Catholic Reformation
Markscheme Topics
Assess the role of the sixteenth-century popes in reforming the Catholic Church. (Jan. 05)
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Many answers may regard the papacy’s role in the Catholic Reformation as having been pivotal to
its success, although some answers may want to focus on other contributing factors.
Other factors such as the Council of Trent, Jesuits and secular leaders may legitimately be
considered.
Better answers may focus on the papacy, contrasting its limited role before Paul III (1534-49) with
later very significant papal contributions (e.g. by Gregory XIII, Sixtus V).
‘The creation of the Jesuits was the most important development in the sixteenth-century Catholic
Reformation.’ How far do you agree? (Jan. 05)
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This question requires candidates to assess the work of the Jesuits in the 16th century.
This might be done via a comparison with other new religious orders (e.g. the Capuchins), the
Council of Trent or certain individual popes.
The heart of the essay should be the Jesuits and what they had achieved/not achieved by 1600.
Better answers may focus on the Jesuits, contrasting the condition of the Catholic Church and
faith before 1540 with the situation in 1600, and determining how far developments in the
Catholic Reformation were due to their work.
To what extent had the Catholic Church been reformed effectively during the course of the
sixteenth century? (Jan. 05)
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Answers may look at the papacy, ecclesiastical institutions, the clergy, the spiritual condition of
the laity.
Answers may compare the spiritual and moral condition of the Church, and its leadership,
between 1500 and 1600.
How successful were the new orders, and perhaps the Jesuits in particular?
Did the Tridentine Decrees have any real impact on the ground in various parts of Catholic Europe
by 1600?
The nature of evidence will be important here, assessing aspects such as, e.g.: the extent of heresy,
prosecutions by the inquisition, reports of clerical abuses, the quality of popes, bishops and
cardinals, visitation records, the variable rate of improvement in different states.
Assess the significance of any two turning-points in the development of the Catholic Church in the
sixteenth century. (Jan. 06)
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Among turning-points chosen may be: the Lutheran affair and Protestant Reformation; the sack of
Rome 1527; the pontificate of Paul III; the foundation of new orders, especially or solely the
Jesuits; the publication of the Tridentine Decrees.
How particular moments of change are linked to the development of the Catholic Church will
probably be the key to a successful answer.
To what extent did the Catholic Reformation achieve its aims in the course of the sixteenth
century? (Jan. 06)
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The main aims of the Catholic Reformation were:
o to reform the ranks of corruption and restore the public’s confidence in the clergy
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o to counter Protestant movements, especially Lutheranism and Calvinism, and recover
those who had defected
o to issue a clear and uncompromising statement of faith that would re-affirm the Papacy as
its leader
o to strengthen the Church by withstanding present challenges and attracting new members
in the future.
Many of these aims had been achieved by c.1600 and the foundations of success established –
most notably in Spain and Italy – but progress was geographically uneven: e.g. little headway was
made in France, Austria and Germany.
‘Other rulers contributed more to the revival of the sixteenth-century Catholic Church than did the
papacy.’ How far do you agree with this view? (Jan. 06)
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The contribution of other rulers was of great importance if the Catholic Church was to combat the
growth of Protestantism in Europe, and Charles V, Mary Tudor, Philip II, the Guise in France,
Maximilian of Bavaria and the Duke of Milan led the way in pressing for reform or implementing
it in their own lands.
However, some 16th century rulers did little to advance the revival, notably the later Valois and
most German princes, and Henry VIII and Philip II were often in conflict with the papacy.
The papacy, on the other hand, did little before Paul III’s pontificate (encouraging reforming
bishops, appointing reformers as cardinals, setting up the Council of Trent, recognising the
Jesuits, establishing an Index and Inquisition, and leading by example in reforming Rome and the
Vatican), but a great deal thereafter.
Expect candidates to compare secular and spiritual leaders.
Assess the difficulties facing the Papacy in its attempts to reform the Church from 1500 to 1600.
