Guidance Notes for Tutors
Section 4: Managing Information
Introduction
In 2004 the Chartered Institute of Library and Information Professionals (CILIP)
defined information literacy as, “knowing when and why you need information,
where to find it, and how to evaluate, use and communicate it in an ethical
manner” (CILIP 2009).
In relation to higher education, an advanced level of information literacy, which
includes managing information, is regarded by many HE commentators as
essential to student success (see the literature review: LearnHigher, 2009).
This section covers three key skills for HE students in relation to information
management:
Unit 1: Selecting information
Unit 2: Managing information
Unit 3: Questioning information
Each unit presents approximately 50-60 minutes of classroom activity with
students and additional information on each unit is offered in these guidance
notes for tutors.
Teaching tips have been included from HE tutors who have used the exercises in
the past with HE students.
1
Unit 1: Selecting Information
There are two exercises in unit 1: the first concerned with identification of primary
and secondary sources; the second concerned with ways of evaluating sources.
Primary and Secondary sources
This exercise has been included, as the proliferation of online information and
time pressures can lead students to a ‘Google’ approach to secondary
information retrieval, rather than an engagement with primary sources.
Clanchy and Ballard (1998), for example, quote a tutor commenting on a student
assignment:
The secondary sources are intended to supplement the primary sources
and guide you in your reading. They should be read judiciously and not
treated as authoritative. Nobody’s opinions (even the lecturer’s) are more
valid than the sources on which they are based (p.8).
Primary and secondary sources can be defined, as follows:
Primary sources
Secondary sources
This is evidence that comes directly
from the people involved in the event
or phenomenon in question.
This includes material produced about
the event or phenomenon, including
the commentary or interpretation of
others about theories, models, ideas,
definitions, and practices.
This would include theories, models,
ideas, interpretations, definitions, and
practices as described and presented
by their originators, rather than their
commentators.
It would include, for example,
reportage material in newspapers,
magazines, reference books, and on
the Internet.
(Neville 2009, p.86).
2
Primary Sources
One commentator, Campion (1997), asserts that students should give preference
in assignments to sources that are:
1. Seminal in an area of research;
2. Methodologically or conceptually rigorous;
3. Most recent.
When writing this, Campion had psychology, his own subject, in mind and based
his arguments on the comments he canvassed and received from 300 reviewers
of the journal Personnel Psychology, and the boards of Journal of Applied
Psychology, Academy of Management Journal, and Academy of Management
Review.
How valid are Campion’s comments for other subject areas?
1. ‘Seminal in an area of research’
Seminal refers to primary sources that have had a significant impact in any
subject area and are the foundation for later research or debate by the originator
or others. This seminal work might be presented in written or other creative
forms, e.g. music, art, dance.
Most tutors in all subject areas are likely to agree that seminal work should be
regarded as primary sources of evidence for assignments.
2. ‘Methodologically or conceptually rigorous’
This is primary source work that has been subjected to the critical scrutiny of
others in the same or related fields of study. Often this activity will take the form
of building on or testing seminal work in the subject area. The purpose,
3
background, methodology, analysis, and results of a particular piece of work will
usually be presented to an academic community and the findings debated.
Typically, this work will be reported in peer-reviewed journals, presented at
conferences, or published in book form, particularly books produced by academic
or other research institutions.
Most tutors in all subject areas are likely to agree that this type of peer-reviewed
work should be regarded as a primary source of evidence for assignments.
3. ‘Most recent’
Teaching Tip!
Students could be asked how important is it to use the most recent sources,
as it may produce an interesting discussion on how some ideas can remain
constant, whilst others rapidly change.
Here we can find a division between subject areas. Not all tutors would agree that
‘most recent’ is always an essential component of strong evidence. With
disciplines such as philosophy, English, religious study, law, accounting, the
‘most recent’ can be less applicable, and more emphasis may be placed on
seminal work in these disciplines, particularly books.
However, some disciplines, such as business, sciences, information technology,
psychology, and communication studies, are subject to powerful contemporary
influences and the ‘most recent’ evidence is likely to apply - but not always. Even
in these fields it is worth looking at what happened in the past to explore how
contemporary ideas have built on, or responded to, these earlier ideas, models,
and practices.
