discuss the importance of dancing to the nobility, stressing that the ability to dance was
one sign of a gentleman, the significance of couple dancing in the evening, and that at least one
hour per day would have been spent with the dancing master. Discuss also the desire of the
common people to emulate as best they could the actions of the nobility, including dancing,
though on a lower and less sophisticated level. As an example of an early pair of dances, see MM
no. 22, which has a slow dance followed by a fast after-dance in rhythmic transformation of the
dance. Note also the instrument used for these dances (lute). A more relevant, and perhaps more
interesting example of paired dances are the passamezzo and galliard from Terpsichore,
discussed in section II-2 above. Consider also the two-volume Introduction to Baroque Dance
with Page Whitley-Bauguess and Thomas Baird (Pendragon Press and Down East Dance). With
discussions and examples showing music and dance rhythm relationships, costumed dancers
reconstruct social and theatrical dances from Feuillet’s Chorégraphie (1700).
2. Discuss the early history and development of the dance suite, and the work of Johann
Jacob Froberger in establishing the general sequence of allemande, courante, sarabande, and
gigue. Froberger’s Suite in E minor (MM no. 35) may be used to illustrate the development of
the suite before Bach.
3. Discuss Bach’s keyboard works, such as the English and French Suites, and the Partitas.
Show how they continue the development of the suite from Froberger, and how Bach has added
other dances, such as the gavotte, passepied, loure, forlane and anglaise, and nondance sections
such as the prelude and air. The workbook has a listening exercise for comparing two baroque
suites.
4. Discuss Bach’s Suite No. 3, especially regarding differences from the keyboard suites
such as the French overture and “modern” dances instead of earlier forms. If possible, play two
different versions of one of the movements and compare with regard to the performance of the
dotted rhythms (double dotted performance?), tempo, suitability for dancing, and effective use of
instrumentation. In this regard it would be interesting to compare recordings of modern and
period instruments (Air, Bourrée, and Gigue in basic set, 4:47, 1:12, and 2:52; music in NS).
Questions and Topics
1. Discuss the characteristic formal structure of the dances that form the baroque suite.
2. Describe the component parts and stylistic characteristics of the French overture.
3. Discuss the characteristics of each of the three dances in Bach’s Suite in D major:
gavotte, bourrée, and gigue.
4. The paired dances of the Renaissance as predecessor of the baroque suite.
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5. The origins of the sarabande.
6. The dance in France.
7. Folk dance elements in the baroque suite.
III-13. THE CHORALE AND CHURCH CANTATA
Objectives
The place of music in the Lutheran service is described in this section, and the nature of the
Lutheran chorale and the chorale prelude defined. The church cantata designed for the Lutheran
service in Bach’s time is singled out for special attention, after which a detailed study of three of
the seven movements of Bach’s Cantata no. 140, Wachet Auf, Ruft Uns Die Stimme, is presented.
Texts, translations, and annotations are included for the three movements.
Discussion Topics
1. Discuss briefly the state of music in the Catholic church at the time, and the importance
of congregational singing in the Protestant church, especially Lutheran services. You may even
wish to have the class sing a hymn, unless you can assume all are familiar with the practice.
2. Discuss and define the chorale, using Wachet Auf as an example. Help the students sing
the chorale melody, so they will be better able to recognize it when listening to the cantata
(if you wish them to sing it with the German text, help them first with the language; otherwise
use “la”s).
3. To help students recognize the chorale in contrapuntal settings and demonstrate the
form, play (live or on record) the chorale prelude based on Wachet Auf (BWV 645).
4. Discuss the form of the cantata, using Wachet Auf as an example. Unless you feel the
students are fully familiar with the chorale (because of the above suggestions), play the seventh
movement first. Following that, discuss the parable as a whole, and then each movement, both
text and musical setting (fourth and seventh movements in brief and basic sets, 4:10, 1:23; first
movement in basic set, 8:02; music for all three movements in NAWM).
Questions and Topics
1. Discuss the functions of the chorale and chorale prelude in the Lutheran church service.
2. Explain how the chorale melody is used in Bach’s Cantata no. 140.
3. Cite examples of word-painting or musical symbolism in Bach’s Cantata no. 140.
4. Martin Luther and the Lutheran chorale.
5. Folk songs as a source of the Lutheran chorale.
6. The Lutheran chorale and the Catholic hymn.
7. The chorale prelude: a study in textural variety.
8. Bach’s cantatas: an overview.
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III-14. THE ORATORIO
Objectives
This section is intended mainly as a concise introduction to the term oratorio. Traced to its
origin in early seventeenth-century Italy, its characteristics are contrasted with those large-scale
baroque vocal genres already discussed, the opera and the cantata.
Discussion Topics
1. Discuss the development of oratorio, comparing it to the opera. You may wish to
speculate on the characteristics that make a given story suitable for treatment as an oratorio
instead of an opera, considering the roles of the narrator, the chorus as commentators on and
participants in the drama, and the orchestral accompaniment.