(Jan. 07)
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Candidates may reflect on some of the following difficulties that faced the Papacy:
o The scale of corruption in the Church in 1500 in most European countries as well as the
Papal States and Curia.
o Few training colleges and most clerics were poorly paid and of limited education; and the
spiritual welfare of people was widely neglected.
o Many monasteries contributed little to communal or spiritual life.
o Papal anxiety about calling a general council but one was needed if reforms were to be
universally applied.
o Uncertain support for reform from secular powers (eg Charles V and Francis I) whose
involvement in Italy until 1559 frightened many popes into a state of inertia.
o Renaissance popes were materially minded and stood to lose political power and wealth
from reform.
o Protestantism became very popular and the doctrine of Lutheranism and Calvinism
challenged the beliefs and legitimacy of the Papacy and Catholic faith.
Essays will probably examine a range of difficulties and explain why reform was slow to take off
and patchy in its development.
Did the Council of Trent or the new religious orders make the greater contribution to the revival of
the Catholic Church in the sixteenth century? Explain your answer. (Jan. 07)
o Most candidates will compare Trent and the new orders. Some will do so sequentially; others by
themes.
o Trent defined Catholic doctrine after years of uncertainty and challenges from Protestantism,
rejected compromise, re-asserted papal authority, stressed the role of bishops and underlined the
value of education in the training of priests and spiritual welfare of the laity.
o Yet by 1563, the Catholic Reformation was already well underway, most notably due to the work
of new orders.
o Here the Jesuits will figure in most essays although better answers will consider other sects.
Countries visited, numbers converted, their educational and social activities could be considered
but so might the limitations to their achievements eg jealousy of many groups towards the Jesuits,
hostility of secular rulers, opposition from Catholic males towards females, local activity of many
new orders and progress made by Protestant missionaries.
Explain why the sixteenth-century Catholic Reformation was generally more
successful in some parts of Europe than in others. (Jan. 07)
Several explanations may be put forward:
 The progress made by Lutheranism (in much of Germany and Scandinavia), Zwinglianism (in
much of Switzerland), Calvinism (in parts of Germany, France, Scotland and north-east Europe)
and Protestantism in England before the Catholic Church took steps to counter their popularity.
 Secular rulers in northern/western Europe took control of their churches’ land and wealth for
spiritual and political power; neither the emperor nor the pope could stop them.
 Calvinism appealed more to urban and trading communities, which were mainly in western
Europe.
 Catholic beliefs of Spanish, Portuguese and French monarchs, and their use of tribunals (eg the
Inquisition and state courts) stamped out or controlled heresy.
 Activities of Jesuits and missionaries in eastern and southern Catholic lands reinforced traditional
beliefs; and rural groups were more attracted to the Catholic faith and practices.
 Proximity of the Papacy to Italian states and work of new orders, bishops and inquisition kept
Italy mainly free of heresy.
 Candidates should try, wherever possible, to link their explanations to particular areas of Europe.
Assess the reasons why the Jesuits were the most successful reforming order in the sixteenthcentury Catholic Church. (Jan. 08)
A number of reasons may explain the Jesuits’ success.
 They did not live in common which enabled them to travel, often internationally.
 Their structured organisation had clear leadership and objectives.
 They were supported by wealthy patrons and secular rulers, and as papal agents often performed
diplomatic tasks.
 They were excellent publicists most notably arising from their missionary activities.
 The quality of their education was highly admired and their influence in schools, colleges and
universities had a lasting effect.
 The strength of their preaching in the face of Protestantism.
 Their lack of restrictive practices (eg exempt from canonical routine and episcopal control) and
privileges (eg exempt from fasting and clerical dress).
These conditions should be compared with the more limited impact of other reforming orders:
 the older regular orders were enclosed and though some had reformed, they were out of touch with
the needs of the community.
 Travelling friars practised pastoral work but were conditional by their spiritual education and
rules.