4
To identify of current thinking, even in the slower-changing subject areas, peerreviewed journals are useful sources for assignments.
The importance of using journals in assignments was highlighted in a study by
Zeegers and Giles (1996), which analysed essays submitted by over 500 first
year undergraduate biology students. A positive correlation was found for the
relationship between the number of relevant journal articles referred to in the
assignment and the level of mark awarded: ‘Most students who were awarded a
credit grade or higher used five journal articles or more and spent on average 20
hours reading them’ (p.452).
The number of relevant journal articles read and the number of hours spent
reading generally, and writing the essay, appears also to have been a significant
factor in the award of good marks to geography students (Hounsel 1984), and to
psychology students (Norton 1990).
Secondary Sources
Campion argues that ‘the following sources are not considered [to offer] strong
support’ as evidence in assignments:
 Statements made in research articles that are not findings;
 Textbooks;
 Professional or trade journals, and similar sources, unless presenting original
findings;
 Newspapers and other popular press sources, unless presenting findings of
research conducted by themselves.
Although Campion offers a useful starting point for identifying ‘weaker’ secondary
sources, much depends on the context in which these are used as evidence.
Indeed, this is a point Campion recognises himself:
5
…the quality of a reference depends on the context within which it is being
used. If it is appropriate to the context, then it is a good quality reference,
e.g. popular press references may be appropriate to show public awareness
of an issue (p.166).
Internet and other electronic sources
Campion does not refer specifically to the Internet, as it was still a relatively new
phenomenon at the time of his research.
However, primary evidence can be found on the Internet, but it can rub shoulders
with material that is unreliable, wrong, or even plain crazy. Nevertheless, useful
primary evidence for assignments can be found, including articles written by
authors respected in their fields, electronic journals carrying quality and peerreviewed articles, reports from prestigious agencies, government papers,
company data, access to conference papers, and commentary from professional
institutions.
Exercise 1
So in relation to the exercise presented to students, the result can be seen as
follows:
Source
Primary
Articles in academic or other professional journals (printed
√
Secondary
or online) presenting new research
Books written by the originator of a particular theory, idea,
√
model, or practice
Newspaper reports of new research
√
Wiki Internet sites
√
6
Creative work produced by artists, musicians, film and
√
stage directors
Speakers at a conference presenting the results of research
√
Autobiographies
√
Tutor handouts summarising the main theories and ideas
√
associated with a subject
Reference books
√
Biographies
√
Transcripts of parliament or court hearings
√
Minutes of meetings
√
Text books summarising the work of others
√
Internet sites summarising the work of others
√
Internet site of an author where she/he presents his/her
√
work
Articles in trade magazines reporting on developments in a
√
particular profession
Speaker on the radio talking about the work of another
√
person
Reports written about a particular event by main
√
investigator
Diaries of witnesses to an event
√
Letters written by an author and deposited in an archive
√
An entry in Encyclopaedia Britannica (online)
√
Transcript of an interview
√
Results of an original science experiment presented online
√
by the researcher
7
Exercise 2
This exercise was concerned with discrimination between sources, and
concerned two important elements: expertise and credibility. Students were
supplied with the first clue, to get them started but were asked to supply
additional questions.
Additional questions are shown, but the list offered is not exhaustive and students
may have thought of other and equally valid questions.
Teaching Tip!
This exercise can be done effectively by students working in small groups, or
it could be done as a whole group ‘brainstorming’ session.
Expertise
General questions – about the expertise of the author/originator
Is the author well-known in his or her field?
Do other writers in the field of study refer to this author in their work?
Do your tutors mention this author?
What qualifications and experience does the author have?
8
Credibility
General questions – about the
credibility of the source
Questions specifically about the
credibility of the Internet site
Is the publisher/originator of the
Do your tutors recommend this
evidence a reputable one?
Internet site?
Are sources of evidence presented
Is there an email address, or other way
done so in a credible way, e.g.
of contacting the site originators?
properly referenced?
Why has this site been established – is
Does the bibliography presented by
it clear from the introduction?
the author seem comprehensive and
wide in its coverage?
Who sponsors and/or pays for the
site?
