District Courts:
Congress has taken their ability to create the district
courts from the Constitutions permissions to create
inferior courts. Congress has divided the nation into
federal districts, . As a rule, there is at least one district
court in each state, as well as district courts in the US
territories of Guam, the Mariana Islands, and the Virgin
Islands. District courts have original jurisdiction over all
cases in their district, both civil and criminal cases. Civil
cases are typically things like lawsuits, traffic violations,
or domestic issues like divorce; these cases result in a
ruling. Criminal cases involve any kind of criminal
offense, ranging from theft to murder; criminal cases
result in a sentencing. Cases are assigned to specific
district courts based on where the offense that is being
tried took place; in other words, each case in a district
court is tried there because the offense occurred within
that district. Originally there were 13 district courts
created by the Judiciary Act of 1789, and these courts
handled all cases the 11 states brought before them.
Today there are a total of 94 district courts, and they
hear about 350,000 cases a year.
U.S. Courts of Appeals:
Established by the Judiciary Act of 1891, these courts are
an “intermediate” level of appellate court. Basically,
there are 13 “circuits,” together covering the entire
nation. The 13 circuits cover the entire United States,
and then there is a special circuit court for Washington
D.C. This special circuit court is still one of the U.S. Courts
of Appeals, but deals not only with appeals from the
Washington D.C. district, but also appeals to decisions
made by all of the different federal agencies – for
example, any appeal that is made by the Department of
State, the Department of Justice, or the Department of
Transportation would be heard by the U.S. Court of
Appeals for the Washington D.C. district. These appeals
courts, also called Circuit Courts, hear all appeals to
decisions previously made in the district courts. The
appeals are heard by 3 judges who make a ruling
determining whether to uphold the district court ruling
or overturn it. The circuit courts hear about 65,000 cases
a year.
Court of International Trade:
This court was officially created in 1980 by the Customs
Court Act of 1980. However, it finds its basis in Article III
of the Constitution. This court is specially created to deal
with any claims that have anything to do with trade,
especially imports and exports. In this court lawsuits or
arguments can be brought up by companies within the
US that export and import, or can be appealed to by
outside companies that conduct trade with US
companies through export and import. Normal cases are
reviewed by one judge; any cases that argue the
constitutionality of any decision by Congress or the
President made regarding trade policy will go to a three
judge panel. The three judges will then together review
the entire trade proposal or decision, and together must
determine if that decision fits with the principles set
forth in the Constitution. If a decision is appealed, it goes
first to the circuit court to be reviewed by the three
judges of that court, and then to the Supreme Court. The
Court of International Trade is in New York, New York.
Court of Federal Claims:
The court of Federal Claims deals completely with civil suits for
damages that are filed against the federal government. This court was
created by legislation in Congress passed in 1982. The court of Federal
Claims is made up of 16 judges who will hear any case that concerns
claims against the federal government, regardless of who is filing the
claim, or where in the U.S. that person lives, if they make a claim for
damages against the federal government it will be submitted to the
Court of Federal Claims to pass a judgment. Most of the cases (about
1/3rd) heard by this court deal with government contracts; companies
that have been awarded contracts by the government and feel that
they were not completely adhered to can file a federal claim In the
same way, if the federal government believes that a contractor has not
held to the terms of a contract and done all of the tasks that they were
contracted to do, then the federal government can make a claim
against that contractor in this court The court determines rulings on
matters of pay for civilian and military workers, and also deals with
cases involving Indian tribes, foreign nations and governments, and
various corporations that make claims against the federal government.
Based on the decision of the Court of Federal Claims, a plaintiff is either
awarded reparations, or they can appeal the ruling of the Court of
Federal Claims to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Washington D.C.
circuit.
U.S. Tax Court:
The U.S. Tax court is relatively self-explanatory: it deals
with any legal disputes over taxes. If any tax payer,
whether that is an individual, a company, or an
organization, feels that they are being taxed either
unjustly or incorrectly, they have the ability to dispute
their taxation by filing a claim with the U.S. Tax Court.
Located in Washington D.C., the court has a total of 19
judges, all appointed by the President. Cases are heard
by one judge, and taxpayers/plaintiffs can either
represent themselves or choose to be represented by a
lawyer who has a special Tax Court license. The person
filing the claim can choose whether they want to have a
case tried as a “small tax case” or as a regular case. The
“small tax case” is for any case involving less than
$50,000, and is much speedier in being decided. The
biggest difference between the small tax case and the
regular case is that a small tax case ruling cannot be
appealed. A regular case will be scheduled to have a
hearing in the order which the case is filed, and regular
case hearings are able to be appealed.