 Lay orders such as the Brethren of the Common Life inter-acted with communities but were
subject to the rules governing their order and had traditional aims based on piety and service.
 New orders (such as the Theatines, Ursulines, Angelici, Barnabites and Oratorians) performed
charitable work mainly in Italy though the Capuchins, who began in Ancona, spread to several
countries and numbered 7,000 by 1600.
To what extent was the Council of Trent (1545-63) the most important turning-point in the
reformation of the Catholic Church from 1500 to 1600? (Jan. 08)
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Candidates are likely to set the reforms decreed by the Council of Trent against other key
developments in the 16th century.
These may well be the pronouncements of Luther (1517-20), the sack of Rome (1527), the
establishment of the Jesuits (1540).
What is important is that Trent is assessed in terms of what changed or continued as a result of its
sessions and decrees, and this will entail looking at the period between 1563 and 1600 as well as
the half-century before.
The main arguments in favour of its significance are:
o the implicit re-assertion of papal authority
o the affirmation and definition of Catholic doctrine and rejection of Protestantism
o the recognition of the pastoral role of bishops and the sacred authority of the clergy
o the importance given to confessionals, education and the establishment of seminaries
o the desire to stamp out clerical abuses.
o In theory the Church became a more united, confident and coherent organisation.
A counter-argument is that the Council of Trent had several limitations:
o contentious issues (eg reform of the Breviary, Missal and Catechism) were not resolved
o its decrees depended entirely upon the quality of future popes (generally good) and support
of secular rulers (endorsed by Spain and Portugal but not France)
o reforms would take time and money to implement (eg few seminaries set up by 1600)
o little was said about the future role of the Index, Inquisition, regular orders and women,
and the laity was not involved in the Catholic Reformation.
How far had the Catholic Church by 1600 solved the problems that it faced in the first half of the
sixteenth century? (Jan. 08)
Candidates can be expected to review a range of problems apparent in the early 16th century:
 poor leadership and quality of popes
 clerical abuses and indiscipline
 remoteness of many regular clergy
 lack of understanding of spiritual needs of most Christians
 widespread appeal of alternative faiths, especially Lutheranism and Calvinism
 lack of clarity and uniformity in doctrine
 reluctance to call a general council
 limited support for reform from secular rulers, especially Charles V and Francis I.
Candidates may suggest some of the following achievements by 1600:
 the doctrine was clearly defined at Trent
 strong papal leadership had emerged aided by a more efficient Curia
 education was seen to be the key to future success in reforming abuses and improving the
quality of the clergy
 conversions to Protestantism were generally halted and some areas returned to Catholicism
 the Index, Inquisition and state authorities exercised greater control and uniformity
 the city of Rome had been transformed into an attractive centre for pilgrims
On the other hand, candidates should point out some of the problems not solved:
 Europe remained divided between the Catholic and Reformed churches
 inequality remained between lower and upper clergy’s livings
 the spiritual understanding of most people remained very basic, especially in rural areas
 some states (eg France) were unwilling to recognise the papal decrees at Trent
 there was still an inherent distrust between religious orders
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there was insufficient money and well-qualified clergy to bring about a quick reformation.
‘The achievements of the new religious orders by 1600 have been greatly exaggerated.’ How far do
you agree with this statement? (Jun. 05)
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Candidates are required to assess the work of the new religious orders in the 16 century and to examine
their achievements by 1600. How they evaluate ‘achievements’ will be central to their mark: Countries
visited, political contacts, numbers of conversions, their educational and social work may all be
considered.
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The slow nature of effective progress, the hostile reception from some secular rulers, opposition
from Catholic males to female orders and envy felt towards the Jesuits, may be cited as reasons
for their limited success by 1600.
Most candidates are likely to focus on the Jesuits, but Band I and II essays should cover a range of
new orders (eg. the Capuchins, the Oratorians) and many answers may include consideration of
female groups (eg. the Ursulines, Theresa of Avila and her Discalced Carmelites).