2. As examples of early oratorios you may consider Carissimi’s Jonas (HAM, 207;
Hungaroton HCD 12509) or Judicium Salomonis (MM, 32; Meridian CDE 84132). An even
earlier example, though not as dramatic as the Solomon excerpt, is Cavalieri’s Rappresentazione
di anima e di corpo (HAM, 183; Stradivarius STR 33339). The text should be projected or
duplicated.
Questions and Topics
1. Compare and contrast the oratorio, opera, and the church cantata.
2. Discuss the roles of the narrator and the chorus in the oratorio.
3. Liturgical drama and the mystery play as forerunners of the oratorio.
4. The Passion oratorio.
5. The oratorio in France: Marc-Antoine Charpentier.
III-15. GEORGE FRIDERIC HANDEL
Objectives
Handel’s life is traced from his early years as a student of both music and law to his
apprenticeship in Hamburg’s opera house and his three-year sojourn in Italy. After a brief stay in
Hanover, he established himself in London as the leading English composer of the time. His
contributions to both opera and oratorio are explained, as are his tribulations as an entrepreneur.
The bulk of the section is devoted to two selections from his oratorio Messiah.
Discussion Topics
1. Discuss briefly the biographical details of Handel’s life, his success as an opera
composer and impresario, his response to the failure of opera in England through the oratorio,
and his stature with Bach as the greatest composers of the late baroque (the workbook has a page
to help with biographical details). If time permits, some examples of his instrumental works
might be discussed and illustrated.
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2. Review Italian opera, especially in its English environment. Suggestions made
previously in the discussion of opera (III-5 and III-6 above) may also be considered at this time:
readings from Joseph Addison’s critique of Italian opera in England (SSR no. 61), and playing
“Cara sposa” from Rinaldo, the reason for Handel’s first visit to England (MM no. 44). The
workbook has a research project inviting the student to explore other Handel operas and
oratorios.
3. Review the development of oratorio, and the circumstances that prompted Handel to
leave opera for this form. With Messiah as an example, introduce the opening tenor aria (3:25),
noting especially the word painting. Comment briefly on the use of the chorus, and present what
many consider the finest chorus ever written, “Hallelujah” (3:50). Take a moment to discuss the
annotations before playing, as some students might confuse the text with the description. If
sufficient vocal scores are available for distribution, explain the piano reduction, and the
possibility that solos heard in the recording may differ from the page due to improvisational
embellishments.
4. There is a very effective video cassette available that should be considered either for
classroom use or outside assignment. The Foundling Hospital version of 1754 was recorded in
Westminster Abbey by Christopher Hogwood, the Westminster Abbey Choir, and the Academy
of Ancient Music.
5. In these days of informality when gentlemen seldom rise as a lady enters the room
(although GIs may remember they had to jump to attention when an officer entered the room), it
may be worth taking a moment to discuss the American tradition of rising for the “Hallelujah”
chorus. Some feel that audiences stand today because of the king’s rising then, rather than as a
tribute to the genius of the composer and his composition. It could be mentioned that audiences
in England normally do not rise for this chorus.
Questions and Topics
1. The workbook has a page for exploring other Handel operas and oratorios.
2. Discuss Handel’s career up to his departure for London in 1712.
3. Discuss Handel’s career from 1712 to his death in 1759.
4. Describe Handel’s approach to the elements of opera.
5. Describe Handel’s approach to the elements of oratorio.
6. The effect of The Beggar’s Opera on Italian opera in England.
7. Opera in England during the first half of the eighteenth century.
8. Why do audiences traditionally rise for the Hallelujah chorus?
9. Handel’s instrumental music.
Suggested Supplements for Part III
Many resources have been mentioned above. Below is a brief list of additional
supplements you may wish to consult, all currently available on DVD or VHS.
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Monteverdi’s Vespro della Beata Vergine, John Eliot Gardiner (Archiv)
Monteverdi - L'Orfeo, Savall, Zanasi, Figueras, Mingardo, Abete, Turk, Vargas, Bettini,
Gran Teatre del Liceu Barcelona (Naxos)
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Ton Koopman Plays Bach (Naxos)
Bach - Brandenburg Concertos, Freiburg Baroque Orchestra (Image Entertainment)
Bach & Vivaldi Concertos, Antonini, Katia & Marielle Labeque, Il Giardino Armonico
(Image Entertainment)
Bach, Cello Suites, Rostropovich (EMI)
The Goldberg Variations - Glenn Gould Plays Bach (Sony)
In Rehearsal with John Eliot Gardiner (Bach Cantata No. 63) (Image Entertainment)
The Amsterdam Baroque Orchestra - Four Bach Suites (Image Entertainment)
Vivaldi - The Four Seasons, I Solisti Veneti, Claudio Scimone (Naxos)
Viva Vivaldi! Arias & Concertos, Cecilia Bartoli, Il Giardino Armonico (Arthaus Musik)
Farinelli (1995) (for its largely fictional, but provocative portrayal of the famous
castrato’s life and opulent stagings of Handel-era opera in London) (Sony Pictures)
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