Does the author present all relevant
background and context information
Who is the intended readership for the
of the ideas presented, e.g. explain in
site?
a convincing way the rationale to his
or her ideas?
Are there any open or possible biases
in the site?
Is the information presented still
valid? For example, if it was written
Were you linked to this site from a
over five years ago are the ideas still
reliable source?
applicable today?
Does it look professional?
If it is a research finding, is the
research methodology carefully
Does the resource follow good
presented to the reader?
principles of design, proper grammar,
spelling and style?
Was the site updated recently?
9
Unit 2: Managing Information
Making notes is one of the most important skills for managing information in HE.
Unit 2 examines the purpose of writing notes and at the differences between
taking notes and making notes. It also presents a range of note making and
taking techniques.
Teaching Tip!
It is useful to ask students for their own ideas on the purposes of writing notes
before they look at the opening comments in this unit, so that they can
compare their own ideas with those presented.
Why write notes?
A number of writers and commentators on study skills, for example Cottrell
(2003); Sinfield and Burns (2003); and Lowes, Peters and Turner (2004) offer
similar reasons and explanations for writing and keeping notes. These fall into
four groups:
1. Notes act as a summary or reinforcement of the main points of what
students read, heard or saw; they are also an essential record of where
information came from (for referencing purposes). They also remind
students of other things they should do to continue learning, e.g. sources to
check out; action to take.
2. The process of writing notes can be an aid to memory, as summation of a
text can reinforce learning and improve cognitive retention of ideas
3. Notes are, therefore, useful for future revision purposes, particularly in
preparation for exams or writing assignments.
10
4. Notes can help students to concentrate on the lecture or reading; the note
writing process can help students overcome distraction and can encourage
them to become more active, rather than passive, learners
What evidence is there that writing notes aids learning?
Hartley (1998) summarised the results of fifty-seven studies of the effectiveness
of note taking, based on the perceptions of students. He suggests that there are
three main reasons presented by students why they write notes:
1. To relieve boredom, and because of peer pressure – everyone is doing it!
2. Students believe the process will help them recall the content of lectures
better in the future.
3. They feel the notes will help them to be more organised with their revision.
Of the fifty-seven studies Hartley reviewed, thirty-four (60%) suggested that the
process of note writing did aid recall. He points outs, however, that the results are
based on student perceptions and assumptions, rather than what may actually
happen; the students believed the process of writing notes led to these
outcomes.
However, he also highlights over twenty studies that examined relationships
between what was actually written in notes and the amount actually recalled by
the students. The results of these studies tended to show moderate positive
correlations (in the range of +0.20 to +0.50) between the amount noted and
actually recalled.
11
Hartley (1998) also cites other studies (i.e. Norton and Hartley 1986; and Nye et
al 1984) that involved checking examination scripts against a range of sources,
including the notes taken by the students, to see what sources were actually
used. It appeared that a course textbook was the most widely used source (70%
of students referred to it), with a key article next (over 50%), and 35% referring to
their own notes in the exam. Hartley asserts that:
“…the more sources a student used in answering the examination question,
the higher the mark obtained” (Hartley 1998, p. 82).
Other studies on note taking (reviewed and summarised by Bligh, 1998) suggest
that students reviewing their notes in pairs do much better in recalling information
than students working on their own. This would appear to relate to the process
involved. Explaining an idea to another person makes you concentrate on the
topic and choose your words carefully to express the right meaning. There may
be a slight competitive element involved too, in that you don’t want to lose face,
so you concentrate a bit harder. Both these factors can reinforce the learning.
Kiewra (1987) found that the process of taking and reviewing notes was positively
related to academic achievement. And in a follow-up study, Kiewra and Benton
(1989) concluded that the "amount of note-taking is related to academic
achievement" and the "ability to hold and manipulate propositional knowledge in
working memory is related to the number of words, complex propositions, and
main ideas recorded in notes." (p. 33).
These last points are important ones. To be effective, notes must engage
meaningfully with the subject, be well-organised, re-read and reviewed on a
regular basis.
What these studies, however, do not make explicit is what type of notes did the
students take or make? Did one style of writing notes work better than another?