Some may consider the work of orders outside Europe – Jesuits and others.
Effective answers should interrogate the statement in the question and offer evidence for and
against it.
Assess the importance of the Council of Trent to the origins and development of the Catholic
Reformation during the sixteenth century. (Jun. 05)
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The Council of Trent played an important part in the 16 century Catholic Reformation:
 it defined Catholic doctrine after years of uncertainty and challenges from the Protestant faith
 rejected any compromise with Protestantism
 re-asserted papal authority which would be vital to its unity
 stressed the future role of bishops and underlined the value of education in the training of priests
and spiritual development of the laity
 Yet, by 1563, the Catholic Reformation was well underway and much progress had been made.
 How far the Council complemented other factors already at work and to what extent it was
successful by 1600 are issues that answers awarded Band I or II should be expected to consider.
Reward candidates who demonstrate continuity of reform as well as changes brought about by the
Council.
To what extent was the Catholic Reformation merely a response to the growing appeal of
Protestantism? (Jun. 05)
Some candidates will agree with the title and point to the reaction by the Catholic Church to advances
made by Lutheranism and Calvinism:
 the attraction of biblical humanism
 a more enlightened approach to education, the appeal of salvation by faith alone, double
predestination and utraquism
 improvements in clerical discipline
 the rejection of the sanctity of priests and celibacy.
These and other issues challenged the Catholic Church and some Protestant ideas were copied e.g. the
consistory and the appeal of the sermon.
However, the Catholic Reformation was not merely a reaction to Protestantism. For instance, the new
orders and Jesuits owed little or nothing to the appeal of Protestantism.
Assess the contribution of the Jesuits to the Catholic revival in the sixteenth century. (Jun. 06)
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Candidates are required to assess the work of the Jesuits in the 16 century and to examine their
achievements by 1600. How they evaluate ‘contribution’ will be central to their mark: Countries
visited, political contacts, numbers of conversions, their educational and social work may all be
considered.
The slow nature of effective progress, the hostile reception from some secular rulers and envy felt
towards the Jesuits may be cited as reasons for their limited success by c.1600.
Candidates should also examine other factors relevant to the Catholic revival (e.g. the papacy,
Trent and the implementation of its decrees, other religious orders whether reformed or new,
secular rulers), and use these as a benchmark to assess the relative importance of the Jesuits’
contribution.
How far did the rule of Pope Paul III mark a turning-point in the development of the Catholic
Church in the sixteenth century? (Jun. 06)
Paul III’s pontificate saw many changes in the Catholic Church:
 the establishment of Jesuits
 the foundation of the Roman Inquisition and Index
 the convening of the Council of Trent
 Paul’s encouragement for reforming Italian bishops.
In the light of the preceding 30 years or so and in the half-century that followed, his rule may well be
judged as a turning-point in the development of the Catholic Church.
However, candidates should evaluate other events and periods to see the real significance of his rule:
Some may argue that Paul continued ideas already in progress or that the Lutheran Reformation was a
more important catalyst or that little happened until the publication of the Tridentine Decrees.
Which term better describes the development of the Catholic Church in the sixteenth century:
‘Catholic Reformation’ or ‘Counter Reformation’? Explain your answer. (Jun. 06)
Historians continue to argue whether the Catholic revival was independent of the Protestant reform
movement, and so there was a Catholic Reformation, or whether the Church simply reacted to
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Protestantism to produce a Counter Reformation. Several developments in the later 16 century Catholic
Church originated independently of Luther and Calvin (new orders and Jesuits, for instance) but other
features were a result of the Protestant Reformation (e.g. the Council of Trent).
Candidates should discuss the arguments for and against the use of these terms by referring to the main
influences, both Protestant and Catholic, upon the Church during this period.