U.S. Court of Appeals for Armed Forces:
The military has a unique relationship to the judicial branch of
the government. It is the only group of U.S. citizens which has
its own judicial system, ruled by the Uniform Code of Military
Justice. However, there is still interaction with the rest of the
Judicial branch of the government, and that interaction is
through the U.S. Court of Appeals for Armed Forces. If a
service-member is convicted in a courts martial and sentenced
to death, they automatically have the option to file an appeal
with the Court of Appeals for Armed Forces. If the service
member isn’t convicted of death, they can submit a request to
appeal, but the request has to be approved by the Court of
Appeals for Armed Forces clerk. This court, created in 1950, is
made up of 5 civilian judges appointed by the President.
Created by Congress and the President to be a justice system
for military members that is completely removed from any
military influence, any appeals are heard by a panel of 3 of the
judges. The Court of Appeals for Armed Forces is an
intermediate appellate court, meaning a ruling can be further
appealed to be heard by the Supreme Court.
Territorial Courts:
The Territorial Courts are a unique set of courts that has
been created to address any legal issues that arise in U.S.
Territories. Territorial courts are established by
legislative action taken by Congress. There are currently
3 U.S. Territorial Courts in the federal judicial system;
one for Guam, one for the Northern Mariana Islands, and
one for the Virgin Islands. These territorial courts are
essentially the same as a U.S. District Court, but they also
have local jurisdiction for each of the territories. The
judges in each territorial court are appointed by the
President of the United States and approved by the
Senate. Just as with other U.S. District Courts, cases
heard by the Territorial Courts are able to be appealed to
U.S. Courts of Appeals; the Virgin Islands Territorial Court
is part of the Third Circuit, and the Guam and Northern
Mariana Islands Territorial Courts are part of the Ninth
Circuit. Any cases that are appealed beyond the circuit
courts can also be heard in the Supreme Court.
Courts of the District of Columbia:
Washington D.C. is another unique exception to the
normal federal judicial system. Similar to a regular state
that has its own local, state, and district courts, the
Washington D.C. judicial system has its own municipal
court, juvenile court, and Court of General Sessions. On
top of that, Washington D.C. has a D.C. Superior Court
and a D.C. Court of Appeals. These 2 courts are ultimately
considered the “Courts of the District of Columbia.” The
Courts of the District of Columbia as they exist today
were officially established in 1970 by legislation passed
by Congress, however, Washington D.C. has had its own
special judicial system since 1801, the year after
Congress officially created Washington D.C. as a federal
jurisdiction. Cases that are decided at the Washington
D.C. Court of Appeals can then go on and be appealed to
the Supreme Court if a plaintiff seeks further judicial
review.
U.S. Court of Appeals for Veterans Claims:
The U.S. Court of Appeals for Veterans Claims is a
relatively young court compared to other federal courts,
only in existence since the passage of the Veteran’s
Judicial Review Act of 1988. The court was originally
names the U.S. Court of Veterans Appeals, and was
created to review claims made by Veterans regarding
their VA Benefits. The Court is unique in many ways; it
has no geographic boundaries on jurisdiction, and is not
part of the VA itself, but part of the federal judicial
branch, helping to ensure that decisions are completely
isolated from the VA and unbiased. Additionally, while
the court is comprised of 7 active judges appointed by
the President, these judges do not actually hear any
cases, do not consider new evidence, and do not hear
witnesses. Instead, the court only reviews decisions by
the VA regarding benefits that veterans are eligible for
and rules on whether those decisions are appropriate or
not. If decisions are overturned the Court of Appeals for
Veterans Claims then establishes appropriate reparations
for the plaintiff.
Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court:
The U.S. Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court was established
by Congress in 1978 in an effort to help balance between
liberty and security, protecting U.S. citizens from national
security threats while ensuring that the right to privacy is
protected. The biggest function of the Foreign Intelligence
Surveillance Court is to review requests made by agencies like
the CIA or the FBI to conduct surveillance on individuals that
they think pose a potential national security threat. Requests
are initially made to the National Security Administration, but
then all requests must go to the Foreign Intelligence
Surveillance Court. This court has 11 judges appointed by the
Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, and operates in a very
different fashion from any other court in the federal judicial
system. The court holds no trials, only serving to determine
approval for requests for surveillance. No surveillance can be
conducted without the approval of the Court. Because it deals
with matters of national security, the Court meets in a closed
room, and no one is allowed to be present at the court
proceedings except for the judges and any lawyers for the
Department of Justice. To date, no decisions made by the
Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court have been appealed. If
the Director of National Intelligence wishes to appeal a decision
by the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court, then appeals
may be made to the Supreme Court.