12
Research interest and attention in recent years has turned, therefore, to the style
of writing notes and quality of notes produced.
Note-taking and Note-making
In recent years, research attention has turned to encouraging students to be
more active and analytical in the way they use notes, as this can result in more
‘meaningful’ learning (Novak and Caňas 2006)- leading to potentially higher
marks.
This has led commentators to distinguish between note taking and note making,
although both can feature in effective note writing strategies: one leads to the
other.
Taking notes is about recording what is read, seen, or heard. Note-taking is
often inevitable in lectures, particularly when students are faced with a new
subject – and in a language secondary to their mother tongue. Lectures are
often delivered at a fast pace, so most students concentrate on taking notes:
recording accurately what the lecturer has said. However, this has the
potential to lead to a higher level of activity: note making.
Making notes is a more active process that involves actively reviewing notes
made and selecting, organising and connecting data and information.
However, time pressures on students can often lead to this process being
neglected.
13
Exercise
What are the most effective ways of making notes?
Teaching Tip!
This exercise will enable students to compare their own established methods
of writing notes with those suggested in the unit. Students can be asked
later if any of the techniques presented were of particular interest to them,
and why.
The remainder of the unit presents examples some techniques for writing notes:
a. Linear Notes
b. Visual or Pattern Notes
c. Voice Notes
14
Unit 3: Critical Thinking
You may recall from Unit 2, and probably from your own experience, the
importance that HE tutors attach to critical thinking when marking assignments
(see Greasley and Cassidy 2009; Norton 1990).
In this unit, to encourage students to begin to question ideas, they were
presented with an extract from a student essay on the topic of managing change.
The student in question had accurately summarised William Bridge’s four-stage
idea relating to transition and change, but had not beyond uncritically describing
it, albeit in a concise way.
The exercise was designed to encourage students to begin to look at - and
question – the origins of ideas. The exercise has been used successfully with
groups of new undergraduate and postgraduate students at the University of
Bradford to demonstrate critical analysis in action.
In Unit 3, Trans:it students were invited to imagine William Bridges was in the
room with them and what questions they would want to ask him about his four
stage idea, to probe the origins, validity and credibility of it.
The following comments are not exhaustive on the subject and students may
present additional and relevant ideas to the discussion.
15
Discussion
The student wrote ‘…individuals must pass through (these) to move into the
transition state and effectively change.’
However, is it true that individuals must pass through these? It is arguable that
all must pass through them. But if they did, do they necessarily pass through in
the order stated by Bridges; and can they skip a stage.
There may (and often is) a sense of loss as change occurs, but Egan (1994), for
example, discusses ‘discretionary’ and ‘non-discretionary’ change, with people in
the former category welcoming change and indeed pursuing it! It may be that
Bridges ideas apply to some people for whom change is ‘non-discretionary’.
Is Bridge’s theory applicable to all cultures, or just those in the Western, perhaps
even US focused, hemisphere?
We need to ask questions of Bridge’s methodology for arriving at this conclusion:
how did he arrive with this particular theory of change? Was it as a result of a
research study, if so how many people were involved, who were they, where
were they, and is his idea still valid today (the original theory was launched in
1980) or has Bridge modified his theory since (he did, in fact, in 2003).
Students could, therefore, ask Bridges:
1. About the origins of the idea and his methodology;
2. About the applicability of the idea;
3. About exceptions to the rule;
4. About the cultural adaptability of the theory;
5. About its contemporary ‘currency’ (is it still valid today?);
6. And about its relevance to Trans:it students and their own
experiences.
16
Some specific questions that could be asked
Methodology
How did Bridges arrive at his conclusions?
Was it on the basis of research using primary data, or based on other
more philosophical approaches?
What methods and sample were used to gather data or test the ideas? Do
these appear reliable?
Has the research been tested by others using similar methodology? If so,
what was the result?
Applicability
How can or could the theory be applied?
Has the theory been applied? If so, when, where, how, and with what
result?
What are the main counter-arguments to the theory generally, or in relation
to particular situations?
Exceptions
What are the ‘exceptions to the rule’ in relation to the theory – and why?
Which situations or contexts do not connect with the theory – and why?
Do we need to look closely at change – are there individual perceptions
and experiences in relation to change that we need to consider? For
example, is all change negative?