How far were the aims and achievements (to c.1600) of the Council of Trent
influenced by the Protestant Reformation? (Jun. 07)
When the General Council met in 1545, its aims were to remove clerical abuses and define the Catholic
doctrine. In addition the Papacy was anxious to assert its supremacy over the Church. Protestant
reformers had condemned corruption in the Church, challenged orthodox beliefs and denounced papal
supremacy. Trent was therefore bound to be influenced by Protestantism, not least because the delegates
were aware of its appeal and explicit threat to surviving Catholic churches in Europe.
Although Lutheran delegates attended the second session, the Catholic majority rejected any compromise
with Protestants; thus many of the Tridentine decrees reflected traditional beliefs and practices. Moreover,
the use of the consistory, the emphasis put on the sermon, and the importance attached to the role of
education, and the social and spiritual welfare of the people, were all key features of Protestant practices.
Most candidates are likely to look at the main features of Protestantism before 1545 and see how and how
far they affected the council’s debates and decrees, and subsequent development of the Catholic
Reformation. Better candidates will be aware of the extent of interplay between the two movements.
Compare the strength of the Catholic Church at the beginning, the middle, and at the end of the
sixteenth century. (Jun. 07)
Most candidates are likely to suggest that the Church was much stronger in 1600 than in 1500 and 1550
but how they measure ‘strength’ and what evidence is used to evaluate the condition in 1550 may prove
critical. The following themes may well appear.
• In 1500 the Church lacked effective and respected leadership. In 1550 this was still an issue although, in
convening a general council, Paul III had shown some initiative.
However, by 1600, the papacy was acknowledged as the undisputed leader and sole
interpreter of the Catholic faith and doctrine.
• In 1500 the Church was riddled with corruption at all levels with few signs of improvement. In 1550
progress had been made but not uniformly. By 1600, although malpractices remained, the education and
quality of clergy was much improved.
• In 1500 some religious and a few lay orders were reforming their practices to make them more relevant
to society’s needs; and this trend continued. By 1550 there many more orders and missionaries, whose
use of catechisms strengthened spiritual understanding as the century advanced. Progress, however, was
slow and patchy.
• In 1500 biblical humanists questioned some of the Church’s beliefs and threatened to implement
reforms independently of the papacy. By 1550 Protestants had split
Christendom and the Church had still to respond effectively; but by 1600 this had been accomplished and
the tide had turned in favour of the Catholic Church.
• In 1500 the Catholic Church in western Europe was united; by 1550 large areas of
northern and western Europe were lost to Protestantism; by 1600 the Catholic faith had been restored or
strengthened in much of southern and eastern Europe.
'Sixtus V contributed very little to the success of the Catholic Reformation
compared with other popes in the sixteenth century.’ How far do you agree with this view? (Jun.
07)
Sixtus V’s main contributions to the Catholic Reformation were his reforms to the Curia, thereby
reducing its size and nepotistic features; his establishing 15 ‘congregations’ to administer papal affairs
which made the papacy more efficient and specialised; his rebuilding of St Peter’s dome, a new Vatican
library and continuing the development of Rome; his support for missionaries and Jesuits; and his
encouragement to secular rulers to rid England, France and the Netherlands of
Protestantism.
Some candidates may focus on the work of other popes:
 Paul III, who called the Council of Trent, authorised the Jesuits, founded the Roman inquisition
and index, and encouraged bishops to reform their dioceses
 Pius V, who led a life of austerity and asceticism, visited the poor and sick, oversaw reforms to
the Breviary and Missal, and tried to enforce clerical residence on Italian bishops
 Gregory XIII, who reformed the city of Rome and encouraged Jesuits to travel to Protestant
countries.
New Section:
To what extent were the Jesuits and other new orders able to promote a reformation of the Catholic
Church in the sixteenth century (Jun. 04)
Orders likely to be considered: Jesuits, Theatines, Capuchins, Ursulines, the Oratory, the Discalced
Carmelites.
Answers may compare new orders with the Council of Trent, certain popes, and the old orders.
Assess why a Catholic revival was more evident in the second half than in the first half of the
sixteenth century. (Jun. 04)
The principal factors, none of which existed before 1540, were:
 foundation of the Jesuits (1540) whose work took off from mid C15th
 conclusion of Trent (1563) after 18 years of intermittent meetings
 activities of the Roman Inquisition and Index (both est. 1540s)
 realisation in the 1550s that Calvinism was a real threat to the Church's future
On the other hand, between 1500 and 1540:
 Church was slow to react to Lutheranism
 Papacy was indifferently led
 Charles V, most powerful secular ruler, genuinely believed that a Council would end schism,
whereas Philip and the later popes took a harder line.
'Paul III contributed more to the Catholic Reformation than any other pope in the sixteenth
century.' How far do you agree..? (Jun. 04)
Candidates need to examine how Paul III's pontificate and Paul himself catalysed the Catholic
Reformation:
 initiated the Council of Trent
 authorised the Jesuits
 founded the Roman Inquisition and Index
 encouraged Italian bishops to begin to reform their dioceses.
His work should be compared with a range of popes from both before and after his pontificate.
To what extent did the Papacy become stronger in the sixteenth century? (Jan. 04)
The authority, respect and powers of leadership of the papacy were certainly stronger in 1600 than in
1500:
 After Trent, the Papacy no longer feared councils
 from Paul IV onwards the status of the Papacy and later its administration improved
 the whole spirit of the Catholic Reformation was personified by the commitment of individuatl
popes.
There were limitations:
 secular influences were considerably greater in 1600
 the Papacy no longer presided over a united Christendom.
'Without the challenge of Protestantism, there would not have been a Catholic Reformation in the
sixteenth century.' How far...? (Jan. 04)
Historians argue whether the Catholic Reformation would have occurred independently of Lutheranism
and Calvinism. It cannot be proved, however candidates can be expected to discuss the case for and
against this premise. Candidates should understand the interplay between Protestant and Catholic ideas
and consequences as well as their separate developments.
To what extent was the Catholic revival in the sixteenth century more apparent than real? (Jan. 04)
Candidates are required to consider how successful was the Catholic revival between 1500 and 1600.
What quantitative / qualitative evaluation can be used?
Compare the spiritual and moral condition of the Church in 1500 with that of 1600:
 Did the Tridentine Decrees have any real impact 30 years later?
 How successful were the Jesuits and other orders by 1600?
 Was the Inquisition's bite as menacing as its bark?
'Individuals contributed more to the revival of the C16th Catholic Church than institutions, such as
religious orders and church councils.' How far ...? (Jun. 03)
Individuals to consider:
 Jesuits (Loyola, Canisius)
 Secular rulers (e.g. Philip II)
 bishops (e.g. Borromeo)
 missionaries (e.g. Xavier)
 and founders of new orders (e.g. Bascio)
Institutions:
 Council of Trent
 Inquisitions
 Religious Orders
 Papacy
'How far' invites candidates to consider similarities or continuity, as well as change.
Discuss the factors which limited the success of the Catholic Reformation during this period. (Jun.
03)
Principal limiting factors:
 lack of papal leadership / support until Paul III
 lack of money to endow seminaries or attract graduates into the profession
 suspicions of secular rulers about a revived papacy
 suspicions of popes pre-1534 towards a council
 conflict between religious orders, the Inquisition and secular rulers
 political conflict between Catholic states until 1559, and within France until 1598
 rivalry with and the success of Protestantism
'Despite some territorial losses in Europe, the Catholic Church was far stronger in 1600 than it had
been in 1500.' How far...? (Jun. 03)
The Church lost control of many territories to Protestantism - England, Scotland, Denmark, Norway,
Sweden; much of the Netherlands, Germany and Sweden; and parts of France, Hungary, Bohemia, and
Poland. Not all were permanent, however, and by 1600 much of Eastern Europe was beginning to reconvert to Catholicism.