Could the theory adapt or change to suit the situation in question? If so,
how, when, where, and in what way?
17
Cultural adaptability
We live in a world that transmits ideas quickly, so…
To what extent, if at all, does the theory adapt to other societies and
cultures?
Is it only applicable in a particular cultural context?
…And if ‘yes to the above question, why does culture have an impact on
the applicability of the idea in question?
Currency
Was the idea a product or a result of a particular period in history – if so
why?
How valid is the idea today?
Has Bridges updated his ideas since original publication in 1980? (The
answer is yes, he did!)
Does it make sense to you?
Does the idea make sense to you from your own experiences? Have you
gone through these stages and experienced the reactions that Bridge’s
describes?
This can be a good starting point for exploring ideas. However, if the idea does
connect with their personal experiences, students will need to keep open to
counter-arguments and be willing to change their minds if convinced of the
merits of a counter view.
18
References
Bligh, D. (1998). What’s the Use of Lectures, 5th edn. Exeter: Intellect.
Bridges, W. (2003) Managing Transitions: Making the Most of Change, London:
Nicholas Brealey.
Campion, M. (1997). Rules for references: suggested guidelines for choosing
literary citations for research articles in applied psychology. Personnel
Psychology, 50 (1):165-168.
CILIP: Chartered Institute of Library and Information Professionals (2009).
Information Literacy: definition. Available at http://www.cilip.org.uk/getinvolved/advocacy/learning/information-literacy/Pages/definition.aspx [ Accessed
6 Jan 2009].
Clanchy. J. and B. Ballard (1998) How to Write Essays: a Practical Guide for
Students. 3rd edn. Melbourne: Longman
Cottrell, S. (2003). The Study Skills Handbook. Basingstoke: Palgrave.
Egan, G. (1994) The Skilled Helper: a Problem-Management Approach to
Helping, Belmont: Brooks/Cole Publishing Co.
Greasley, P. and A. Cassidy. (2009). ‘When it comes round to marking
assignments: how to impress and how to ‘distress’ lecturers…’ In Assessment &
Evaluation in Higher Education. July 2009. Available online: DOI:
10.1080/02602930802691564
Hartley, J. (1998). Learning and Studying: A Research Perspective. London:
Routledge.
Hartley, P. and Bruckman, C.G. (2002). Business Communication. London:
Routledge.
Hounsel, D. (1984). Essay writing and the quality of feedback. In T.E.
Richardson, M.W. Eysenck, and D.W. Piper (eds.), Student Learning: Research
in Education and Cognitive Psychology (pp: 109-119). Milton Keynes: Open
University Press.
Kiewra, K.A. (1987). Note-taking and Review: the Research and its Implications.
Instructional Science, 16, pp.133-249.
Kiewra, K. A. and Benton, S.L. (1988). The Relationship Between Informationprocessing Ability and Notetaking. Contemporary Educational Psychology 13:11,
pp. 33-44
19
LearnHigher (2009). Information Literacy: a literature review. LearnHigher
Information Literacy Learning Area. Available at
http://www.learnhigher.ac.uk/learningareas/informationliteracy/home.htm
[Accessed 6 Jan 2009].
Lowes, R., Peters, H. and Turner, M. (2004). The International Student’s Guide:
Studying in English at University. London: Sage Publications.
Neville, C. (2009). How to improve your assignment results. Maidenhead: Open
University Press.
Norton, L.S. (1990). Essay-writing: what really counts? Higher Education, 20:
411-442.
Novak, J.D. and Caňas A.J. (2006). The Theory Underlying Concept Maps and
How to Construct Them. Technical Report IHMC CMAP Tools 2006-01. Available
at
http://cmap.ihmc.us/Publications/ResearchPapers/TheoryCmaps/TheoryUnderlyi
ngConceptMaps.htm [Accessed 7 Aug. 2006].
Sinfield, S. and Burns, T. (2003). Essential Study Skills: The Complete Guide to
Success at University. London: Sage Publications.
Zeegers, S. P., and L. Giles (1996). Essay writing in Biology: an example of
effective student learning? Research in Science Education, 26 (4): 437-459.
20