In many respects the Catholic Church was stronger:
 Papacy acknowledged as sole leader
 faith had been clearly defined at Trent
 new orders took the faith into distant lands
 the tide against Protestantism had turned for the better.
Candidates should present a balanced argument with examples and explanations that deal with 'territorial
losses' and 'stronger in 1600 than 1500.'
Assess the extent to which the Catholic Reformation achieved its aims in the course of this period.
(Jan. 03)
Aims:
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issue a clear and unequivocal statement of the faith
affirm the Papacy as leader
to recover those who had defected to Protestantism
to strengthen the Church to withstand future challenges and attract new members
Many of these aims had been achieved by 1600 but progress was uneven and little headway was made in
France, Austria and Germany. Candidates should reflect upon the limitations as well as the achievements,
and to refer to a variety of reforms over the century. Limitations must be addressed in some way and the
years before and after the Council of Trent must be covered.
Why was the Catholic Church able in some geographical areas but not in others to counter the
Protestant advances during this period? (Jan. 03)
Candidates should acknowledge the strengths of the Catholic Church and its adherents on one hand and
the weaknesses of the Protestant churches on the other, which combined to produce a Catholic revival,
while recognising that the Church experienced limitations as well and in some countries experienced little
success by 1600. Candidates should endorse their multiple explanations with examples taken from the
whole period.
To what extent did the power and influence of the papacy change between 1500 and 1600? (Jan. 03)
The contrast in the condition, personnel and image of the papacy at the end of the period (e.g. Gregory
XIII and Sixtus V) with that at the beginning (e.g. Julius II and Clement VII) was very striking. The
reasons for change should be at the heart of a good answer. Candidates should assess both the power and
the influence of the papacy, perhaps acknowledging the theory and practice of papal power, and provide a
good range of examples from across the period. Some my focus on the pontificate of Paul III as the
critical era when things changed decisively.
'The Catholic Reformation would not have succeeded without the Council of Trent.' Do you agree?
(Jun. 02)
Areas of success:
 definition of Catholic doctrine
 rejection of Protestantism
 re-assertion of papal authority
 future role of bishops
 importance of education in the training of priests.
Other factors:
 reform from within Church pre-Trent
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new orders (esp. Jesuits)
suppression of heresy (Inquisition and Index)
support of secular and talents of ecclesiastical leaders.
Candidates should demonstrate continuity of reform as well as changes brought about by Trent, and keep
Trent and its impact as the centre of their argument.
How far was the Catholic Reformation during the sixteenth century simply a reaction to the
Protestant Reformation? (Jun. 02)
Impetus and many major reforms of Catholic Reformation originated well before Luther.
Some features of the Catholic Reformation owed nothing to Luther, e.g. Jesuits and the new orders.
Candidates should trace and explain points of contact with Protestantism and examine those points unique
to the Catholic world.
Why was the Catholic Reformation more effective in Italy and Spain than elsewhere in the course
of the C16th? (Jun. 02)
Both Italy and Spain were comparatively free from Protestant heresy, partly due to their distance from
Germany and Switzerland, partly the limited appeal of Protestantism to many Italians and Spaniards, and
partly the control exercised by the secular and state authorities. In each case, reform activities preceded
the Protestant movements. The papacy in Italy and Philip II in Spain spear-headed the Catholic
Reformation and were abetted by the Inquisition, Index and some very able bishops.
Candidates should develop most of these points and contrast events in Italy and Spain with other Catholic
states such as France or Germany, where the Church and secular leaders were less effective in restoring
ideas and practices by 1600. Candidates may ask what is meant by 'effective', and may refer to east
European states, such as Poland and Hungary, where the Church was also successful. Some may point out
the massive disruptions caused in Germany by Lutheran and then Calvinist Reformations and in France
by the long Wars of Religion.